STHE2

‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻨﺼﺮ ﻟﻠﺒﺘﺮول‬
‫اﻹدارة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺌﻮن اﻟﻔﻨﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﻔﻨﻴﺔ‬
‫‪1‬‬
Points in this study

1- Introduction…………………….………….…..4
2- Heat transfer equipments…….…..…….....10
3- Types of heat transfer equipments……....14
4- Shell & Tube heat exchangers……..…..…19
5- STHE components …………………….…....20
6- STHE classifications……………..….…..….21
7- General types of heat exchanger in
NPC…………………………………………………33
8- Codes and standards………….…………....37
9- STHE design………………..…………..….…47
10- Design considerations ………………….…..49
11- Design features ………………………….…..57
12- Tube side ……………………………………...58
13- Shell side ………………………………………70
14- Design data ……………………………………79
15- STHE data sheet………….…………………82
16- Heat exchanger problems………………….90
17- Maintenance ………………………………..100
2
18- STHE performance……..…………..………106

19- Plate heat exchanger ………………………114
20- Spiral heat exchanger ………………..……117
21- Comparison between heat exchanger
types………………………………………………121
22- Who select the heat exchanger type and
design limitations…..………………..…………124
23- Index………….………………………………..127
3
‫"‪What do "heat exchangers equipments‬‬

‫?‪mean‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
Heat exchanger is a device built for

efficient heat transfer from one medium
to another. The medium may be
separated by a solid wall, so that they
never mix, or they may be in direct
contact. They are widely used in,
industry, refrigeration, air conditioning,
power plants chemical plants,
petrochemical plants petroleum
refineries and natural gas processing.
Humans
The human lungs also serve as an

extremely efficient heat exchanger due to
their large surface area to volume ratio.
5
The artery to the testis is surrounded by

a mesh of veins called the pampiniform
plexus. This cools the blood heading to
the testis, while reheating the returning
blood.
Birds, fish, whales
"Countercurrent" heat exchangers

occur naturally in the circulation system
of fish and whales.
Arteries to the skin carrying warm

blood are intertwined with veins from the
skin carrying cold blood, causing the
warm arterial blood to exchange heat with
the cold venous blood.
6
This reduces the overall heat loss in

cold waters. Heat exchangers are also
present in the tongue of baleen whales as
large volumes of water flow through their
mouths.
Wading birds use a similar system to

limit heat losses from their body through
their legs into the water.
In industry
Heat exchangers are widely used in

industry both for cooling and heating
large scale industrial processes.
7
In aircraft
In commercial aircraft, heat

exchangers are used to take heat from
the engine's oil system to heat cold fuel.
This improves fuel efficiency, as well as

reduces the possibility of water entrapped
in the fuel freezing in components.
8
Definitions
Sensible heat:
"The quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit weight of
material through a temperature difference
of one degree."
Latent heat:
"The quantity of heat required to
vaporize a unit weight of a liquid at its
boiling point."
Temperature difference:
"Is the driving force by which hat is
transferred from a source to a receiver."
9
‫‪10‬‬
What are heat exchanger equipments for?

• To get fluid streams to the right
temperature for the next process.
• To condense vapors.
• To evaporate liquids.
• To recover heat to use elsewhere.
The type and size of heat exchanger

used can be tailored to suit a process
depending on the type of fluid, its phase,
temperature, density, viscosity,
pressures, chemical composition and
various other thermodynamic properties.
In many industrial processes there is

waste of energy or a heat stream that is
being exhausted, heat exchangers can be
used to recover this heat and put it to use
11
by heating a different stream in the

process.
This practice saves a lot of money in

industry as the heat supplied to other
streams from the heat exchangers would
otherwise come from an external source
which is more expensive and more
harmful to the environment.
Conclusion Heat exchangers are used in
many industries, some of which include:
• Waste water treatment

• Refrigeration systems
• Wine-brewery industry
• Petroleum industry.
12
In the waste water treatment industry,

heat exchangers play a vital role in
maintaining optimal temperatures within
anaerobic digesters so as to promote the
growth of microbes which remove
pollutants from the waste water.
The common types of heat exchangers
used in this application are the double
pipe heat exchanger as well as the plate ,
frame heat exchanger, spiral heat
exchanger.
Fine palate Shell & Tube Spiral

heat exchanger heat exchanger heat exchanger
13
Heat transfer equipments types and

classifications
Heat exchangers may be classified

according to:
The flow arrangement:
parallel-flow heat exchangers:
The two fluids enter the exchanger at

the same end, and travel in parallel to
one another to the other side.
Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger,

single pass (1-1 parallel flow)
14
Counter-flow heat exchangers:
The fluids enter the exchanger from

opposite ends. The counter current
design is most efficient, in that it can
transfer the most heat from the heat
(transfer) medium.
Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger,

2-pass tube side (1-2 cross flow)
15
Cross-flow heat exchanger:
The fluids travel roughly perpendicular

to one another through the exchanger.
Fig. 3: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass shell

side, 2-pass tube side (2-2 countercurrent)
16
According to fluids contact:
Direct contact:-
They are classified as

• Gas – liquid.
• Immiscible liquid – liquid.
• Solid – liquid or solid –gas
They are commonly used in Air
conditioning, humidification, water
cooling and condensing plants.
17
In-Direct contact:-
• Shell and tube heat exchanger.

• Plate heat exchanger.
• Phase change heat exchanger.
• HVAC air coils.
• Spiral heat exchanger.
• Others.
18
‫‪19‬‬
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist

of a series of tubes. One set of these
tubes contains the fluid that must be
either heated or cooled. The second fluid
runs over the tubes that are being heated
or cooled so that it can either provide the
heat or absorb the heat required. A set of
tubes is called the tube bundle and can
be made up of several types of tubes:
plain, etc. Shell and Tube heat
exchangers are typically used for high
pressure applications (with pressures
greater than 30 bar and temperatures
greater than 260°C).
20
Components of STHE
Main Components Other Components
• Shell. • Tie – rods.

• Shell cover. • Spacers.
• Tubes. • Pass partition
• Channel. plates.
• Channel cover. • Impingement plate.
• Tube sheet. • Longitudinal baffle.
• Baffles. • Sealing strips.
• Nozzles. • Supports.
• Foundation.
21
STHE classifications
Classification based on Classification based on

"Construction" "Service"
Fixed head U – tube Floating Single Two

H.E H.E head H.E phase phases
22
Classification based on construction:
1- Fixed head Heat exchanger:

This type of heat exchanger has
straight tubes which are secured (fixed) at
both ends to tube sheet welded to the
shell.
It may have removable channel covers
(AEL), bonnet type channel covers (BEM)
or integral tube sheets (NEN).
23
Advantage:
1- Low cost.
2- Simple construction.
3- Tubes can be cleaned mechanically
after removal of the channel cover or
bonnet.
4- Leakage of the shell side fluid is
minimized since there are no flanged
joints.
Disadvantages:
1- The bundle is fixed to the shell and
cannot be removed.
2- The out sides of the tube cannot be
cleaned mechanically (unless
chemical cleaning program is applied
or a suitable construction of shell
24
side is applied for fouling services

which increases cost.)
3- The cost increases if a large
temperature difference between the
tube side and the shell side so that
we have to incorporate an expansion
joints because the tube sheet will be
unable to absorb the differential
stress.
2- U-tube Heat exchanger:
In this type of heat exchanger, the
tubes are bent in U – shape. Thus there is
only one sheet.
25
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪Figure 6‬‬
‫‪26‬‬
Advantage:
1- It can support the large temperature
difference because of one end is free
so the bundle can expand or contact
according to differential stress.
2- Tube bundle can be removed so, the
outside of the tubes can be cleaned.
Disadvantages:
1- The inside of the tubes cannot be
cleaned effectively thus it will require
flexible end drill shafts for cleaning (it
shouldn't be used for services with a
dirty fluid inside tubes.
2- It is more cost than fixed tub sheet
exchanger because it requires
bending the tubes and larger shell
diameter (due to minimum u bend
radius).
27
3- Floating head Heat exchanger:

This type is the most used type of
exchangers and the lowest cost one.
In this type one tube sheet is fixed to
the shell and the other is free (floating)
within the shell. This permits expansion
of the bundle.
This permits cleaning for both inside
and outside of the tubes.
Floating head heat exchanger can be in
used in dirty services where both shell
side and tube side fluids are dirty
because it can be cleaned on both sides
inside and outside of the tubes.
28
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪29‬‬
Advantages:
1- Tube bundle may be removed from
the shell without removing the shell
or the floating head cover which
results in reducing maintenance
time.
2- Ease of cleaning so it can be used for
dirty services.
Disadvantages:
1- The higher cost due to large diameter
of the shell.
2- their use is limited to services with
shell side fluids that are non hazardous
and non toxic, and have moderate
pressure and temperature (40kg/cm2 ,
300oC) since they are prone to leakage.
30
Classification based on services:
Services may be a single phase (ex:

cooling and heating) or two phases
(condensing and vaporizing).
Types of exchangers
Due to service
Single phase Vaporizing

Both shell side One side vaporizes and
Ex: condenser
and tube side the other is a single
Ex: heat phase.
exchanger Ex: Re-boiler
Condensing Two phases

One side condenses One side condenses
and the other is a and the other
single phase vaporizes.
Ex: condenser Ex: Chiller
31
General types of
Heat exchanger equipments in NPC
Shell and Tube Heat exchanger:
Figure 9
Kettle re-boiler:
Figure 10
32
‫‪Air cooler:‬‬
‫‪33‬‬
Water condensers:
Figure 12
Barometric condenser:
Incondensable gases
Figure 13
34
‫‪Air pre- heater (attached to fired heater):‬‬
‫‪35‬‬
‫‪36‬‬
Codes and standards
The objective of codes and standards

are best described by ASME: The
objectives of code rules and standards
(apart from fixing dimensional values) is
to achieve minimum requirements for
safe construction, in other words, to
provide public protection by defining
those materials, design, fabrication and
inspection requirements; whose omission
may radically increase operating hazards.
Experience with code rules has
demonstrated that the probability of
disastrous failure can be reduced to the
extremely low level necessary to protect
37
life and property by suitable minimum

requirements and safety factors.
Suitable precautions are therefore
entirely the responsibility of the design
engineer guided by the needs and
specifications of the user.
38
Over years a number of

standardization bodies have been
developed by individual country,
manufacturers and designers to lay down
nomenclatures for the size and type of
shell and tube heat exchangers.
TEMA standards (Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturer Association., 1998).
HEI standards (Heat Exchanger
Institute, 1980).
API (American Petroleum Institute).
Other national standards include the
German (DIN), Japan, and India to
mention a few.
39
TEMA Designations
TEMA "The Standards of Tubular

Exchanger Manufactures Association.":
Describes the exchanger components in
details.
In order to understand the design and
operation of the shell and tube heat
exchanger, it is important to know the
nomenclature and terminology used to
describe them and the various parts that
go to their construction. Only then we
can understand the design and reports
given by the researchers, designers,
manufacturer and users.
40
According to TEMA; STHE are divided

into three parts: “Front head, shell and
rear head”.
Exchangers are described by the letter
codes of the three sections.
Ex: B.F.L: means exchanger has bonnet
cover, two pass shell and longitudinal
baffle.
It is essential for the designer to have a
good working knowledge of the
mechanical features of STHEs and how
they influence thermal design. Table-1
shows the nomenclature used for
different parts of shell and tube
exchanger in accordance with TEMA
standards; the numbers refer to the
feature shown in Fig. 15 to Fig. 16.
41
‫‪42‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫‪16‬‬
‫‪43‬‬
‫‪44‬‬
‫‪45‬‬
‫‪46‬‬
‫‪47‬‬
Design considerations
1) Fluid Stream Allocations

There are a number of practical
guidelines which can lead to the optimum
design of a given heat exchanger.
Remembering that the primary duty is to
perform its thermal duty with the lowest
cost yet provide excellent in service
reliability, the selection of fluid stream
allocations should be of primary concern
to the designer. There are many trade-offs
in fluid allocation in heat transfer
coefficients, available pressure drop,
fouling tendencies and operating
pressure.
48
The higher pressure fluid normally

flows through the tube side. With their
small diameter and nominal wall
thicknesses, they are easily able to
accept high pressures and avoid more
expensive, larger diameter components
to be designed for high pressure.
If it is necessary to put the higher
pressure stream in the shell, it should be
placed in a smaller diameter and longer
shell.
Place corrosive fluids in the tubes,
other items being equal. Corrosion is
resisted by using special alloys and it is
much less expensive than using special
alloy shell materials. Other tube side
49
materials can be clad with corrosion

resistant materials or epoxy coated.
Flow the higher fouling fluids through
the tubes. Tubes are easier to clean
using common mechanical methods.
Because of the wide variety of designs
and configurations available for the
shell circuits, such as tube pitch, baffle
use and spacing, multiple nozzles, it is
best to place fluids requiring low
pressure drops in the shell circuit.
The fluid with the lower heat transfer
coefficient normally goes in the shell
circuit.
This allows the use of low-fin tubing to
offset the low transfer rate by providing
increased available surface.
50
2) Shell and tube velocity:

High velocities will give high heat
transfer coefficients but also a high
pressure drop and cause erosion. The
velocity must be high enough to prevent
any suspended solids settling, but not so
high as to cause corrosion. High velocities
will reduce fouling. Plastic inserts are
sometimes used to reduce erosion at the
tube inlet. Typical design velocities are
given below:
Liquids
Tube-side process fluids: 1 to 2 m/s,
maximum 4 m/s if required to reduce
fouling: water 1.5 to 2.5 m/s
Shell side: 0.3 to 1 m/s
51
For vapors, the velocity used will depend

on the operating pressure and fluid
density; the lower values in the range
given below will apply to molecular weight
materials
Vacuum 50 to 70 m/s
Atmospheric pressure 10 to 30 m/s
High pressure 5 to 10 m/s
3) Stream temperature:
The closer the temperature approach
used (the difference between the outlet
temperature of one stream and the inlet
temperature of the other stream) the
larger will be the heat transfer area
required for a given duty.
52
When heat exchange is between

process fluids or heat recovery the
optimum approach temperatures will
normally not be lower than 20 oC.
4) Pressure drop:
The value suggested below can be used
as a general guide and will normally give
designs that are near the optimum.
Liquids
Gas and Vapors
53
When a high-pressure drop is utilized,

care must be taken to ensure that the
resulting high fluid velocity does not
cause erosion or flow -induced tube
vibration.
5) Fluid physical properties:

The physical properties are usually
evaluated at the mean stream
temperature. This is satisfactory when
the temperature change is small, but can
cause a significant error when change in
temperature is large. In these
circumstances, a simple and safe
procedure is to evaluate the heat transfer
coefficients at the stream inlet and outlet
temperatures and use the lowest of the
54
two value. Alternatively, the method

suggested by Frank (1978) can be used;
in which
Where U1; U2 are evaluated at the end

of the exchanger.
If the variation is too large for these
simple methods to be used it will be
necessary to divide the temperature-
enthalpy profile into sections and
evaluate the heat transfer coefficients and
area required for each section.
55
Design features
Designer should notes that heat
transfer coefficient and pressure drop
both vary with tube side velocity.
A good design will make the best use of
the allowable pressure drop and the
highest heat transfer coefficient.
56
Tube side
The tube bundle
Tube bundle is the most important part of

a tubular heat exchanger. The tubes
generally constitute the most expensive
component of the exchanger and are the
one most likely to corrode.
Tube sheets, baffles, or support plates,
tie rods, and usually spacers complete
the bundle.
57
Tube diameter:
Small tube diameter makes heat

exchanger economical and compact.
But it may foul up faster so,
mechanical cleaning of the fouling
becomes difficult to avoid that a large
diameter may be solution.
So, designer should determine tube
diameter, available spacing, cost and
fouling nature of the both fluids.
Tube thickness:
The thickness of the wall of the tubes is

usually determined to ensure:
• There is enough room for corrosion.
58
• That flow-induced vibration has

resistance.
• Axial strength.
• Availability of spare parts.
• Hoop strength (to withstand internal
tube pressure).
• Buckling strength (to withstand
overpressure in the shell).
Tube length:
Heat exchangers are usually cheaper

when they have a smaller shell diameter
and long tube length
They are many limitations for this:
- Available space at the site.
- The need to ensure that there are
tubes available in lengths that are
59
twice the required length so that the

tubes can be withdrawn and replaced.
Note Long, thin tubes are difficult

to take out and replace.
Tube bitch:
It is means the center–to –center

distance of tubes.
It shouldn't be less than 1.25 times the
tubes outside diameter.
Note Large tube pitch leads to a

larger overall shell diameter
which leads to a more
expensive heat exchanger.
60
Tube corrugation:
It is used for the inner tubes. It increases

turbulence of the fluids inside the tube
so; it affects on the heat transfer giving a
better performance.
Tube layout:
It refers to how tubes are positioned

within the shell.
There are four main types of tube layouts:
Triangular (30o): they are employed to
give greater heat transfer as they force
the fluid to flow in more turbulent
flow around the piping.
Rotated Triangular (60 o).
61
Square (90o): they are employed where

high fouling is experienced and
cleaning is more regular.
Rotated square (45 o).
19A
Figure 19B
62
Tube side passes
The fluid in the tube is usually directed

to flow back and forth in a number of
passes through groups of tube arranged
in parallel to increase the length of the
flow path.
The number of passes is selected to
give the required side design velocity.
Exchangers are built form one to up to
16 passes. The tube are arranged into the
number of passes required by dividing up
the exchanger headers (channels) with
partition plates (pass partition) The
arrangement of the pass partition for 2,4
and 6 are shown in fig below:
63
Figure 20A
Single tube-side pass Multiple tube-side passes
Single shell-side pass Multiple shell-side passes
Figure 20B
64
Tube sheets
Tube sheets are usually made from a
round flat piece of metal with holes
drilled for the tube ends in a precise
location and pattern relative to one
another.
Tube sheet materials range as tube
materials.
Tubes are attached to the tube sheet
by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure or by
roller expansion.
Tube holes can be drilled and reamed
and can be machined with one or more
grooves. This greatly increases the
strength of the tube joint.
65
Figure 21
The tube sheet is in contact with both

fluids and so must have corrosion
resistance allowances and have
metallurgical and electrochemical
properties appropriate for the fluids and
velocities.
66
Tube Header:
The tube-side header (or stationary
head) contains one or more flow nozzles.
The bonnet Fig(10) bolts to the shell. It
is necessary to remove the bonnet in
order to examine the tube ends.
The fixed-tube sheet exchanger of Fig.
10b has bonnets at both ends of the
shell.
The channel (Fig. 10A) has a removable
channel cover. The tube ends can be
examined by removing this cover without
disturbing the piping connections to the
channel nozzles.
The channel can bolt to the shell as
shown in Fig. 10a and c.
67
The Type C and Type N channels of

Fig. 10 are welded to the tube sheet.
This design is comparable in cost with the
bonnet but has the advantages of
permitting access to the tubes without
disturbing the piping connections and of
eliminating a gasketed joint.
68
Shell side
Baffle design:
Baffles are used to direct fluid across

the tube bundle.
They are positioned perpendicular to
the shell and hold tube bundle,
preventing the tubes from sagging over a
long length, also from vibrating.
Most common baffle is the segmental
baffle of pressure drop and heat transfer.
For thermo economic optimization,
baffle spacing is not closer than 20% of
the shell's inner diameter.
Small baffle spacing cause a greater
pressure drop because of flow redirection.
69
Large baffle spacing means that they

may be cooler spots.
Also it is important to ensure that
baffles are spaced closed enough that the
tubes not sag.
Figure 22
70
Baffle pitch: centre– to – centre distance

between baffles.
Baffle spacer: baffles are held
securely by baffle spacer which consist
of through bolts screwed into the tube
sheet and a number of smaller lengths
of pipe which form shoulders between
adjacent baffles.
Baffle types:
71
‫‪72‬‬
‫‪73‬‬
Tie Rods and Spacers

Tie rods are used to hold the baffles in
place with spacers, which are pieces of
tubing or pipe placed on the rods to
locate the baffles.
Occasionally baffles are welded to the
tie rods, and spacers are eliminated.
Properly located tie rods and spacers
serve both to hold the bundle together
and to reduce bypassing of the tubes.
In very large fixed-tube-sheet units, in
which concentricity of shells decreases,
baffles are occasionally welded to the
shell to eliminate bypassing between the
baffle and the shell.
Metal baffles are standard.
Occasionally plastic baffles are used
74
either to reduce corrosion or in vibratory

service, in which metal baffles may cut
the tubes.
Figure 25
Shell Constructions
The most common TEMA shell type is
the E shell as it is most suitable for most
industrial process cooling applications.
However, for certain applications,
other shells offer distinct advantages. For
example, the TEMA-F shell design
75
provides for a longitudinal flow plate to be

installed inside the tube bundle
assembly. This plate causes the shell
fluid to travel down one half of the tube
bundle, then down the other half, in
effect producing a counter-current flow
pattern which is best for heat transfer.
This type of construction can be
specified where a close approach
temperature is required and when the
flow rate permits the use of one half of
the shell at a time. In heat recovery
applications, or where the application
calls for increased thermal length to
achieve effective overall heat transfer,
shells can be installed with the flows in
series. Up to six shorter shells in series is
76
common and results in counter-current

flow close to performance as if one long
shell in a single pass design were used.
77
Design data available
There are some data should be known

before design:
1- Flow rates of both streams.
2- Inlet and outlet temperature of both
streams.
3- Operating pressure of both streams
(especially for gases if gas density is not
known).
4- Allowable pressure drop for both
streams (very important
5- Fouling resistance for both streams. If
it is nit known the designer should
adopt values specified in the TEMA
standards or based on experience.
78
6- Physical properties of both streams

(viscosity, thermal conductivity, density,
specific heat).
7- Heat duty.
8- Type of heat exchanger (known or
chosen).
9- Line size: to match nozzle sizes with
line size to avoid expanders or reduces.
10- Preferred tube size: it is designated as
outside diameter X thickness X length.
(The available plot area will determine
the maximum tube length. Many plant
owners prefer to standardize all three
dimensions based on inventory
considerations.
11- Maximum shell diameter: based on
tube bundle removal requirements and
79
limited by crane capacities (for removal

tube bundle). For U – tube and floating
head types.
12- Materials of construction: if tubes and
shell are made of identical materials, all
components should be of this material.
13- Special considerations: cycling upset
conditions, operating scenarios,
whether operation is continuous or
intermittent.
80
‫‪81‬‬
Specification sheet
Specification sheet is a data sheet that

contains the information provided by the
customer to the vendor for the process
and mechanical designs of an exchanger.
After the process design is done, the
engineer fills in some further information.
The rest of the information is filled after
the mechanical design is completed. The
specification sheet is a medium of
communication between different parties
involved in the procurement, design and
fabrication of heat exchanger.
It is also used to compare the
performance of the installed unit with the
design conditions.
82
6.1 Information included

The information contained in the sheet
is best described by a data sheet.
Although each company has its own
version of data sheet, the most popular
one is that of the TEMA standards.
It is similar to that of API standard
660.
It contains the fluid flow rate and
properties, heat duty, heat transfer
coefficient, fouling resistance, details
about the shell and tube size, materials,
baffle nozzle, etc.
Some variations include information
for alternate designs and different
systems of units (British, SI, metric).
83
6.2 Information not included

The regarding the type of flanges,
studs, vent and relief valves, drains lines,
welding, inspection and testing
requirement of the material of
construction, etc.. are not given in the
specification sheet.
6.3 Operation conditions
The following operating conditions
regarding the exchanger operation should
be known to the thermal designer for
critical application:
1. Start-up condition and procedure
2. Normal operating conditions
3. Upset and emergency conditions
4. Shut down conditions and procedure.
84
5. Possibility of switching the shell-side

and tube side fluid for better design.
6. Possibility of increasing the allowable
pressure drop to control the fouling.
7. These the spec-sheet should provided
with other information concerning the
composition of the streams, their thermal
and physical properties and any phase
change occurring.
85
‫‪86‬‬
Design sequence
• Design the process flow flow-sheet.
• Specify the heat exchanger
requirements.
• Select the best exchanger type for the
job.
• Thermal design of exchanger.
• Mechanical design of exchanger.
Looping back may be necessary at any
stage but can be difficult because of
the project timetable.
The designer must supply an exchanger
which;
• Meets the stated specification
• Has reasonable initial costs and
operating costs (most exchangers are
87
bought on the basis of the cheapest

tender)
• Has a reasonable lifetime
– no damaging vibration
– no thermal fatigue
– no unexpected fouling or corrosion
88
‫‪89‬‬
Heat exchangers’ problems
Heat transfer equipment provides the

economic and process viability for many
plant operations.
The basis for successful application of
such equipment depends on the designer.
The problem that should be anticipated
by the design to avoid high maintenance
or cleaning and costly shut down
production includes:
1. Fouling.
2. Leakage.
3. Corrosion.
90
Fouling
Fouling occurs when a fluid goes

through the heat exchanger, and the
impurities in the fluid precipitate onto the
surface of the tubes. Precipitation of
these impurities can be caused by:
• Frequent use of the heat exchanger.

• Not cleaning the heat exchanger
regularly.
• Reducing the velocity of the fluids
moving through the heat exchanger.
• Over-sizing of the heat exchanger.
Effects of fouling are more abundant in

the cold tubes of the heat exchanger than
in the hot tubes.
91
This is because impurities are less

likely to be dissolved in a cold fluid. This
is because, for most substances,
solubility increases as temperature
increases.
A notable exception is hard water

where the opposite is true.
Fouling reduces the cross sectional

area for heat to be transferred and causes
an increase in the resistance to heat
transfer across the heat exchanger. This
is because the thermal conductivity of the
fouling layer is low.
This reduces the overall heat transfer

coefficient and efficiency of the heat
exchanger.
92
This in turn, can lead to an increase in

pumping and maintenance costs.
The conventional approach to fouling

control combines the “blind” application
of biocides and anti-scale chemicals with
periodic lab testing.
This often results in the excessive use

of chemicals with the inherent side effects
of accelerating system corrosion and
increasing toxic waste- not to mention the
incremental cost of unnecessary
treatments. There are however solutions
for continuous fouling monitoring in
liquid environments, measuring both
fouling thickness and temperature,
93
allowing to optimize the use of chemicals

and control the efficiency of cleanings.
Types of Fouling
1- Precipitation / Crystallization -
dissolved inorganic salts with inverse
solubility characteristics.
2- Particulate / Sedimentation -
suspended solids, insoluble corrosion
products, sand.
3- Chemical Reaction - common in
petroleum refining and polymer
production Corrosion - material reacts
with fluid to form corrosion products,
which attach to the heat transfer
surface to form nucleation sites
94
4- Biological - initially micro-fouling,

usually followed by macro-fouling.
5- Solidification - ice formation, paraffin
waxes
Figure 27
95
Leakage/Rupture of the Heat Transfer

Surface.
Leaks may develop at:
1. the tube-to-tube sheet joints of fixed
tube sheet exchanger due to:
(a) Differential thermal expansion
between the tube and shell causes
overstressing of the rolled joints, or
(b) Thermal cycling caused by frequent
shutdowns or batch operation of the
process may cause the tubes to loosen in
the tube holes.
2. Leaks may occur due to tube failure
cause by vibration or differential thermal
expansion or dry out (for boilers and
evaporators).
96
‫‪97‬‬
Corrosion
The heat transfer surface reacts
chemically with elements of the fluid
stream producing a less conductive,
corrosion layer on all or part of the
surface.
Corrosion effects:
1. Premature metal failures.
2. The deposit of corrosion products
reduce both heat transfer and flow rate.
Causes of corrosion:
High content of total dissolved solids
(TDS), the dissimilarity of the metal,
dissolved oxygen, penetrating ions like
chlorides and sulphates, the low pH and
presence of various other impurities are
98
the prime cause of corrosion in the heat

exchanger.
Type of corrosion:
1- Stress corrosion.
2- Galvanic corrosion.
3- Uniform corrosion.
4- Pitting.
5- Crevice Corrosion.
Figure 29
99
MAINTAINCE
Minor maintenance
When the heat exchanger is isolated,
minor maintenance such as clearing
blockages, cleaning, lubrication, and oil
level checks can be carried out in
accordance with the Standard Operating
Procedures and the Permit To Work
system
Cleaning
For a heat exchanger to work efficiently,
the heat transfer surfaces must be clean,
and the flow passages must be clear of
obstruction.
A cleaning program should be put in
place to help insure the continued
100
optimal, or near optimal, performance of

heat exchangers.
Mechanical cleaning
Mechanical cleaning requires opening the
exchanger. This involves the removal of
the end covers and the tube bundle
(plates in the case of a plate exchanger),
then cleaning and then reassembly.
Damage of the exchanger components,
particularly the tube bundle, is always a
risk and great care must be taken.
Chemical cleaning
With chemical cleaning it is important to
identify the deposit in order to select the
correct method for its removal. Some of
the common chemicals used to clean
exchangers are:
101
Mineral acids
Organic acids
Alkaline agents
Organic solvents
HOW TO CLEAN THE TUBES

When removing tube bundles from
heat exchangers for inspection or
cleaning, exercise care to see that
they are not damaged by improper
handling.
Do not handle tube bundles with
hooks or other tools which might
damage tubes.
Move tube bundles on cradles or
skids.
102
Insert a soft wood filler board between

the bearing plate and tubes heat face
to prevent damage to the tube ends.
A hardwood spreader block must be
inserted between the cable and each
tube sheet to prevent damage to the
tube ends.
Lift tube bundles horizontally by
means of a cradle formed by bending
a light gauge plate or plates into a U-
shape. Make attachments in the legs
of the U for lifting.
Do not drag bundles, of tubes n coils
of spiral plated to avoid any damage.
Extensive care is needed in the case of
lamella b/c the lamella leafs are very
sensitive and not structurally strong.
103
Do not attempt to clean tubes by

blowing steam through individual
tubes.
This overheats the individual tube and
results in severe expansion strains and
leaking tube-to-tube sheet joints.
SOME MORE
TIGHTENING OF LEAKING FLANGES

It is preferable, if possible, to replace
the gasket as the cost of the gasket
relative to the leak is minor. If a
gasket needs to be replaced, the flow
line will need to be depressured,
isolated and drained before work.
104
If it is not possible to replace the

gasket, the flange can be tightened
by:
- Checking the alignment of the flange
to see that the two flange faces are
parallel
- Reducing the tension on the flange
bolts so that when the flanges are
tightened
- In shell n tube and double pipe rare
and front ends bolts should be tighten
properly.
- In spiral tube the coils joints should
be checked and tighten properly
105
‫‪106‬‬
Exchanger analysis and design involve

both convection and conduction.
Two important problems in heat
exchanger analysis are:
(1) Rating existing heat exchangers
involves determination of the rate
of heat transfer, the change in
temperature of the two fluids and
the pressure drop across the heat
exchanger.
(2) Sizing heat exchangers for a
particular application involves
selection of a specific heat
exchanger from those currently
available or determining the
dimensions for the design of a new
heat exchanger, given the required
107
rate of heat transfer and allowable

pressure drop.
How can we increase the heat exchanger
performance?
Increase flow rate of the cold fluid:
Increase in the flow rate of cold fluid
results in increase in the overall heat
transfer coefficient.
Because increase in the flow rate
increases the Reynolds number, which in
turn increases the Stanton number and
thereby the film heat transfer coefficient.
108
Extended surfaces:
Figure 30
Finning
Tubes can be finned on both the
interior and exterior. This is probably the
oldest form of heat transfer enhancement.
Finning is usually desirable when the
fluid has a relatively low heat transfer
film coefficient like gas
109
The fin not only increases the film

coefficient with added turbulence but also
increases the heat transfer surface area.
This added performance results in
higher pressure drop.
Tube Inserts
Inserts, tabulators, or static mixers are
inserted into the tube to promote
turbulence. These devices are most
effective with high viscosity fluids in a
laminar flow.
Increases in the heat transfer film
coefficients can be as high as five times.
Inserts are used most often with liquid
heat transfer and to promote boiling.
Inserts are not usually effective for
110
condensing in the tube and almost

always increase pressure drop.
Tube Deformation
The Deformation by corrugated,
twisted, or spirally fluted. Similar to the
tube inserts, these twisted tubes promote
turbulence and enhance boiling.
Baffles
Baffles are designed to direct the shell
side fluid across the tube bundle as
efficiently as possible. Forcing the fluid
across the tube bundle ultimately results
in a pressure loss.
Enhancement Effects on Fouling:
Heat exchanger enhancement may also
decrease the effects of fouling.
111
CONCLUSION
Engineers can evaluate increasing heat
exchanger performance through a logical
series of steps.
The first step considers if the
exchanger is initially operating correctly.
The second step considers increasing
pressure drop if available in exchangers
with single-phase heat transfer. Increased
velocity results in higher heat transfer
coefficients, which may be sufficient to
improve performance.
Next, a critical evaluation of the
estimated fouling factors should be
considered. Heat exchanger performance
can be increased with periodic cleaning
and less conservative fouling factors.
112
Finally, for certain conditions, it may

be feasible to consider enhanced heat
transfer through the use of finned tubes,
inserts, twisted tubes, or modified baffles.
Most of these proprietary technologies
can not be predicted a priori. However,
combined with the enhancement
information obtained from the vendors for
specific cases along with estimations of
heat transfer film coefficients, engineers
can perform preliminary evaluations
using these new technologies to increase
shell-and-tube heat exchanger
performance.
113
‫‪114‬‬
The plate and frame heat exchanger

The most common variant of the plate
and frame heat exchanger consists of a
number of pressed, corrugated metal
plates compressed together into a frame.
These plates are provided with gaskets,
partly to seal the spaces between
adjacent plates and partly to distribute
the media between the flow channels. The
most common plate material is stainless
steel.
Figure 31
115
• Gasketed units may be used in

refrigeration and heat pump plants
• Extensively used in the processing of
food and drinks,
• In the chemicals sector, a substantial
list of heating and cooling applications
includes cooling iso-paraffin, sulphuric
acid, salt solutions, hexane and
kerosene.
• Heating glycerin and condensing
ethanol are other routine uses. The off
shore.
• Care should be taken in locating the
gaskets during reassembly, as imperfect
sealing is the main disadvantage of the
plate and frame heat exchanger.
116
‫‪A spiral heat exchanger (SHE), may‬‬

‫‪refer‬‬ ‫‪to‬‬ ‫‪a‬‬ ‫‪helical‬‬ ‫)‪(coiled‬‬ ‫‪tube‬‬
‫‪117‬‬
configuration, more generally, the term

refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are
coiled to form the two channels in a
counter-flow arrangement. Each of the
two channels has one long curved path.
A pair of fluid ports is connected
tangentially to the outer arms of the
spiral, and axial ports are common, but
optional.
Spiral Flow/Cross Flow One fluid is in
spiral flow and the other in a cross flow.
Spiral flow passages are welded at each
side for this type of spiral heat exchanger.
SHE’s are generally smaller than other
types of heat exchangers.
118
Figure 32
• The main advantage of the SHE is its

highly efficient use of space.
• The SHE is good for applications such
as dry milk products, In heat
recovery, pre-heating and effluent
cooling.
• The SHE is good for sludge treatment,
• Fouling occurs when a fluid goes
through the Spiral heat exchanger,
and the impurities in the fluid
precipitate onto the surface of the
119
tubes. Precipitation of these

impurities can be caused by:
- Frequent use of the heat exchanger
- Not cleaning the heat exchanger
regularly.
- Reducing the velocity of the fluids
moving through the heat exchanger
120
‫‪121‬‬
‫‪Table 3‬‬
‫‪122‬‬
‫‪123‬‬
Who does what? How can we select the

exchanger type?
Heat exchangers are most often
selected via computer programs, either by
system designers, who are typically
engineers, or by equipment vendors.
In order to select an appropriate heat
exchanger, the system designers (or
equipment vendors) would firstly consider
the design limitations for each heat
exchanger type. Although cost is often the
first criterion evaluated, there are several
other important selection criteria which
include:
• High/ Low pressure limits
• Thermal Performance
• Temperature ranges
124
• Product Mix (liquid/liquid,

particulates or high-solids liquid).
• Pressure Drops across the exchanger.
• Fluid flow capacity.
• Cleanability, maintenance and repair.
• Materials required for construction.
• Ability and ease of future expansion.
Choosing the right heat exchanger (HX)
requires some knowledge of the different
heat exchanger types, as well as the
environment in which the unit must
operate.
Typically in the manufacturing
industry, several differing types of heat
exchangers are used for just the one
process or system to derive the final
product. For example, a kettle HX for pre-
125
heating, a double pipe HX for the ‘carrier’

fluid and a plate and frame HX for final
cooling. With sufficient knowledge of heat
exchanger types and operating
requirements, an appropriate selection
can be made to optimize the process.
126
‫‪127‬‬
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 1
Figure 1
128
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
129

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Points in this study

18- STHE performance……..…………..………106

‫"‪What do "heat exchangers equipments‬‬

Heat exchanger is a device built for

The human lungs also serve as an

The artery to the testis is surrounded by

Birds, fish, whales

"Countercurrent" heat exchangers

Arteries to the skin carrying warm

This reduces the overall heat loss in

Wading birds use a similar system to

Heat exchangers are widely used in

In commercial aircraft, heat

This improves fuel efficiency, as well as

What are heat exchanger equipments for?

The type and size of heat exchanger

In many industrial processes there is

by heating a different stream in the

This practice saves a lot of money in

Conclusion Heat exchangers are used in

many industries, some of which include:

• Waste water treatment

In the waste water treatment industry,

Fine palate Shell & Tube Spiral

Heat transfer equipments types and

Heat exchangers may be classified

The flow arrangement:

parallel-flow heat exchangers:

The two fluids enter the exchanger at

Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger,

Counter-flow heat exchangers:

The fluids enter the exchanger from

Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger,

Cross-flow heat exchanger:

The fluids travel roughly perpendicular

Fig. 3: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass shell

According to fluids contact:

They are classified as

• Shell and tube heat exchanger.

Shell and tube heat exchangers consist

Main Components Other Components

• Shell. • Tie – rods.

Classification based on Classification based on

Fixed head U – tube Floating Single Two

Classification based on construction:

1- Fixed head Heat exchanger:

side is applied for fouling services

3- Floating head Heat exchanger:

Classification based on services:

Services may be a single phase (ex:

Single phase Vaporizing

Condensing Two phases

Heat exchanger equipments in NPC

Shell and Tube Heat exchanger:

‫‪Air pre- heater (attached to fired heater):‬‬

Codes and standards

The objective of codes and standards

life and property by suitable minimum

Over years a number of

TEMA "The Standards of Tubular

According to TEMA; STHE are divided