FST 1800

Fundamentals of Food Science

Week 3 – Water
 Learning objectives

• To understand physical state of water

• To identify factors influencing boiling and

freezing point of water

• To differentiate between moisture content and

water activity
 Lecture outline
• States of water
• Factors influencing boiling & freezing point
of water
• Moisture content
• Water activity
 States/phases of water
• Solid, liquid, gaseous

• ice • liquid • steam

• 4th physical state: amorphous glass
 Phase transition
First order
• Govern changes in physical state between
solid, liquid and gaseous states

• Examples - melting, crystallization,

condensation & evaporation

• Changes occur isothermally

• A certain amount of heat is either released or

required as the latent heat (H) for the transition
 First order phase transition
• Latent heat of fusion – energy required to
convert 1 g of ice to water at 0C

• Melting – energy is absorbed

• Crystallization – energy is released

 Phase transition cont.
Second order
• Occur in amorphous materials

• Transformed from solid “glassy” state to liquid-like rubbery

state at glass transition temperatures, Tg

• No latent heat is involved

• Change in specific heat/heat capacity (energy to raise the

temperature of 1 g of water by 1C)
Phase transition cont.

(Roos, 2002)
 Vapour pressure
• Pressure that is exerted by vapour molecules that have
escaped from liquid

• High vapour pressure – many water molecules in the vapour

state (low boiling point)

• Low vapour pressure – water molecules do not vapourize

easily & a few molecules exist in vapour state (high boiling
point)

• with temperature

• with solute addition (sugar, salt) Cl+

Na+

(Vaclavik & Christian, 2008)

 Factors influencing freezing point
• At the freezing point, water in its liquid state is in
equilibrium with solid state, ice

• Addition of solute (salt, sugar) – depresses the

freezing point because the addition of solute reduces the
vapour pressure
Mass of Depression Actual Mass of Depression Actual
sucrose of freezing freezing sodium of freezing freezing
(%) point temperature chloride point temperature
(C) (NaCl) (%) (C)
2 0.11 -0.11 2 1.19 -1.19
4 0.23 -0.23 4 2.41 -2.41
6 0.35 -0.35 6 3.70 -3.70
8 0.49 -0.49 8 5.08 -5.08
(Modified from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2004)
(McWilliams, 2008)
 Factors influencing boiling point
• Temperature at which vapour
pressure has just exceeded Elevation (ft) Temperature of
atmospheric pressure boiling water (C)
Sea level 100.0
• At sea level, water boils at 1000 98.9
100C
2000 97.8

• Altitude – atmospheric pressure 4000 95.6

decreases with an increase in 5000 94.4
altitude 6000 93.3
7000 92.2
• Vapour pressure that will exceed
atmospheric pressure drops as 8000 91.1
altitude rises – boiling point 10,000 88.9
(Modified from McWilliams, 2008)

(McWilliams, 2008)
 Factors influencing boiling point cont.

• Addition of solute – vapour

pressure is lowered, increase
in boiling point
Sucrose (%) Temperature of
boiling water (C)

0 100.0
10 100.4
20 100.6
40 101.5
50 102.0
60 103.0
70 106.5
80 112.0
90 130.0
(Modified from McWilliams, 2008)
 Free & bound water
Free water
• Extractable (cutting/squeezing)
• Able to dissolve & dilute many substances

Bound water
• Cannot be extracted
• Cannot flow
• Cannot serve as solvent
• Can be frozen at very low temperatures (below
freezing point of water)
• Exhibit no vapour pressure
(McWilliams, 2008)
(Vaclavik & Christian, 2008)
 Moisture content & water activity

Moisture content
• Quantitative amount of water in a sample on wet or dry
basis
• Depends on the amount of material

Water activity (aw)

• Comparison (ratio) of the vapour pressure of water
in a food sample with the vapour pressure of pure
water at the same temperature
• Measure free/unbound water

(McWilliams, 2008)
(Vaclavik & Christian, 2008)
 Water activity
Water activity = vapour pressure of water in sample
vapour pressure of pure water

aw = p/p0
= ERH (%)/100
• if water activity = 0.7,
the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) = 70%

(McWilliams, 2008)
(Decagon services)
 Water activity cont.

20% Moisture 30% Moisture

(McWilliams, 2008)
(Decagon services) Which way does water move?
Moisture content & water activity cont.
Initial Final

Moisture Content 4% 20%

Water Activity 0.30 0.75

Decagon services
 Water activity cont.
Water activity (aw)
• Water activity scale: 0 (bone dry) to 1 (pure water)

Type of food product Water activity (aw)

Fresh meat & fish 0.99
Bread 0.95
Aged cheddar 0.85
Jams & jellies 0.8
Plum pudding 0.8
Dried fruit 0.6
Biscuits 0.3
Milk powder 0.2
Instant coffee 0.2

http://www.foodscience.csiro.au/water_fs.htm
 Application of water activity
• Predict growth of bacteria, molds or yeasts
• Monitor shelf life of food

http://www.foodscience.csiro.au/water_fs.htm
 Alter the water activity
• Temperature
• Drying
• Freezing
• Addition of salt/sugar
Food Water activity at
10 (C) 20 (C) 30 (C) 40 (C)

Distilled 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

water
Dry soup 0.191 0.239 0.292 0.302
mix
Beef jerky 0.694 0.697 0.693 0.698
Sausage 0.942 0.943 0.944 0.938
(Modified from McWilliams, 2008)
(McWilliams, 2008)
 Summary
• Water exists in liquid, crystalline, gas or glassy states

• The physical states/phases of water are interchangeable

through either absorption/release of heat
• Freezing & boiling points are affected by the addition of
solutes

• The freezing point of water is depressed whilst the

boiling point of water is elevated in the presence of
solutes
• Altitude influences the boiling point of water
• Water activity is an important parameter in determining
shelf life of food compared to moisture content as it
measures ONLY the free/unbound water