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In this booklet we have made a sincere attempt to bring your focus to Class XI and keep your
velocity of preparations to the maximum. The formulae will help you revise your chapters in a
very quick time and the motivational quotes will help you move in the right direction.
Hope you’ll benefit from this book and all the best for your examinations.
Praveen Tyagi
Gaurav Mittal
Prasoon Kumar
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CONTENTS
3. Vectors 06
8. Gravitation 18
9. Properties of Matter 20
11. Waves 30
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UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND MEASUREMENTS
(i) SI Units:
(a) Time-second(s);
(b) Length-metre (m);
(c) Mass-kilogram (kg);
(d) Amount of substance–mole (mol); (e) Temperature-Kelvin (K);
(f) Electric Current – ampere (A);
(g) Luminous Intensity – Candela (Cd)
a b c
M L T
n1u 2 = n 2 u 2 or n 2 = n1 1 x 1 x 1
M2 L2 T2
X1 − X 2 + ... + X N
(iii) Mean or average value: X =
N
(iv) Absolute error in each measurement: |∆Xi| = | X –Xi|
Σ | ∆ Xi |
(v) Mean absolute error: ∆Xm=
N
∆X
(vi) Fractional error =
X
∆X
(vii) Percentage error = x 100
X
Xa Y b
(viii) Combination of error: If ƒ = , then maximum fractional error in ƒ is:
Zc
∆ƒ ∆X ∆Y ∆Ζ
=| a | +| b| +|c|
ƒ X Y Ζ
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MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION & NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
(i) Displacement: | displacement | ≤ distance covered
s1 + s 2 s +s
(ii) Average speed: v = = 1 2
t1 + t 2 s1 s
+ 2
v1 v 2
2 v1 v 2
(a) If s1 = s2 = d, then v = = Harmonic mean
v1 + v 2
v1 + v 2
(b) If t1 = t2, then v = =arithmetic mean
2
→ →
→ r2 − r1 →
(iii) Average velocity: (a) v av = ; (b) | v av | ≤ v
t 2 − t1
→
dr → →
(iv) Instantaneous velocity: v = and | v | = v = instantaneous speed
dt
→ →
→ v −v
(v) Average acceleration: a av = 2 1
t 2 − t1
→ →
(vi) Instantaneous acceleration: a = d v / dt
dv
In one – dimension, a = (dv/dt) = v
dx
(vii) Equations of motion in one dimension:
(a) v = u + at;
1 2
(b) x = ut + at ;
2
(c) v2 u2 + 2ax;
1 2
(d) x = vt –at ;
2
v+u
(e) x= t;
2
1 2
(f) s = x − x 0 = ut + at ;
2
2 2
(g) v = u + 2a (x–x0)
a
(viii) Distance travelled in nth second: dn = u + (2n–1)
2
(ix) Motion of a ball: (a) when thrown up: h = (u2/2g) and t = (u/g)
(b) when dropped: v = √(2gh) and t = √(2h/g)
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(1)
→ →
(a) F12 = − F12 M
m (2)
(b) Contact force: F12 = F = F21
M+m F12
m F
F F21
(c) Acceleration: a =
M+m
Fig. 1
(xvi) Inertial mass: mI = F/a
F FR 2
(xvii) Gravitational mass: mG = = ; m I = mG
g GM
→ → →
(xviii) Non inertial frame: If a 0 be the acceleration of frame, then pseudo force F = − m a 0
mv 2
Example: Centrifugal force = = m ω2 r
r
(xix) Lift problems: Apparent weight = M(g ± a0)
(+ sign is used when lift is moving up while – sign when lift is moving down)
m1
T
(xx) Pulley Problems:
(a) For figure (2):
Frictionless T
m1m 2 surface
Tension in the string, T = g
m1 + m 2
m2 m2
Acceleration of the system, a = g
m1 + m 2 Fig. 2
m 2g
2 m1m 2
The force on the pulley, F = g
m1 + m 2
(b) For figure (3):
2m1m 2
Tension in the string, T = g
m1 + m 2
a •
m 2 − m1
Acceleration of the system, a = g T
m 2 + m1
T T
T
4m1m 2
The force on the pulley, F = g m1 a
m1 + m 2
Fig. 3 m2
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VECTORS
→ → → → → → → → →
(i) Vector addition: R = A + B = B + A and A − B = A + ( − B )
^ →
(ii) Unit vector: A = ( A/ A)
(iii) Magnitude: A = √ (A 2x + A 2y + A 2z )
(iv) Direction cosines: cos α = (Ax/A), cos β = (Ay/A), cos γ = (Az/A)
(v) Projection:
→ → → ^
(a) Component of A along B = A . B
→ → ^ →
(b) Component of B along A = A . B
→ ^ ^
–1
(c) If A = A x i + A y j, then its angle with the x–axis is θ = tan (Ay/Ax)
(vi) Dot product:
→ → → →
(a) A . B = AB cos θ, (b) A . B = A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz
(viii) Examples:
→ → → → → → → →
(a) W= F. r; (b) P = F . v ; (c) φ Ε = E . A; (d) φ Β = B . A;
→ → → → → → → → →
(e) v = w x r ; (f) τ = τ x F ; (g) F m = q v x B
→ →
(ix) Area of a parallelogram: Area = | A x B |
1 → →
(x) Area of a triangle: Area = |Ax B |
2
^ ∂ ^ ∂ ^ ∂
(xi) Gradient operator: V = i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ → →
(xii) Volume of a parallelopiped: V = A . B x C
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CIRCULAR MOTION, RELATIVE MOTION & PROJECTILE MOTION
(i) Uniform Circular Motion:
(a) v = ωr;
2 2
(b) a = (v /r) = ω r ;
2
(c) F = (mv /r);
→ →
(d) r . v = 0;
→ →
(e) v.a =0
2
(ii) Cyclist taking a turn: tan θ = (v /rg)
→ → →
(ix) Relative velocity: v BA = v B − v A
→ → → →
(x) Condition for Collision of ships: ( r A − v B ) x ( v A − v B ) = 0
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(e) Range is maximum when θ = 450
0
(f) Ranges are same for projection angles θ and (90 –θ)
(g) Velocity at the top most point is = u cos θ
2
(h) tan θ = gT /2R
2
(i) (H/T ) = (g/8)
2 u 2 sin (θ − θ 0 ) cos θ
(b) Horizontal range, R =
g cos 2 θ 0
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FRICTION
(i) Force of friction:
(a) ƒs ≤ µsN (self adjusting); (ƒs)max = µsN
(b) µk = µkN (µk = coefficient of kinetic friction)
(c) µk < µs
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2
(a) x CM = ;
m1 + m 2
m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
(b) v CM =
m1 + m 2
m 1a 1 + m 2 a 2
(c) a CM =
m1 + m 2
dx CM dv d 2 x CM
Also v CM = and a CM = CM =
dt dt dt 2
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Σ mi x i
(a) X CM = ;
M
→
→ Σm i r i
(b) r CM = ;
M
→
→ d r CM
(c) v CM = ;
dt
→
→ d v CM
(d) a CM = ;
dt
→ → →
(e) P CM = M v CM = Σ m i v i ;
→ → → → → → →
(f) F ext = M a CM = Σm i a i = Σ Fi . If F ext = 0, a CM = 0, V CM = constant ;
→
(g) Also, moment of masses about CM is zero, i.e., Σm i r i = 0 or m1r1 = m 2 r2
2
(x) Moment of Inertia: (a) I = Σ mi ri
2
(b) I = µr , where µ = m1m2/(m1 + m2)
2 2 2
(xi) Radius of gyration: (a) K = √(I/M) ; (b) K = √[(r1 + r2 + … + rn )/n] = root mean square distance.
1
(xii) Kinetic energy of rotation: K = Iω2 or I = (2K/ω2)
2
→ → →
(xiii) Angular momentum: (a ) L = r x p ; (b) L = rp sin θ ; (c ) m v d
→ → →
(xiv) Torque: (a ) τ = r x F ; (b ) τ = r F sin θ
→ →
(xv) Relation between τ and L: τ = dL/ dt ;
1 2
(xvi) Relation between L and I: (a) L = Iω; (b) K = Iω = L2/2I
2
∫ =
(xix) Rotational work done: W τ d θ = τ av θ
→ →
(xx) Rotational Power: P = τ . ω
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1 1
(b) Disc: I = MR2 (axis); I = MR2 (diameter)
2 4
1
(c) Cylinder: I = MR 2 (axis )
2
2 2
(d) Thin rod: I = (ML /12) (about centre); I = (ML /3) (about one end)
(e) Hollow sphere : Idia = (2/3) MR2; Itangential = (5/3) MR2
(f) Solid sphere: Idia = (2/5) MR2 ; Itangential = (7/5) MR2
(g) Rectangular: I C =
( )
M l2 + b2
(centre)
12
2
(h) Cube: I = (1/6) Ma
(i) Annular disc: I = (1/2) M ( R12 + R 22 )
(j) Right circular cone: I = (3/10) MR2
(k) Triangular lamina: I = (1/6) Mh2 (about base axis)
(l) Elliptical lamina: I = (1/4) Ma2 (about minor axis) and I = (1/4) Mb2 (about major axis)
1 1 1 K2
K= MV 2 + I ω 2 = MV 2 1 + ( Q V = Rω and I = MK2)
2 2 2 2
R
(xxvii) Time period for a rod of length L pivoted at one end: T = 2π√(2L/3g
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CONSERVATION LAWS AND COLLISIONS
→ →
(i) Work done: (a) W = F . d ; (b) W = Fd cos θ; (c) W =∫xx2
1
→ → → → → →
(ii) Conservation forces: ∫a(ba ) F . d r ∫ab(b) F . d r ;∫(c) F .d r = 0
Path 1 Path 2 closed
path
→
For conservative forces, one must have: V x F = 0
→
(iii) Potential energy: (a) VU = − W; (b) F = − (dU/dX ) ; (c) F = − VU
GMm
(iv) Gravitational potential energy: (a) U = mgh ; (b) U = −
(R + h )
2
(xii) Velocity of a particle in terms of U(x): v = ± [E − U(x )]
m
(xiii) Momentum:
→ → → →
(a) p = m v; (b) F = d p / dt ,
→ → →
(b) Conservation of momentum: If F net = 0, then p f = p i ,
mB
(c) Recoil speed of gun, v G = x vB
mG
→ →
(xiv) Impulse: ∆ p = F av ∆t
st nd
(d) Velocities of 1 and 2 body after collision are:
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m − m2 2m 2 2 m1 m − m1
v1 = 1 u1 +
m + m u 2 ; v2 = m + m
u1 + 2
m + m u2
m1 + m 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
(e) If m1 = m2 = m, then v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
(f) Coefficient of restitution, e = (v2–v1/u1 = u2)
(g) e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision and e=0 for perfectly inelastic collision. For inelastic
collision 0 < e < 1
1 m1 m 2
(xviii) Loss of KE in inelastic collision: ∆ Klost = Ki – Kƒ= (u1 – u2)2 (1–e2)
2 m1 + m 2
Velocity after inelastic collision (with target at rest)
m − em 2 m (1 + e )
v1 = 1 u 1 and v 2 = 1
u1
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
I
(c) Spinning skater, I1ω1 = I2W 2 or ωƒ = ωi i
Iƒ
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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND LISSAJOUS FIGURES
(i) Simple Harmonic Motion:
(a) F = – Kx ;
K
(b) a=– x or a = – ω2x, where ω = √(K/m);
m
(c) Fmax = ± KA and amax = ±ω2A
d2x
(ii) Equation of motion: + ω2 x = 0
dt 2
(iv) Velocity:
(a) v = A ω cos (ω+ φ);
(b) If φ=0, v = A ω cos ωt;
(c) vmax =±ωA
2 2
(d) v = ± ω√(A – x );
x2 v2
(e) + =1
2
A ω2 A 2
(v) Acceleration:
(a) a = –ω2 x = – ω2A sin (ωt+φ) ;
2
(b) If φ=0, a=– ω A sin ωt
2
(c) |amax| = ω A;
2
(d) Fmax = ± m ω A
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(ix) Total energy:
(a) E = K + U = conserved;
2 2
(b) E = (1/2) mω A ;
(c) E = Kmax = Umax
(a) ω=
v12 − v 22
; (b) T = 2π
x 22 − x 12
; (c) A =
(v1x 2 )2 − (v 2 x1 )2
x 22 − x 12 v12 − v 22 v12 − v 22
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1 C
(d) ƒ= ;
2π I
4
(e) T = 2π√(I/C), where C = πηr /2l
2
(a) For a bar: T = 2π√(2L/3g) ;
(b) For a disc : T = 2π√ (3R/2g)
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Vm
(c) T = 2π (E–P for Isothermal process);
A 2P
Vm
(d) T = 2π (E = γ P for adiabatic process)
Α2γ P
1
(xxxii) Electrical LC circuit: T = 2π LC or ƒ=
2π LC
(xxxiii) Lissajous figures –
Case (a): ω1 = ω2 = ω or ω1 : ω2 = 1 : 1
x2 y2 2 xy
General equation: + − cos φ = sin 2 φ
2
a b2 ab
For φ = 0 : y = (b/a) x ; straight line with positive slope
x2 y2 2 xy 1
For φ = π/4 : 2
+
2
− = ; oblique ellipse
a b ab 2
x2 y2
For φ = π/2 : + = 1 ; symmetrical ellipse
a2 b2
For φ = π : y = –(b/a) x ; straight line with negative slope.
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GRAVITATION
(i) Newton’s law of gravitation:
2 –11 2 2 dF 2 dr
(a) F = G m1m2/r ; (b) a = 6.67 x 10 K.m /(kg) ; (c) =−
F r
(ii) Acceleration due to gravity (a) g = GM/R2 ; (b) Weight W = mg
(iii) Variation of g:
(a) due to shape ; gequator < gpole
2
(b) due to rotation of earth: (i) gpole = GM/R (No effect)
GM
(ii) gequator = − ω2 R
R2
(iii) gequator < gpole
2 2
(iv) ω R = 0.034 m/s
(v) If ω ≅ 17 ω0 or T = (T0/17) = (24/17)h = 1.4 h, then object would
float on equator
2h
(c) At a height h above earth’s surface g’ = g 1 − , if h < < R
g
d
(d) At a depth of below earth’s surface: g’ = g 1 −
R
GM m 1
(iv) Acceleration on moon: gm = ≅ g earth
R 2m 6
→ GM ^ → GM ^
(v) Gravitational field: (a) g = − r (outside) ; (b) g =− r r (inside)
r2 R 3
R h h
h= or v = v e ≅ ve (if h < < R)
(v e / v) 2
−1 R+h R
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(xii) Orbital velocity of satellite:
GM R
(a ) v 0 = ; (b) v 0 = v e ; (c) v0 ≅ve/√2 (if h<<R)
r 2 (R + h )
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SURFACE TENSION
Force F Surface energy W
(i) (a) T= = ; (b) T = =
Length l Surface area A
(ii) Combination of n drops into one big drop: (a) R = n1/3r
2 2 –1/3 ∆E 1
(b) Ei = n(4πr T), Eƒ = 4πR T, (Eƒ/Ei) = n , = 1 −
E i n 1/3
1 1
(c) ∆E = 4πR2T (n1/3 –1) = 4πR3T −
r R
3T 1 1 3T 1 1
(iii) Increase in temperature: ∆θ = − or −
ρs r R ρsJ r R
(iv) Shape of liquid surface:
Fcohesive
(a) Plane surface (as for water – silver) if Fadhesive >
2
Fcohesive
(b) Concave surface (as for water – glass) if Fadhesive >
2
Fcohesive
(c) Convex surface (as for mercury–glass) if Fadhesive <
2
(v) Angle of contact:
(a) Acute: If Fa> Fc/√2 ;
(b) obtuse: if Fa<Fc/√2 ;
0
(c) θc=90 : if Fa=Fc√/2
Tsa − Tsl
(d) cos θc = , (where Tsa, Tsl and Tla represent solid-air, solid- liquid and liquid-air
Tla
surface tensions respectively). Here θc is acute if Tsl < Tsa while θc is obtuse if Tsl > Tsa
(vii) Forces between two plates with thin water film separating them:
1 1
(a) ∆P = T − ;
r R
1 1
(b) F = AT − ;
r R
(c) If separation between plates is d, then ∆P = 2T/d and F = 2AT/d
rR
(viii) Double bubble: Radius of Curvature of common film Rcommon =
R−r
(ix) Capillary rise:
2T cos θ
(a) h= ;
rdg
2T
(b) h= (For water θ = 00)
rdg
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r
rdg h +
3
(c) If weight of water in meniseus is taken into account then T =
2 cos θ
2T cos (π − θ)
(d) Capillary depression, h −
rdg
ELASTICITY
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Wl 3
(a) depression, δ = (rectangular )
4Ybd 3
Wl 3
(b) Depression, δ = (cylindrical )
12Yπr 2
M sample
= [Msample = mass of gas sample and M = molecular weight]
M
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(a) (1/2) Mv2 rms = (3/2) RT ;
2
(b) (1/2) mv rms = (3/2) KT
(c) Kinetic energy of one molecule = (3/2) KT ;
(d) kinetic energy of one mole of gas = (3/2) RT
(e) Kinetic energy of one gram of gas (3/2) (RT/M)
(ix) Maxwell molecular speed distribution:
3/2
m 2
(a) n (v) = 4πN v 2 e - mv / 2 KT
π
KT
2
8KT 8 RT RT
(b) The average speed: v = = = 1.60
πm πM M
3kT 3RT RT
(c) The rms speed: v rms = = = 1.73
m M M
2 KT 2RT RT
(d) The most probable speed: νp = = = 1.41
m M M
(e) Speed relations: (I) vp < v < vrms
(II) v p : v : vrms = √(2) : √(8/π) : √(3) = 1.41 : 1.60 : 1.73
(xii) Dalton’s law: The pressure exerted by a mixture of perfect gases is the sum of the pressures
exerted by the individual gases occupying the same volume alone i.e., P = P1 + P2 + ….
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FLUID MECHANICS
(i) The viscous force between two layers of area A having velocity gradient (dv/dx) is given by: F = –
ηA (dv/dx), where η is called coefficient of viscosity
(i) In SI system, η is measured I Poiseiulle (Pl) 1Pl = 1Nsm–2 = 1 decapoise. In egs system, the unit
of η is g/cm/sec and is called POISE
(ii) When a spherical body is allowed to fall through viscous medium, its velocity increases, till the sum
of viscous drag and upthrust becomes equal to the weight of the body. After that the body moves
with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
(iii) According to STOKE’s Law, the viscous drag on a spherical body moving in a fluid is given by: F =
6πηr v, where r is the radius and v is the velocity of the body.
2 r 2 (ρ − σ ) g
(iv) The terminal velocity is given by: v T =
9 η
where ρ is the density of the material of the body and σ is the density of liquid
(v) Rate of flow of liquid through a capillary tube of radius r and length l
π pr 4 p p
V= = =
8ηl 8ηl/πr 4 R
where p is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary and R is the fluid resistance
(=8 ηl/πr4)
(vi) The matter which possess the property of flowing is called as FLUID (For example, gases and
liquids)
(vii) Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height h is : P = hρg (ρ = density of the liquid)
(viii) Pressure at a point within the liquid, P = P0 + hρg, where P0 is atmospheric pressure and h is the
depth of point w.r.t. free surface of liquid
(ix) Apparent weight of the body immersed in a liquid Mg’ = Mg – Vρg
(x) If W be the weight of a body and U be the upthrust force of the liquid on the body then
(a) the body sinks in the liquid of W > U
(b) the body floats just completely immersed if W = U
(c) the body floats with a part immersed in the liquid if W < U
Volume of immersed part of a solid density of solid ax
(xi) =
total volume of solid density of solid
(xii) Equation of Continuity: a1v1 = a2v2 θ
1 2
(xiii) Bernouilli’s theorem: (P/ρ) + gh + v = constant ρ
2
a
(xiv) Accelerated fluid containers : tan θ = x Fig. 4
g
2gh
(xv) Volume of liquid flowing per second through a tube: R=a1v 1 = a2v2
(
a 12 − a 22 )
(xvi) Velocity of efflux of liquid from a hole:
v = √(2gh), where h is the depth of a hole from the free surface of liquid
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HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
(i) L2 – L1 = L1α(T2 – T1); A2 – A1 = A2 β(T2 – T1); V2 – V1 = V1γ(T2 – T1)
where, L1, A1, V1 are the length, area and volume at temperature T1; and L2, A2, V2 are that at
temperature T2.α represents the coefficient of linear expansion, β the coefficient of superficial
expansion and γ the coefficient of cubical expansion.
(v) The pressure of the gases varies with temperature as : Pt = P0 (1+ γ∆T), where γ = (1/273) per 0C
(vi) If temperature on Celsius scale is C, that on Fahrenheit scale is F, on Kelvin scale is K, and on
Reaumer scale is R, then
C F − 32 K − 273 R 9
(a) = = = (b) F= C + 32
5 9 5 4 5
5
(c) C = (F − 32)
9
5
(d) K = C + 273 (e) K= (F + 459.4)
9
(viii) If mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat H, then we can write:
W = JH, where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat
(ix) The heat absorbed or given out by a body of mass m, when the temperature changes by ∆T is: ∆Q
= mc∆T, where c is a constant for a substance, called as SPECIFIC HEAT.
(x) HEAT CAPACITY of a body of mass m is defined as : ∆Q = mc
(xi) WATER EQUIVALENT of a body is numerically equal to the product of its mass and specific heat
i.e., W = mc
(xii) When the state of matter changes, the heat absorbed or evolved is given by: Q = mL, where L is
called LATENT HEAT
(xiii) In case of gases, there are two types of specific heats i.e., cp and cv [cp = specific heat at constant
pressure and Cv = specific heat at constant volume]. Molar specific heats of a gas are: Cp = Mcp
and Cv = Mcv, where M = molecular weight of the gas.
(xiv) Cp > Cv and according to Mayer’s formula Cp – Cv = R
(xv) For all thermodynamic processes, equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = µRT
V
(a) For ISOBARIC process: P = Constant ; =Constant
T
P
(b) For ISOCHORIC (Isometric) process: V = Constant; =Constant
T
(c) For ISOTHERMAL process T = Constant ; PV= Constant
(d) For ADIABATIC process: PVγ = Constant ; TVγ–1=Constant
and P( ) Tγ = Constant
1–γ
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(a) For isobaric process: zero
(b) For isochoric process: infinite
(c) For isothermal process: slope = –(P/V)
(d) For adiabatic process: slope = –γ(P/V)
(e) Slope of adiabatic curve > slope of isothermal curve.
(xxi) For a CYCLIC process, work done ∆W = area enclosed in the cycle on PV diagram.
Further, ∆U = 0 (as state of the system remains unchanged)
So, ∆Q = ∆W
(xxii) Internal energy and specific heats of an ideal gas (Monoatomic gas)
3
(a) U= RT (for one mole);
2
3
(b) U = µRT (for µ moles)
2
3
(c) ∆U = µR∆T (for µ moles);
2
1 ∆U 3
(d) Cv= = R
µ ∆Τ 2
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3 5
(e) Cp = Cv + R = R+R= R
2 2
Cp 5 3 5
(f) γ= = R R = = 1.67
C 2 2 3
v
5
(a) U= µRT (for µ moles);
2
5
(b) ∆U = µR∆T (for µ moles)
2
1 ∆U 5
(c) Cv = = R;
µ ∆T 2
5 7
(d) Cp = Cv + R = R+R= R
2 2
C p 7R 5R 7
(e) γ = =
= = 1.4
Cv 2 2 5
µ1M1 + µ 2 + M 2 N1m1 + N 2 m 2
M= =
µ1 + µ 2 N1 + N 2
µ1C v1 + µ 2 C v 2 µ1C p1 + µ 2 C p 2
Cv = and C p =
µ1 + µ 2 µ1 + µ 2
(a) ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W or ∆U = ∆Q – ∆W
(b) Both ∆Q, ∆W depends on path, but ∆U does not depend on the path
(c) For isothermal process: ∆Q = ∆W = µRT log | V2/V1|, ∆U = 0, T = Constant, PV = Constant
and Ciso = ± ∞
µR (T2 − T1 )
(d) For adiabatic process: ∆W = , ∆Q = 0, ∆U = µCv (T2–T1), Q = 0,
(1 − γ )
Cp 2
PVγ = constant, Cad = 0 and γ = = 1+
Cv ƒ
(where ƒ is the degree of freedom)
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Q 2 Q 2 T2
(c) Efficiency of carnot engine: η = 1– , =
Q1 Q1 T1
(d) Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:
∆θ
(xxvii) The amount of heat transmitted is given by: Q = –KA t , where K is coefficient of thermal
∆x
conductivity, A is the area of cross section, ∆θ is the difference in temperature, t is the time of heat
flow and ∆x is separation between two ends
d
(xxviii) Thermal resistance of a conductor of length d = RTh =
KA
d1 d
R TH = + 2 = (R Th )1 + (R Th )2
K 1A K 2 A
d1 + d 2
(d) Equivalent thermal conductivity, K =
(d1 / K1 ) + (d 2 / K 2 )
(dQ / dt )1 =
r12
For spherical objects:
(dQ / dt )2 r22
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(For spherical bodies)
dθ
(l) Newton’s law of cooling: = –K (θ–θ0) or (θ–θ0) α e–KT
dt
–3
(m) Wein’s displacement law: λmT = b (where b = 2.9 x 10 m – K)
A A –a/λT
(n) Wein’s radiation law: Eλdλ= 5 ƒ (λT) dλ= 5 e dλ
λ λ
2 1/ 4 1/ 2
RS R
σT or T = ES
4 S
(o) Solar Constant: S =
R ES σ R S
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WAVES
1. Velocity: v = nλ and n = (1/T)
T T
2. Velocity of transverse waves in a string: v = =
m πr 2 d
3. Velocity of longitudinal waves:
(a) In rods: v = √(Y/ρ) (Y – Young’s modulus, ρ = density)
(b) In liquids: v = √(B/ρ) (B = Bulk modulus)
(c) In gases: v = √(γP/ρ) (Laplace formula)
4. Effect of temperature:
(a) v = v0√ (T/273) or v = v0 + 0.61t
(b) (vsound/vrms) = √(γ/3)
2π
5. Wave equation: (a) y = a sin (vt–x)
λ
t x
(b) y = a sin 2π −
T λ
ω
(c) y = a sin (ωt – kx), where wave velocity v = = nλ
k
∂ 2y ∂2y
8. Wave equation: = v2
∂t 2 ∂x 2
9. Intensity of sound waves:
(a) I = (E/At)
(b) If ρ is the density of the medium; v the velocity of the wave; n the frequency and a the
2 2 2
amplitude then I = 2π ρ v n a i.e. I ∝ n2a2
–12 2
(c) Intensity level is decibel: β 10 log (I/I0). Where, I0 =Threshold of hearing = 10 Watt/m
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(b) When the wave is reflected from a rigid boundary, is:
2πx 2πt
Y + –2a sin cos =–2a sin kx cos ωt
λ T
2p T
(ii) Longitudinal mode: n =
2l m
λ 3λ
19. Resonance column: (a) l1 +e = ; (b) l2 + e =
4 4
l 2 − 3l1 v
(c) e = ; (d) n = or λ = 2 (l 2 − l 1 )
2 2 (l 2 − l 1 )
v air λ
20. Kundt’s tube: = air
v rod λ rod
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(iii) Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : ……= 1 : 3 : 5 : ………
t E
22. Frequency of a turning fork: n α
l2 ρ
Where t = thickness, l = length of prong, E = Elastic constant and ρ = density
v v + vs
(ii) Source receding: n’ = x n and λ’ = xλ
v + vs v
(b) Source stationary and observer moving:
v + v0
(i) Observer approaching the source: n’ = xn and λ’ = λ
v
v − v0
(ii) Observer receding away from source: n’ = x n and λ’ = λ
v
v + v0
(i) S and O moving towards each other: n’ = xn
v − vs
v − v0
(ii) S and O moving away from each other: n’ = xn
v + vs
v − v0
(iii) S and O in same direction, S behind O : n’ = xn
v − vs
v + v0
(iv)S and O in same direction, S ahead of O: n’= xn
v + vs
v ± v m ± v0
(d) Effect of motion of medium: n' =
v ± vm ± vs
2 vv s
(e) Change in frequency: (i) Moving source passes a stationary observer: ∆n = xn
v 2 − v s2
2vs
For vs <<v, ∆, = xn
v
2v 0
(ii) Moving observer passes a stationary source: ∆ n= xn
v
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(b) Source between observer and wall
v
n’ = xn (for direct waves)
v + vs
v
n’ = x n (for reflected waves)
v − vs
v+u 2u
n’ = xn or n’ = 1 + xn (for u <<v)
v−u v
(ii) S and O stationary at the same place and target receding with speed u
v−u 2u
n’ = xn or n’ = 1 − xn (for u <<v)
v+u v
v ± v sub 2 v sub
(h) SONAR: n’ = x n ≅ 1 ± xn
v ± v sub v
(upper sign for approaching submarine while lower sign for receding submarine)
(i) Transverse Doppler effect: There is no transverse Doppler effect in sound. For velocity
component vs cos θ
v
n’= xn (– sign for approaching and + sign for receding)
v ± v s cos θ
1− v / c 1+ v / c
n’ = xn or λ’ = xλ
1+ v / c 1− v / c
v v
For v << c, ∆ n = – x n or ∆λ’ = x λ
c c
(b) Blue shift (when light source is approaching)
1+ v / c 1− v / c
n’ = xn or λ’ = xλ
1− v / c 1+ v / c
v v
For v << c, ∆ n = n or ∆λ’ =– λ
c c
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v
(c) Doppler Broadening = 2∆λ = 2 λ
c
(d) Transverse Doppler effect:
v2 1 v2
For light, n’ = 1 − x n = 1 − xn (for v << c)
c 2 2 c 2
2v
(e) RADAR: ∆n = n
c
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STUDY TIPS
• Combination of Subjects
Study a combination of subjects during a day i. e. after studying 2–3 hrs of mathematics
shift to any theoretical subject for 2 horrs. When we study a subject like math, a
particular part of the brain is working more than rest of the brain. When we shift to a
theoretical subject, practically the other part of the brain would become active and the
part studying maths will go for rest.
• Revision
Always refresh your memory by revising the matter learned. At the end of the day you
must revise whatever you’ve learnt during that day (or revise the previous days work
before starting studies the next day). On an average brain is able to retain the newly
learned information 80% only for 12 hours, after that the forgetting cycle begins. After
this revision, now the brain is able to hold the matter for 7 days. So next revision should
be after 7 days (sundays could be kept for just revision). This ways you will get rid of the
problem of forgetting what you study and save a lot of time in restudying that topic.
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