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Policy Issues in ICT Education and Training

Dr. Frank N. Tilya


Faculty of Education
P.O. Box 35048
Dar es Salaam
tilya@edu.udsm.ac.tz

Abstract
This paper presents an overview of policy issues worth considering
when developing
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) policy for higher
learning institutions in East Africa countries. It commences by
expounding the rationale behind ICT policy in education. Then
discusses the ICT policy issues, which are particularly diverse and
challenging, in part because the rapid rate of change in the
technology continues to create new possibilities for use.
Furthermore, policy makers must wrestle with the potential of the
ICT revolution to transform the ways teaching and learning, its
threat to traditional ways of thinking about education, and strongly
voiced claims both in favour of and opposed to this transformation.
In no way the discussion of the issues is exhaustive. Finally the
paper is ended with some concluding remarks.

Introduction
Rapid developments in information and communication technologies
(ICT) in recent years have resulted in significant changes in the way
the world operates and communicates. This in turn has had an
impact on educational and training needs, both in terms of the
content and the delivery of educational and training services, but
also there has been increasing pressure on decision-makers to
acquire new technologies. Simultaneously, forms of ICT are
multiplying with an increasing array of ICT options for decision-
makers to choose from when integrating ICT into education and
training.

Faced with this situation, policy makers in many countries worldwide


thought that to simply equip educational and training institutions
with Personal computers and train teachers in their use would
prepare learners for the demands of the 21st century. However,
simply providing access to ICT is not going to radically change
education systems for the better. A clear picture of what education
should be seeking to achieve is needed in order for ICT to be utilized
to their full potential within education systems. In order to make
successful use of ICT in enhancing the reach and quality of teaching
and learning, policy makers in East Africa need to be aware of how
ICT can be of best value in their country’s education system, and
need to develop a supportive policy environment and framework at
the national level for the integration of ICT into their education
systems.

Decision makers and policy makers need to formulate appropriate


policies based on their specific situation and educational and
training goals. Appropriate policy models and strategies for the
integration of ICT into education, with special emphasis on
developing policies which utilize ICT to remove barriers to
participation in education and enhance the quality of education are
essential in the East African region. Each country has national ICT
policy, which is not specific to education and training. Therefore the
three countries have to formulate specific ICT policy in education to
facilitate a meaningful integration of ICTs into teaching and learning
processes.

What is policy then? Policy proposes solutions to public problems


and issues. More broadly defined, policy is "a course of action or
inaction chosen by public authorities to address a given problem or
interrelated set of problems" (Pal, 1997). Policies often define broad
strategies and approaches to issues; sometimes polices establishes
more specific actions. The rapid integration of information and
communication technologies (ICT) into learning environments raises
many issues that demand the development of effective ICT policy.
ICT policy issues are particularly diverse and challenging, in part
because the rapid rate of change in the technology continues to
create new possibilities for use (together with the need to find the
best ways to realize them). Further, policy makers must wrestle with
the potential of the ICT revolution to transform the ways we teach
and learn, its threat to traditional ways of thinking about education,
and strongly voiced claims both in favour of and opposed to this
transformation.

In formulating a policy, the major concern is to ensure that ICT does


not become a source of further inequality, with the digital divide
accentuating already existing disparities. Access to computers, the
Internet, and the capacity to make use of ICTs are related to factors
such as socio-economic status, ethnic background, gender, age,
educational background and geographical location. It is important
that education policies acknowledge the gap and promote ICT in
ways that will not widen the gap further.

This paper identifies and discusses the significant ICT policy issues
in education. The key issues in the ICT policy development
addressed includes: ICT Education and training for all citizens, Rural
Communication, Gender Imbalance, The Physically challenged, ICT
policies informing Education & Training, Intellectual Property Rights,
and Virtual Universities and cross border education implications.
This list is by no mean exhaustive, nor does it provide an in-depth
analysis. It does, however, draw attention to the most pressing
issues facing those who are struggling to find the best ways to
integrate ICT into the educational context.

Information about the issues and options will help create a public
discourse that can lead to better policy choices. Building and
sustaining a dialogue on ICT policy and education in East Africa will
help us move forward with desired action and achievements in both
policy and practice.

ICT education and training for all citizens


Development of any country depends very much on the level of
education of it citizen. It is through the education a country can
develop sound economy; and can improve the health and general
welfare of its citizens. The key ingredient to development is a
healthy economy. Of recently the economies of the world have been
changing from industrial-based to knowledge based.
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are the major
driving forces behind globalised and knowledge-based societies of
the new world era. ICTs will have a profound impact on teaching and
learning for decades to come. The impact of technology use will put
education institutions under pressure to provide learners with
technological skills in order to adapt to all the challenges of a
competitive economic environment. As East Africa becomes a
knowledge-based society, there will be a greater demand for
continuing and lifelong education. With these development the need
for even more flexible learning, available anywhere, anytime and on
any topic will increase. Higher education in the new millennium will
have to experience greater access for students, irrespective of age,
sex, race or socio-economic status.

Technology is evolving at breakneck speed; hence its usage is


posing new demands on the existing workforce. The true
development of the information economy is to be supported by the
availability of a flexible labour market that is capable to meet the
demands of the diverse industries. The need for a structured
mapping of ICT skills, qualifications, and other prerequisites to guide
current and prospective employees, academia, employment
counsellors, and the industry, is apparent. Such mapping is vital tool
that can bring together all the qualifications and certifications
available on the local/international levels, and map out the skills
sets and the corresponding ICT career paths necessary to fulfil the
demands of the present and potential ICT industry.

Diverse ICT qualifications are needed locally at secondary, post-


secondary, and tertiary level. Changes in the education provision
setting need to be triggered in a structured and informed way
depending on the requirements from the IT industry both locally and
internationally. ICT training ranging from ICT literacy and technical
development skills to the use of ICT in management and
administration is ideal.

To ensure all citizen are able to access ICT resources, including


online access to services, governments can make available free of
charge in every library access to the Internet & specified desktop
applications. Other ICTs e.g. television, radio (like world space
radio), etc can also be used to increase access to education to as
many citizen as possible.

Rural Communication
The rural inhabitants account for majority of the population of East
African countries. The rural areas are involved in a lot of agricultural
and other economic activities that form backbone of the countries’
economy. ICT for development is needed in the rural areas to
facilitate information sharing essential for economic growth. This
calls for the masses in rural areas to be educated and trained in
skills essential for their welfare as well as information exchange that
fosters their economic activities. A good ICT policy in education that
embraces communication in the rural areas in which concerted
effort to provide adequate ICT infrastructure throughout the
education sector, from computers and digital equipment to
telecommunications and Internet access, as well as supportive
infrastructure such as electricity is critical.

However the ICT infrastructure in most of the rural areas is either


poor or completely lacking. Nevertheless if East African countries
want education for its entire citizen to be a reality, the ICT
infrastructure in the rural areas must be introduced or enhanced.
This is a daunting task for governments alone; private and public
partnership is vital to realised ICT infrastructure in the rural areas.
Also, the infrastructure development need to be carried out in close
collaboration with other relevant ICT initiatives in these countries, in
order to reduce costs and to optimise synergies. This is where the
national ICT policy and ICT or education policy must go hand-in-
hand. The presence of a coherent ICT policy in education invariably
promote coordination, harmonisation, full utilisation of the existing
infrastructure and its capacity, and initiatives to implement ICTs by
various sectors of the economy.

Given the current lack of ICT infrastructure, the rollout of ICT can be
carried out in phases, with the overall aim of nationwide coverage in
a certain year. From the outset, an effort can be made to provide
infrastructure to remote and underserved areas, using technological
solutions that are suited to local needs and conditions. Rural
connectivity requires a backbone transmission lines and a
technologies to connect to individual end users. Technologies
include wireless local loops, cellular phones, and satellites. What are
the best choices for different situations? The Mobile communication
seems to be more idea or feasible in rural areas as some are very
remote to be accessed by any other means.

Gender Imbalance
The concept of ‘gender’ has not been well understood. Gender is
often confused with sex. However sex generally refers to biology
and anatomy. By contrast gender refers to set qualities, attributes
and opportunities, and behaviours expected from a female or male
by society. Gender roles are learned and can be affected by factors
such as education or economics. Gender imbalance speaks to an
unequal power relationship, or access to power, between men and
women(Wikipedia).

ICT has become a potent force for transforming social, economic,


and political life globally. Yet the uneven distribution of ICT within
societies and across the globe is resulting in a “digital divide”
between those who have access to information resources and those
who do not. Most women in developing countries are in the deepest
part of the divide, further removed from the information age than
the men whose poverty they share. Women’s lower levels of literacy
and education relative to men, as well as negative attitudes towards
girls’ achievement in science and mathematics, contribute to the
gender dimension of the digital divide. In addition, men across the
world enjoy a higher degree of economic security than women
(Alampay, 2006). ICT being a new powerful tool for knowledge-
based economies ensures prevalence of male dominance in many
societies. Without access to information technology, an
understanding of its significance, and the ability to use it for social
and economic gain, women in East Africa will be further
marginalized from the mainstream of their communities, their
countries, and the world. Thus a concerted effort to check this
imbalance in societies is required.

Gender incorporation in ICTs is an attempt to address growing


disparities in income, gender and geographical location. ICTs are
seen as powerful tools that can assist to bridge these disparities and
support socio-economic development. ICTs have enormous potential
to benefit girls and women in terms of enhanced income-generation
opportunities, education, political empowerment, access to
resources and information, and communication with a world outside
the boundaries of home, employment, and improved quality of life
(Marcelle, 2002).

Hitherto without deliberate action, women may be left out of the


push to narrow the digital divide. Although most women in the
developing world have had little contact with ICT to date, it is not
too late to get women in on the ground floor of ICT policy and
infrastructure development in East African countries. It is imperative
that the gender dimension of the digital divide be considered early
in the process of ICT diffusion, rather than as a corrective measure
after the fact. The early stage of ICT development is a critical time
to advocate on behalf of universal access, low-cost extension of
services to underserved rural areas, and an enabling regulatory
environment. Women’s access to technology and training is a basic
requirement for their participation in the global information
economy.

The Physically challenged


Physically challenged people are often isolated by and from society,
leading to disastrous consequences. It is in the cities that there is
awareness and attempts to nurture such people. However, some of
the physically challenged, but for their limitations, have come out as
outstanding citizens of the world. There is belief that the physically
challenged have an added sharpness in their active organs. This and
other factors have not been fully exploited by traditional teaching
methodologies. ICT could have lasting impact in terms of enhancing
teaching and learning capabilities, and helping physically challenged
to carry their daily life normally (Ananthkrishnan, 2006).

ICT can support learners with physical disabilities by enabling them


to access the curriculum alongside their peers. People with physical
challenge either temporary or of permanent nature put limitations in
learning process of an individual as it can limit accessibility, it can
hamper understanding or it may result in slow learning thus making
it difficult for such persons to be at par with their peer group.
Educational activities such as following a lecture, reading a book,
accessing multimedia resources, accessing websites, appearing in
the exams (written or oral) becomes an uphill task for physically
challenged persons.

There is a necessity to focus for the use of technology with the


communication and educational needs of young people with
physical and communication difficulties. ICT can provide a rich
medium of learning for physically challenged persons as it will make
contents available to them anytime, anywhere as well as in a format
fitting into their requirements. Enabling technologies such as voice
text and Braille readers will allow disabled people access while the
potential of the internet for creating online communities will allow
people to develop social contact and networking groups, enabling a
greater voice and potential for social inclusion.

Also ICT present both opportunities and challenges for the economic
and social inclusion of disabled people. A digital Divide exists
between people with disabilities and people without any such
challenge, because of non-employment, less education or less
income. ICT can make physically challenged people more
independent and can provide them access to variety of information.
Major challenge in using ICT for educating physically challenged
person lies in creating contents for their learning requirements,
pace and efficiency of learning. Multimedia components can provide
rich learning contents for such persons and help in creating
multimodal websites for accessibility of all. Also there is lack of
appropriate technologies to enable the physically challenged to
participate in a knowledge based economy and networkedsociety.
There is lack of a policy framework for the development of ICT for
the physically challenged.

Therefore as a policy issue there a need to develop infrastructure


and software environment to facilitate access to ICTs for the
physically challenged, and to develop and facilitate accessibility to
appropriate technologies for the physically challenged to participate
in a knowledge based economy and networked society.

Intellectual Property Rights


According to WTO, Intellectual property rights are the rights given to
persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the
creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a
certain period of time.

The creation and ownership of knowledge products are of increasing


importance in today’s information age and copyright in particular
has emerged as a central instrument for the knowledge industries of
the twenty-first century. Copyright is an essential element in the
business model of publishers, television, film and record producers
and software developers. ICTs, particularly the Internet, offer
enormous opportunities for the creative industries; yet they also
enable unauthorized creation of unlimited numbers of perfect copies
of protected works, and pose enormous challenges to copyright law.

Copyright, in particular, protects the products of creativity, in the


form of original literary and artistic works, against certain forms of
use and exploitation. Copyright is the right of an author to control
the reproduction of his or her intellectual creations. Copyright does
not preclude others from using the ideas, systems, facts, concepts
or information revealed in the author’s work. It pertains only to the
literary, musical, graphic or artistic form in which the author
expresses ideas, information or other intellectual concepts (Basant,
2004).

Copyright-related issues are of particular relevance to developing


countries as they enter the information age and seek to participate
in the knowledge economy. Copyright issues arise, for example, in
relation to improving access for developing countries to software
and digital content, particularly educational materials.
Intellectual property (IP) policies need not only view East Africans as
consumers of creative works owned by others. ICTs also present an
opportunity for these countries to, drawing upon their rich cultural
heritage and traditional knowledge systems, create, produce and
distribute new technologies (such as locally-produced software),
innovative educational materials and services, and distinctive
cultural products (such as music and ‘cultural heritage on-line’
services). East African innovation and creation offers benefits for
domestic industries and opportunities for penetration of global
markets.

The challenge, therefore, is to craft copyright systems that, on the


one hand, improve access to existing materials and technologies
and, on the other, stimulate and reward innovation and creativity by
Africans themselves as a contribution to their sustainable economic,
technological, social, political and cultural development. As Okediji
has put it: the argument is that development interests require an
effective system of protection, balanced by robust limitations to
encourage competition and socially beneficial uses. Copyright
protection should not be offered as an instrument of private
monopoly at the expense of public welfare.” The WSIS Declaration
of Principles also captured this well: “Intellectual Property protection
is important to encourage innovation and creativity in the
Information Society; similarly, the wide dissemination, diffusion, and
sharing of knowledge is important to encourage innovation and
creativity. Facilitating meaningful participation by all in intellectual
property issues and knowledge sharing through full awareness and
capacity building is a fundamental part of an inclusive Information
Society.”

In crafting ICT policy for education, IP issues need to be dealt with


carefully. The policy makers need to ask themselves these
questions: What experiences are there with the adoption,
implementation, administration, exercise and enforcement of IP
laws and policies, especially copyright, in other countries? Does IP
protection, especially copyright, achieve its objectives? If not, are
there difficulties legal or administrative/operational? What practical
examples are there? What are or should be the objectives of IP
protection in East African countries? How should these be achieved?

ICT Policies Informing Education & Training


The issue of policy informing education and training is rather wide.
ICT is evolving tremendously and there is so much emanating from
it that influences education and training sector. ICT has potential to
improve education if properly integrated in the education and
training system of the country. The success of ICT integration in the
education sector depends very
much on the education philosophy the country opts to adhere to.
Education philosophy can give shape the teaching-learning process.
A good education philosophy will recognize learners’ differences and
address them in the curriculum development, implementation and
evaluation. ICT can be used to individualise instruction for learners
with different learning style, pace, etc, thus address the problem of
learners’ differences. This is one area where ICT can inform
education for better.

ICT can inform education through electronic mediated learning.


Distance education can enable learners who don't have physical
access to schools to participate through online, radio or other ICTs
in education classes and programs. E-learning, which can involve a
wide variety of technologies such as DVD, CD-ROM, or internet,
offers students access to a vast amount of information and
resources that is not possible in a single instructional setting. Online
teaching support programmes for teachers who have minimal
teaching background can assist with lesson planning, curriculum
design and other learning tools. Education, training and skill
development are critical to ICT interventions. These areas represent
an entry point for encouraging learners to become more involved in
ICT applications development, and shaping ICT solutions.

Generally, the role of ICT is important in mainstreaming education


system. It has to move from ICT Literacy level to ICT Application
level and finally ICT Vocational level of training. ICT can make
learning more participatory and also joyful through entertainment.
ICT can ensure accountability in the education system. A more
holistic education approach can be attained through ICT. The room
is there for exploring the possibilities of using ICTs in areas other
than cognition.

Virtual Universities and cross border Education Implications


The delivery of university education has changed little throughout
the print era, and universities worldwide are still largely
characterised by the traditional lecture, seminar and tutorial
methods of the era. However, there is a growing consensus that the
present teaching infrastructure is not consistent with the new
information-based, technology-driven society that is emerging
today. Technology has created cyberspace, which means an end to
local and national boundaries. Anyone with a computer, a modem,
and a service provider can now be connected to the borderless
classroom and make use of its vast offerings. Everyone has the
opportunity to learn anything, anytime and anywhere, and learning
can be facilitated anywhere by anyone. The term ‘borderless
education’ describes educational provision that crosses
conventional boundaries of time, space and geography (Middlehurst,
2002). The borderless education is a precursor for virtual university
learning environment where instructor and student are separated by
time or space, or both, and the instructor provides course content
through course management applications, multimedia resources,
the Internet, videoconferencing, etc. Students receive the content
and communicate with the instructor via the same technologies. The
reasons for the increasing interest in virtual education distil down to
the achievement of one or more of three basic objectives.
• To increase access to learning opportunities by enhancing the
flexibility of delivery modes or by eliminating geographic barriers
to participation.
• To enhance the quality of the learning experience in terms of
content or pedagogy.
• To enhance institutional efficiency by reducing costs, increasing
productivity or increasing market share.

However in countries with a system of national control of education,


a number of policy issues are raised by the fact that virtual
education means that students may today take courses offered by
institutions and instructors in another country. To tease out these
policy and management implications of borderless developments,
we dissect issues raises by Middlehurst (2006) as pertains to virtual
education. The issues raised are also important in the development
of coherent ICT policy for education
• Standardization of processes and compatibility of delivery
systems across institutions and between all partners in a
consortium are important issues.
• As a result of these new developments, boundaries between
previously discrete categories of education provider and
provision are dissolving and distinctions between roles are
also blurring. Dissolving boundaries make categorizations
difficult and raise questions of identity, role, structure and
regulation. The dissolving also make it difficult to collect
accurate and comprehensive data to assist with the sharing of
information across countries, while at the same time creating
an urgent need for common vocabularies and typologies.
• Universities need to address the question of what is core to
their business, and where they have a unique or specialist
role, and what is non-core. As functions are disaggregated and
shared between a chain of providers, institutions will need to
pay particular attention to quality assurance to ensure that
the end user (the students) experience programmes and
learning opportunities that are relevant and coherent.
Institutions will also face important issues of copyright and
ownership of intellectual property.
• Learning may, for some groups of learners, need to be
relevant, focused and immediately usable rather than
generalized, theoretical and focused on longer-term value.
‘Just-in-time’ learning will be more valuable for some than
‘just-in-case’ learning. Institutions may need to re-evaluate
their provision in the light of different value systems and
requirements by students.
• The range of subjects and programmes offered by virtual
universities can often be narrower than traditional university
and college curricula, focusing particularly on vocational and
professional areas such as engineering, IT, health care,
language training, and business. If educational quality,
particularly at undergraduate level, is measured by range of
subjects studied as much as by depth of engagement in any
one discipline, then there are aspects of curriculum control
that need to be exercised both at institutional and national
levels.
• In relation to quality assurance, if one provider is responsible
for the design of curricula, another for teaching and another
for certification, it may be necessary to have quality
assurance arrangements that are fitted to each function with
‘accreditation’ of the different parts. There will also need to be
clear arrangements for managing and integrating the different
functions and for sharing information about enrolments,
assessments and grading. Where joint or multi-agent
providers involve traditional institutions and companies, new
organizational. In this new education delivery, control of the
curriculum is no longer solely in the hands of academics, but
requires negotiation between learners (or companies) and a
certifying body, which may or may not be an academic
institution. Both at policy and management levels, issues of
funding, accreditation, credit transfer and recognition of
qualifications become significant
• The authority to design and determine ‘content’ (and to
assure its currency and credibility) is likely to become more
widely shared, with implications for standards, assessment
and qualification frameworks. Given the increasing variety of
suppliers of content, issues of level, recognition, currency and
equivalence are important, with a need to negotiate
agreements about such matters across organizations and
countries.
• New types of qualifications (joint and multiple awards,
integrated degrees, incorporating academic requirements with
a licence to practise and professional certification) as well as
non-certificated learning (such as experiential learning) raise
some of the quality assurance issues associated with new
content. Ownership and authority for the award is a key issue,
with differences noticeable across countries and within
countries, particularly in relation to professional areas.

Given that ‘borderless developments’ have a particular impact on


the educational enterprise, most attention has been given to
implications for student learning, qualifications and quality
assurance systems. However, other aspects of policy and
management such as legal frameworks, ICT systems, funding
arrangements, governance and human resource management will
all be affected by the developments. Indeed, in recognition of the
wide ranging impact on universities and colleges of ‘borderless
developments’, institutional leaders in the East Africa need to
establish an ‘Observatory on Borderless Higher Education’. The
Observatory can provide a continuing strategic information service
on a subscription basis to institutions to assist their planning and
decision making processes as they strive to meet the challenges
arising from a changing global, regional and local education
landscape.

Conclusion
In developing a coherent ICT policy in any of the East African
countries that will impact education sector and social-economic
status of its citizens, a thorough analysis of policy issues is
imperative. A comprehensive policy on ICT for education and
training will require involvement participation of many stakeholders
in education sector and other related sectors or government
ministries. For higher learning institutions ICT policy, crucial issues
(also discussed in the paper) to consider are: ICT Education and
training for all citizens, Rural Communication, Gender Imbalance,
The Physically challenged, ICT policies informing Education &
Training, Intellectual Property Rights, and Virtual Universities and
cross border education implications is important. For comprehensive
list of key issues, a thorough research input is required. In addition,
it will take resources and dedication from many actors to implement
such a policy. In conclusion, the issues discussed are complex and
input from local context is important to complement or challenge
the ideas presented. Hence the paper has highlighted concisely
some points that may be used as a foundation for further
discussion.

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