1

DWH – 2Marks Statistics

Machine learning
Decision Tree
Unit I Hidden markov models
Artificial Intelligence
1.Define Data mining. Genetic Algorithm
It refers to extracting or “mining” Meta learning
knowledge from large amount of data. Data
mining is a process of discovering 7.Give few statistical techniques.
interesting knowledge from large amounts Point Estimation
of data Data Summarization
stored either, in database, data warehouse, or Bayesian Techniques
other information repositories Testing Hypothesis
Correlation
2.Give some alternative terms for data Regression
mining.
 K nowledge mining 8.What is the purpose of Data mining
Knowledge extraction Technique?
Data/pattern analysis. It provides a way to use various data mining
Data Archaeology tasks.
Data dredging
9.Define Predictive model.
3.What is KDD. It is used to predict the values of data by
KDD-Knowledge Discovery in Databases. making use of known results from a
different set of sample data.
4.What are the steps involved in KDD
process. 10.Data mining tasks that are belongs to
Data cleaning predictive model
Data Mining Classification
Pattern Evaluation Regression
Knowledge Presentation Time series analysis
Data Integration
Data Selection 11.Define descriptive model
Data Transformation It is used to determine the patterns and
relationships in a sample data. Data
5.What is the use of the knowledge base? mining tasks that belongs to descriptive
Knowledge base is domain knowledge that model:
is used to guide search or evaluate the Clustering
interestingness of resulting pattern. Such Summarization
knowledge can include concept hierarchies Association rules
used to organize attribute /attribute values in Sequence discovery
to different levels of abstraction.
Data Mining 12. Define the term summarization
The summarization of a large chunk of data
6.Mention some of the data mining contained in a web page or a
techniques. document.
 2

Summarization = o According to levels of abstraction of the

caharcterization=generalization knowledge mined
_ Generalized knowledge (High level of
13. List out the advanced database abstraction)
systems. _ Primitive-level knowledge (Raw data
Extended-relational databases level)
Object-oriented databases o According to mine data regularities versus
Deductive databases mine data irregularities
Spatial databases Based on kinds of techniques utilized
Temporal databases o According to user interaction
Multimedia databases _ Autonomous systems
Active databases _ Interactive exploratory system
Scientific databases _ Query-driven systems
Knowledge databases o According to methods of data analysis
_ Database-oriented
_ Data warehouse-oriented
14. Define cluster analysis _ Machine learning
Cluster analyses data objects without _ Statistics
consulting a known class label. The class _ Visualization
labels are not present in the training data _ Pattern recognition
simply because they are not known to begin _ Neural networks
with.  Based on applications adopted
o Finance
15.Classifications of Data mining systems. o Telecommunication
 B ased on the kinds of databases mined: o DNA
o According to model o Stock markets
_ Relational mining system o E-mail and so on
_ Transactional mining system o
_ Object-oriented mining system
_ Object-Relational mining system 16.Describe challenges to data mining
_ Data warehouse mining system regarding data mining methodology and
o Types of Data user
_ Spatial data mining system interaction issues.
_ Time series data mining system Mining different kinds of knowledge in
_ Text data mining system databases
_ Multimedia data mining system Interactive mining of knowledge at
Based on kinds of Knowledge mined multiple levels of abstraction
o According to functionalities Incorporation of background knowledge
_ Characterization Data mining query languages and ad hoc
_ Discrimination data mining
_ Association Presentation and visualization of data
_ Classification mining results
_ Clustering Handling noisy or incomplete data
_ Outlier analysis Pattern evaluation
_ Evolution analysis

17.Describe challenges to data mining
regarding performance issues.
Efficiency and scalability of data mining
algorithms
Parallel, distributed, and incremental
mining algorithms
18.Describe issues relating to the diversity
of database types.
Handling of relational and complex types
of data
Mining information from heterogeneous
databases and global information
systems
19.What is meant by pattern?
Pattern represents knowledge if it is easily
understood by humans; valid on test
data with some degree of certainty; and
potentially useful, novel,or validates a hunch
about which the used was curious. Measures
of pattern interestingness, either objective or
subjective, can be used to guide the
discovery process.
20.How is a data warehouse different
from a database?
Data warehouse is a repository of multiple
heterogeneous data sources, organized
under a unified schema at a single site in
order to facilitate management decision-
making.
Database consists of a collection of
interrelated data.
21.What are the uses of statistics in data
mining?
Statistics is used to
*to estimate the complexity of a data mining
problem;
*suggest which data mining techniques are
most likely to be successful; and
*identify data fields that contain the most
“surface information”.
22. What is the main goal of statistics?
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The basic goal of statistics is to extend
knowledge about a subset of a collection to
the entire
collection.
23. What are the factors to be considered
while selecting the sample in statistics?
The sample should be
*Large enough to be representative of the
population.
*small enough to be manageable.
*accessible to the sampler.
*free of bias.
24. Name some advanced database
systems.
Object-oriented databases,Object-relational
databases.
25. Name some specific application
oriented databases.
Spatial databases,
Time-series databases,
Text databases and multimedia databases.
26. Define Relational datbases.
A relational databases is a collection of
tables,each of which is assigned a unique
name.Each
table consists of a set of attributes(columns
or fields) and usually stores a large set of
tuples(records
or rows).Each tuple in a relational table
represents an object identified by a unique
key and described
by a set of attribute values.
27.Define Transactional Databases.
A transactional database consists of a file
where each record represents a transaction.A
transaction typically includes a unique
transaction identity number(trans_ID), and a
list of the items
making up the transaction.
28.Define Spatial Databases.

Spatial databases contain spatial-related
information.Such databases include
geographic(map)
databases,VLSI chip design databases, and
medical and satellite image
databases.Spatial data may be
represented in raster format, consisting of n-
dimensional bit maps or pixel maps.
29.What is Temporal Database?
Temporal database store time related data .It
usually stores relational data that include
time
related attributes.These attributes may
involve several time stamps,each having
different semantics.
30.What is Time-Series databases?
A Time-Series database stores sequences of
values that change with time,such as data
collected regarding the stock exchange.
31.What is Legacy database?
A Legacy database is a group of
heterogeneous databases that combines
different kinds of
data systems,such as relational or object-
oriented databases,hierarchical
databases,network
databases,spread sheets,multimedia
databases or file systems.
32. What are the steps in the data mining
process?
a. Data cleaning
b. Data integration
c. Data selection
d. Data transformation
e. Data mining
f. Pattern evaluation
g. Knowledge representation
33. Define data cleaning
Data cleaning means removing the
inconsistent data or noise and collecting
necessary information
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34. Define data mining
Data mining is a process of extracting or
mining knowledge from huge amount of
data.
35. Define pattern evaluation
Pattern evaluation is used to identify the
truly interesting patterns representing
knowledge based
on some interesting measures.
36. Define knowledge representation
Knowledge representation techniques are
used to present the mined knowledge to the
user.
37. What is Visualization?
Visualisation is for depiction of data and to
gain intuition about data being observed. It
assists the analysts in selecting display
formats, viewer perspectives and data
representation
schema
38. Name some conventional visualization
techniques
Histogram
Relationship tree
Bar charts
Pie charts
Tables etc.
39. Give the features included in modern
visualisation techniques
a. Morphing
b. Animation
c. Multiple simultaneous data views
d. Drill-Down
e. Hyperlinks to related data source
40. Define conventional visualisation
Conventional visualisation depicts
information about a population and not the
population data itself

41. Define Spatial Visualisation
Spatial visualisation depicts actual members
of the population in their feature space
42.What is Descripive and predictive data
mining?
Descriptive datamining describes the data
set in a concise and summarative manner
and
presents interesting general properties of the
data.
Predictive datamining analyzes the data in
order to construct one or set of models and
attempts to predict the behavior of new data
sets.
43.Merits of Data Warehouse.
*Ability to make effective decisions from
database
*Better analysis of data and decision support
*Discover trends and correlations that
benefits business
*Handle huge amount of data.
44.What are the characteristics of data
warehouse?
*Separate
*Available
*Integrated
*Subject Oriented
*Not Dynamic
*Consistency
*Iterative Development
*Aggregation Performance
45.List some of the DataWarehouse tools?
*OLAP(OnLine Analytic Processing)
*ROLAP(Relational OLAP)
*End User Data Access tool
*Ad Hoc Query tool
*Data Transformation services
*Replication
46.Explain OLAP?
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The general activity of querying and
presenting text and number data from
DataWarehouses, as well
as a specifically dimensional style of
querying and presenting that is exemplified
by a number of
“OLAP Vendours” .The OLAP vendours
technology is nonrelational and is almost
always biased on
an explicit multidimensional cube of
data.OLAP databases are also known as
multidimensional cube
of databases.
47.Explain ROLAP?
ROLAP is a set of user interfaces and
applications that give a relational database a
dimensional
flavour.ROLAP stands for Relational Online
Analytic Processing.
UNIT-II
1.Define data warehouse?
A data warehouse is a repository of multiple
heterogeneous data sources
organized under a unified schema at a single
site to facilitate management decision
making .
(or)
A data warehouse is a subject-oriented,
time-variant and nonvolatile
collection of data in support of
management’s decision-making process.
2.What are operational databases?
Organizations maintain large database that
are updated by daily transactions are
called operational databases.
3.Define OLTP?
If an on-line operational database systems is
used for efficient retrieval, efficient
storage and management of large amounts of
data, then the system is said to be on-line
transaction processing.

4.Define OLAP?
Data warehouse systems serves users (or)
knowledge workers in the role of data
analysis and decision-making. Such systems
can organize and present data in various
formats. These systems are known as on-line
analytical processing systems.
5.How a database design is represented in
OLTP systems?
Entity-relation model
6. How a database design is represented
in OLAP systems?
Star schema
Snowflake schema
Fact constellation schema
7.List out the steps of the data warehouse
design process?
_ Choose a business process to model.
_ Choose the grain of the business process
_ Choose the dimensions that will apply to
each fact table record.
_ Choose the measures that will populate
each fact table record.
8.What is enterprise warehouse?
An enterprise warehouse collects all the
information’s about subjects spanning the
entire organization. It provides corporate-
wide data integration, usually from one (or)
more operational systems (or) external
information providers. It contains detailed
data as
well as summarized data and can range in
size from a few giga bytes to hundreds of
giga
bytes, tera bytes (or) beyond. An enterprise
data warehouse may be implemented on
traditional mainframes, UNIX super servers
(or) parallel architecture platforms. It
requires business modeling and may take
years to design and build.
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9.What is data mart?
Data mart is a database that contains a
subset of data present in a data warehouse.
Data marts are created to structure the data
in a data warehouse according to issues such
as hardware platforms and access control
strategies. We can divide a data warehouse
into
data marts after the data warehouse has been
created. Data marts are usually implemented
on low-cost departmental servers that are
UNIX (or) windows/NT based. The
implementation cycle of the data mart is
likely to be measured in weeks rather than
months (or) years.
10.What are dependent and independent
data marts?
Dependent data marts are sourced directly
from enterprise data warehouses.
Independent data marts are data captured
from one (or) more operational systems (or)
external information providers (or) data
generated locally with in particular
department
(or) geographic area.
11.Define indexing?
Indexing is a technique, which is used for
efficient data retrieval (or) accessing
data in a faster manner. When a table grows
in volume, the indexes also increase in size
requiring more storage.
12.What are the types of indexing?
_ B-Tree indexing
_ Bit map indexing
_ Join indexing
13.Define metadata?
Metadata is used in data warehouse is used
for describing data about data.
(i.e.) meta data are the data that define
warehouse objects. Metadata are created for
the

data names and definitions of the given
warehouse.
14.Define VLDB?
Very Large Data Base. If a database whose
size is greater than 100GB, then
the database is said to be very large
database.
15.What is data cleaning?
Data cleaning routines remove
incomplete, noisy and inconsistent data by
• filling in missing values
• smoothing out noise
• identifying outliers and
• correcting inconsistencies in the data
16.Mention the categories of data that
may be encountered in mining.
The data used in the analysis by the
data mining techniques may fall under
the following categories
• Incomplete data – lacking
attribute value or certain
attributes of interest
• Noisy data – Data containing
errors or outlier values that
deviate from the expected. Noise
is defined as a random error or
variance in a measured variable
• Inconsistent data – There may
be inconsistencies in data
recorded in some transactions,
inconsistencies due to data
integration (where a given
attribute may have different
names in different database),
inconsistency due to data
redundancy
17.What are the various data smoothing
techniques to remove noise?
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The various data smoothing
techniques are
• Binning
• Clustering
• Combined computer and
human inspection
• Regression
18.What is Binning?
Binning is used to smooth data
values by consulting its neighborhood
values. The sorted values are distributed
into a number of “buckets” or “bins”.
The data are first sorted and then
partitioned into equidepth bins. There
are three types of binning
• Smoothing by bin means –
Each value is replaced by the
mean value of the bin
• Smoothing by bin median –
Each bin value is replaced by the
bin median
• Smoothing by boundaries –
The maximum and minimum
values in the bin are identified as
bin boundaries. Each value in the
bin is replaced by the closest
boundary value
19.What is data integration? What are
the issues to be considered while
integrating data?
Data integration combines data
from multiple sources into a coherent data
store. Issues to be considered are
a) Entity identification problem
b) Correlation analysis
c) Detection and resolution of
data value conflict
20.What is data transformation? What
are the various methods of transforming
data?
Data transformation
transforms and consolidates data

into forms appropriate for
mining. The following are
various methods of transforming
data
i. Smoothing
ii. Aggregation
iii. Generalization
iv. Normalization
v. Attribute construction
UNIT III
1. Define the concept of classification.
Two step process
A model is built describing a predefined
set of data classes or concepts.
The model is constructed by analyzing
database tuples described by
attributes.
The model is used for classification.
2. What is Decision tree?
A decision tree is a flow chart like tree
structures, where each internal
node denotes a test on an attribute, each
branch represents an outcome of the test,
and leaf nodes represent classes or class
distributions. The top most in a tree is the
root node.
3.What is tree pruning?
Tree pruning attempts to identify
and remove branches that reflect noise or
outliers in the training data with the goal
of improving classification accuracy on
unseen data.
4. What is Attribute Selection Measure?
The information Gain measure is used to
select the test attribute at each node
in the decision tree. Such a measure is
referred to as an attribute selection measure
or a measure of the goodness of split.
5. Describe Tree pruning methods.
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When a decision tree is built, many of the
branches will reflect anomalies in
the training data due to noise or outlier. Tree
pruning methods address this
problem of over fitting the data.
Approaches:
Pre pruning
Post pruning
6. Define Pre Pruning
A tree is pruned by halting its construction
early. Upon halting, the node
becomes a leaf. The leaf may hold the most
frequent class among the subset
samples.
7. Define Post Pruning.
Post pruning removes branches from a
“Fully grown” tree. A tree node is
pruned by removing its branches.
Eg: Cost Complexity Algorithm
8.Define information gain.
The information gain measure is
used to select the test attribute at each
node in the tree. Such a measure is
referred to as an attribute selection
measure or measure of goodness of
split. The attribute with the highest
information gain is chosen as the test
attribute for the current node.
9. How does tree pruning work?
There are two approaches to tree
pruning
a. In prepruning approach, a
tree is pruned by halting its
construction early. E.g. by
deciding not to further split
the training samples at a
given node. Upon halting, the
node becomes a leaf node.
b. In postpruning approach, all
branches from a fully-grown
tree are removed. The lowest
pruned node becomes a leaf

and is labeled by the most
frequent class.
10.How are classification rules extracted
from a decision tree?
The knowledge represented
in a decision tree can be
extracted and represented in the
form of classification IF-THEN
rules. One rule is created for each
path from the root to a leaf node.
E.g. IF age=”<=30” AND
student = “yes” THEN
buys_computer = “no”
IF age=”<=30” AND student
= “no” THEN buys_computer = “yes”
11. What are Bayesian classifiers?
Bayesian classifiers are
statistical classifiers. They can predict
class membership probabilities such as
the probability that a given sample
belongs to a particular class.
12 What is class conditional
independence?
Naïve Bayesian classifiers
assume that the effect of an attribute
value on a given class is independent of
the values of the other attributes. This
assumption is called class conditional
independence.
13. What are the two components of a
belief network?
The two components of a
belief network are
1) A directed acyclic graph, where each
node represents a random variable and
each arc represents a probabilistic
dependence
2) A conditional probability table
(CPT) for each variable
14. Explain ID3
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ID3 is algorithm used to build decision tree.
The following steps are followed to built a
decision tree.
a. Chooses splitting attribute with highest
information gain.
b. Split should reduce the amount of
information needed by large amount.
15. What is the difference between
“supervised” and unsupervised” learning
scheme.
In data mining during classification the class
label of each training sample is provided,
this
type of training is called supervised learning
(i.e) the learning of the model is supervised
in that it is
told to which class each training sample
belongs. Eg.:Classification
In unsupervised learning the class label of
each training sample is not known and the
member
or set of classes to be learned may not be
known in advance. Eg.:Clustering
UNIT IV
1. Define the concept of prediction.
Prediction can be viewed as the construction
and use of a model to assess the
class of an unlabeled sample or to assess the
value or value ranges of an attribute
that a given sample is likely to have.
2.Define Clustering?
Clustering is a process of grouping the
physical or conceptual data object into
clusters.
3. What do you mean by Cluster
Analysis?
A cluster analysis is the process of analyzing
the various clusters to organize the

different objects into meaningful and
descriptive objects.
4. What are the fields in which clustering
techniques are used?
Clustering is used in biology to develop
new plants and animal
taxonomies.
Clustering is used in business to enable
marketers to develop new
distinct groups of their customers and
characterize the customer group on basis
of purchasing.
Clustering is used in the identification of
groups of automobiles
Insurance policy customer.
Clustering is used in the identification of
groups of house in a city on
the basis of house type, their cost and
geographical location.
Clustering is used to classify the
document on the web for information
discovery.
5.What are the requirements of cluster
analysis?
The basic requirements of cluster analysis
are
Dealing with different types of attributes.
Dealing with noisy data.
Constraints on clustering.
Dealing with arbitrary shapes.
High dimensionality
Ordering of input data
Interpretability and usability
Determining input parameter and
Scalability
6.What are the different types of data
used for cluster analysis?
The different types of data used for cluster
analysis are interval scaled, binary,
nominal, ordinal and ratio scaled data.
7. What are interval scaled variables?
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Interval scaled variables are continuous
measurements of linear scale.
For example, height and weight, weather
temperature or coordinates for any cluster.
These measurements can be calculated using
Euclidean distance or Minkowski distance.
8. Define Binary variables? And what are
the two types of binary variables?
Binary variables are understood by two
states 0 and 1, when state is 0, variable is
absent and when state is 1, variable is
present. There are two types of binary
variables,
symmetric and asymmetric binary variables.
Symmetric variables are those variables that
have same state values and weights.
Asymmetric variables are those variables
that have
not same state values and weights.
9. Define nominal, ordinal and ratio
scaled variables?
A nominal variable is a generalization of the
binary variable. Nominal variable
has more than two states, For example, a
nominal variable, color consists of four
states,
red, green, yellow, or black. In Nominal
variables the total number of states is N and
it is
denoted by letters, symbols or integers.
An ordinal variable also has more than two
states but all these states are ordered
in a meaningful sequence.
A ratio scaled variable makes positive
measurements on a non-linear scale, such
as exponential scale, using the formula
AeBt or Ae-Bt
Where A and B are constants.
10. What do u mean by partitioning
method?
In partitioning method a partitioning
algorithm arranges all the objects into

various partitions, where the total number of
partitions is less than the total number of
objects. Here each partition represents a
cluster. The two types of partitioning
method are
k-means and k-medoids.
11. Define CLARA and CLARANS?
Clustering in LARge Applications is called
as CLARA. The efficiency of
CLARA depends upon the size of the
representative data set. CLARA does not
work
properly if any representative data set from
the selected representative data sets does not
find best k-medoids.
To recover this drawback a new algorithm,
Clustering Large Applications based
upon RANdomized search (CLARANS) is
introduced. The CLARANS works like
CLARA, the only difference between
CLARA and CLARANS is the clustering
process
that is done after selecting the representative
data sets.
12. What is Hierarchical method?
Hierarchical method groups all the objects
into a tree of clusters that are arranged
in a hierarchical order. This method works
on bottom-up or top-down approaches.
13. Differentiate Agglomerative and
Divisive Hierarchical Clustering?
Agglomerative Hierarchical clustering
method works on the bottom-up approach.
In Agglomerative hierarchical method, each
object creates its own clusters. The single
Clusters are merged to make larger clusters
and the process of merging continues until
all
the singular clusters are merged into one big
cluster that consists of all the objects.
Divisive Hierarchical clustering method
works on the top-down approach. In this
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method all the objects are arranged within a
big singular cluster and the large cluster is
continuously divided into smaller clusters
until each cluster has a single object.
14. What is CURE?
Clustering Using Representatives is called
as CURE. The clustering algorithms
generally work on spherical and similar size
clusters. CURE overcomes the problem of
spherical and similar size cluster and is more
robust with respect to outliers.
15. Define Chameleon method?
Chameleon is another hierarchical clustering
method that uses dynamic modeling.
Chameleon is introduced to recover the
drawbacks of CURE method. In this method
two
clusters are merged, if the interconnectivity
between two clusters is greater than the
interconnectivity between the objects within
a cluster.
16. Define Association rule mining.
Association rule mining
searches for interesting
relationships among items in a
given data set. Rule support and
confidence are the two measures
of rule interestingness.
17. What is occurrence frequency of an
itemset?
The occurrence frequency of an
itemset is the number of transactions that
contain the itemset. It is also known as
frequency, support count or count of the
itemset.
18.What are the two steps in mining
association rules?
Association rule mining is a
two step process
c. Find all frequent item sets

d. Generate strong association
rules from the frequent
itemsets
19.How are association rules classified?
Association rules are classified as
follows
• Based on the types of values
handled in the rule
• Based on the dimensions of
data involved in the rule
• Based on the levels of
abstraction involved in the
rule
• Based on the various
extensions to association
mining
20.What is a quantitative association
rule?
If a rule describes association
between quantitative items or
attributes, then it is a quantitative
association rule. In these rules, the
quantitative values for items or
attributes are partitioned into
intervals.
21.What is a Boolean association rule?
If a rule concerns the
association between the presence
or absence of an item, it is a
Boolean association rule.
22.What are single dimensional and multi
– dimensional association rules?
If the items or attributes in an
association rule reference only one
dimension of a data cube, it is called single
dimensional association rule.
If the items or attributes in an
association rule reference more than one
dimension of a data cube, it is called multi –
dimensional association rule.
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23.What is multilevel association rule?
If an association rule refers to a
dimension at multiple levels of
abstraction, it is called multilevel
association rule.
If an association rule does not
refer to a dimension at multiple levels of
abstraction, it is called single level
association rule.
24. Define Apriori algorithm?
Apriori is an influential
algorithm for mining frequent itemsets
for Boolean association rules. The
algorithm uses prior knowledge of
frequent itemset properties. Apriori
employs an iterative approach known as
level – wise search, where k – itemsets
are used to explore (k+1) – itemsets.
25. What is a cuboid?
Data cubes created for varying
levels of abstraction are referred to as
cuboids. A data cube consists of a lattice
of cuboids. Each higher level of
abstraction reduces the data size
26. When we can say the association rules
are interesting?
Association rules are considered interesting
if they satisfy both a minimum
support threshold and a minimum
confidence threshold. Users or domain
experts
can set such thresholds.
27. Explain Association rule in
mathematical notations.
Let I-{i1,i2,…..,im} be a set of items
Let D, the task relevant data be a set of
database transaction T is a set of
items
An association rule is an implication of the
form A=>B where A C I, B C I,

and An B= . The rule A=>B contains in
the transaction set D with support s,
where s is the percentage of transactions in
D that contain AUB. The Rule A=> B
has confidence c in the transaction set D if c
is the percentage of transactions in D
containing A that also contain B.
28. Define support and confidence in
Association rule mining.
Support S is the percentage of transactions
in D that contain AUB.
Confidence c is the percentage of
transactions in D containing A that also
contain
B.
Support ( A=>B)= P(AUB)
Confidence (A=>B)=P(B/A)
support.
Support is the ratio of the number of
transactions that include all items in the
antecedent and
consequent parts of the rule to the total
number of transactions. Support is an
association rule
interestingness measure.
Confidence.
Confidence is the ratio of the number of
transactions that include all items in the
consequent
as well as antecedent to the number of
transactions that include all items in
antecedent. Confidence is
an association rule interestingness measure.
29. How are association rules mined from
large databases?
I step: Find all frequent item sets:
II step: Generate strong association rules
from frequent item sets
30. Describe the different classifications of
Association rule mining.
 Based on types of values handled in the
Rule
13
i. Boolean association rule
ii. Quantitative association rule
 Based on the dimensions of data
involved
i. Single dimensional association rule
ii. Multidimensional association rule
 Based on the levels of abstraction
involved
i. Multilevel association rule
ii. Single level association rule
 Based on various extensions
i. Correlation analysis
ii. Mining max patterns
31. What are the two main steps in
Apriori algorithm?
1) The join step
2) The prune step
32. What is the purpose of Apriori
Algorithm?
Apriori algorithm is an influential algorithm
for mining frequent item sets for
Boolean association rules. The name of the
algorithm is based on the fact that the
algorithm uses prior knowledge of frequent
item set properties.
33. Define anti-monotone property.
If a set cannot pass a test, all of its supersets
will fail the same test as well.
34. How to generate association rules
from frequent item sets?
Association rules can be generated as
follows
For each frequent item set1, generate all non
empty subsets of 1.
For every non empty subsets s of 1, output
the rule “S=>(1-s)”if
Support count(1)
=min_conf,
Support_count(s)
Where min_conf is the minimum confidence
threshold.

35. Give few techniques to improve the
efficiency of Apriori algorithm.
Hash based technique
Transaction Reduction
Portioning
Sampling
Dynamic item counting
36. What are the things suffering the
performance of Apriori candidate
generation technique.
Need to generate a huge number of
candidate sets
Need to repeatedly scan the scan the
database and check a large set of
candidates by pattern matching
37. Describe the method of generating
frequent item sets without candidate
generation.
Frequent-pattern growth(or FP Growth)
adopts divide-and-conquer
strategy.
Steps:
->Compress the database representing
frequent items into a frequent pattern tree
or FP tree
->Divide the compressed database into a set
of conditional database
->Mine each conditional database separately
38. Define Iceberg query.
It computes an aggregate function over an
attribute or set of attributes in
order to find aggregate values above some
specified threshold.
Given relation R with attributes a1,a2,…..,an
and b, and an aggregate function,
agg_f, an iceberg query is the form
Select R.a1,R.a2,…..R.an,agg_f(R,b)
From relation R
Group by R.a1,R.a2,….,R.an
Having agg_f(R.b)>=threshold
14
39.What is hybrid – dimension
association rules?
Multidimensional association
rules with repeated predicates which
contain multiple occurrences of some
predicates are called hybrid –
dimension association rules
E.g. age (X, “20…29”) ∧buys (X,
“laptop”) ⇒ buys (X, “b/w printer”)
40. Mention few approaches to mining
Multilevel Association Rules
Uniform minimum support for all
levels(or uniform support)
Using reduced minimum support at lower
levels(or reduced support)
Level-by-level independent
Level-cross filtering by single item
Level-cross filtering by k-item set
41. What are multidimensional
association rules?
Association rules that involve two or more
dimensions or predicates
Interdimension association rule:
Multidimensional association rule with no
repeated predicate or dimension
Hybrid-dimension association rule:
Multidimensional association rule with
multiple occurrences of some predicates or
dimensions.
42. Define constraint-Based Association
Mining.
Mining is performed under the guidance of
various kinds of constraints
provided by the user.
The constraints include the following
Knowledge type constraints
Data constraints
Dimension/level constraints
Interestingness constraints
Rule constraints.
43.What is strong association rule?

Association rules that satisfy
both user – specified minimum
confidence threshold and user –
specified minimum support threshold are
referred to as strong association rules
44.What are the various factors used to
determine the interestingness measure?
1) Simplicity – the pattern
should be simple overall for human
comprehension
2) Certainty – this is the
validity or trustworthiness of the pattern
3) Utility – this is the potential
usefulness of the pattern
4) Novelty – novel patterns
provide new information or increase the
performance of the pattern
45. Explain the various OLAP operations.
a) Roll-up: The roll-up operation performs
aggregation on a data cube, either by
climbing up a concept hierarchy for a
dimension.
b) Drill-down: It is the reverse of roll-up. It
navigates from less detailed data to more
detailed data.
c) Slice: Performs a selection on one
dimension of the given cube, resulting in a
subcube.
46. Discuss the concepts of frequent
itemset, support & confidence.
A set of items is referred to as itemset. An
itemset that contains k items is called k-
itemset. An
itemset that satisfies minimum support is
referred to as frequent itemset.
Support is the ratio of the number of
transactions that include all items in the
antecedent and
consequent parts of the rule to the total
number of transactions.
Confidence is the ratio of the number of
transactions that include all items in the
consequent
15
as well as antecedent to the number of
transactions that include all items in
antecedent.
47. What is the use of Regression?
Regression can be used to solve the
classification problems but it can also be
used
for applications such as forecasting.
Regression can be performed using many
different
types of techniques; in actually regression
takes a set of data and fits the data to a
formula.
48. What are the reasons for not using the
linear regression model to estimate the
output data?
There are many reasons for that, One is that
the data do not fit a linear model, It is
possible however that the data generally do
actually represent a linear model, but the
linear model generated is poor because noise
or outliers exist in the data.
Noise is erroneous data and outliers are data
values that are exceptions to the usual and
expected data.
49. What are the two approaches used by
regression to perform classification?
Regression can be used to perform
classification using the following
approaches
1. Division: The data are divided into
regions based on class.
2. Prediction: Formulas are generated to
predict the output class value.
50.What is linear regression?
In linear regression data are modeled using a
straight line. Linear regression is the
simplest
form of regression. Bivariate linear
regression models a random variable Y
called response variable
 16

as a linear function of another random Training data are analyzed by a

variable X, called a predictor variable. classification algorithm
Y=a+bX Trainin
g Classifi
51. What is classification?
Name age income
data n algor
A bank loan officer wants to analyze
loan_decision
which loan applicants are “safe” and which
are
“risky” for the bank.
A marketing manager needs data analysis Sandy young low risky Classifica
to help guess whether a customer with a rules
given profile will buy a new computer. Jones If age = you
In the above examples, the data analysis
task is classification where a model or loan_decisio
classifier is constructed to predict
Caroline middle high safe if income=h
categorical labels such as “ safe” or “risky”
for aged loan_decisio
loan application data.
Susan senior high safe
52. What is prediction? Classification
Suppose the marketing manager would Lake
Test data are used to estimate the
like to predict how much a given customer
will
spend during a sale. The data analysis
Classification rules
task is an example of numeric prediction.
The
term prediction is used to refer to
numeric prediction.

53. How do classifications work?

Or John Henry
Explain the steps involved in data Middle Test data New data
classification? Aged,
Data classification is a two step process:
Step1: A classifier is built describing a low
predetermined set of data classes or loan_decision = risky
concepts.
This is the learning step(training phase), 54. What is supervised learning?
where a classification algorithm builds the The class label of each training tuple is
classifier by analyzing or “learning from” provided in supervised learning (i.e. the
a training set made up of database tuples learning of the classifier is “supervised”
and their associated class labels. in that it is told to which class each training
Step 2: The model is used for tuple belongs)
classification. A test set is used, made up of
tuples and their associated class labels. Eg Learning – Training data are analyzed
Learning by a classification algorithm.

Training data
Eg Name Age Income
loan_decision
Sandy Jones young
low risky
Caroline middle aged
high safe
Susan Lake senior
low safe
In the above table the class label attribute is
loan_decision and the learned model or
classification is representing the form of
classification rules.
Eg. If age =young THEN loan_decision =
risky
If income=high THEN
loan_decision=safe
If age=middle-aged and income=low
THEN loan_decision=risky
55. What is unsupervised learning?
In unsupervised learning (or
clustering),is which the class label or each
training
Tuple is not known, and the number or set
of classes to be learned may not be known in
advance.
For eg: if we did not have the loan_decision
data available for the training set we could
use clustering to try to determine “group of
like tuples”, which may correspond to risk
group within the loan application data.
56. What are preprocessing steps of
classification and prediction process?
The following preprocessing steps applied to
the data to help inform the
accuracy,efficieny and stability of the
classification or prediction process.
data cleaning-this refers to preprocessing of
data in order to remove or reduce noise (by
applying smoothing techniques )and the
treatment of missing values
Relevance analysis- many of the attributes in
the data may be redundant. A strong
17
correlation between attributes A1 and A2
would suggest that one of the two could be
removed from further analysis.
Attributes subset selection can be used to
find a reduced set of attributes.
Relevance analysis in the form of correlation
analysis and attribute subset selection can be
used to delete attributes that do not
contribute to the classification prediction
task.
Data transform and reduction-the data may
be transformed by normalization. Data can
also be transformed by generalizing it to
higher level concepts.
Eg: the attribute income can be generalized
to discriminate ranges such as low, medium
and high.
57. What are the criteria used in
comparing classification and prediction
methods?
Accuracy-the accuracy of the classification
refers to the ability of the classifier to
correctly predict the class label of new or
previously unseen data. (i.e. tuples within
class label information)
The accuracy of the prediction refers to how
well the given prediction can guess the value
of the predicted attributes for new or unseen
data.
Speed – this refers to the computational cost
involved in generating and using the given
classification or prediction.
Robustness – The ability to make correct
predications from the given noisy data or
data with missing values.
Scalability – Ability to construct the
classifier or predictor efficiency given large
amount data.
Interpretability – This refers to the level of
understanding and insight that is provided
by the classifier or predictor .
58. What are Bayesian classifiers?
Bayesian classifiers are statistical
classifiers. They can predict class
 18

membership probabilities, such as the performed. Bayesian belief networks can be

probability that a given tuple belongs to a used for classification.
particular class. A belief network is defined by two
Bayesian classification is based on Baye’s components - a directed acyclic graph
theorem. Bayesian classifiers have exhibited (DAG) and a set of conditional probability
a high accuracy and speed when applied to tables. The DAG represents a random
large data bases. variable. They may correspond to actual
attributes given in the data believed to form
59. Define Bayes’ theorem. a relationship (i.e. in the case of medical
Let X be a data tuple. In Bayesian terms, data a hidden variable may indicate a
X is considered “evidence”. Let H be some syndrome, representing a number of
hypothesis such as the data tuple X belongs symptoms that together characterizes a
to a specified class C. specific disease.
P(H|X) is the posterior probabilities of H Each represents a probabilistic dependence.
conditioned in H.
Suppose X is a 35 yr old customer with an y z
income of $40,000 and H is the hypothesis
that X will buy a computer given that we
know the customer’s age and income. In Y is the parent or immediate predecessor of
contrast. P(H) is prior probability of H. This Z, and Z is the descendent of Y.
is the probability that any given customer
will buy a computer, regardless of age,
income, or any other information. P(X|H) is
the posterior probability of X conditioned on
H. i.e. , it is the probability that a customer
X, is 35 yrs old and earns $40,000, given
that we know the customer will buy a
computer. P(X) is the prior probability of X. Family smoke
It is the probability that a person from our history r
set of customers is 35yrs old and earns
$40,000.
How are the probabilities estimated?
P(H), P(X|H), and P(X) may be estimated
from the given data. Bayes’ theorem is
useful in that it provides a way of emphyse
calculating the posterior probability P(H|X), Lung ma
from P(H) P(X|H), and P(X).
cancer
Bayes’ theorem is
P(H|X) = [ P(X|H) P(H)] / P(X)

60. What are Bayesian belief networks?

Give an example. Positive Dyspnea
Bayesian belief networks specify joint X-ray
conditional probability distribution. They
provide a graphical model of casual (a) A simple Bayesian belief network
relationships, on which learning can be

CPT
FH,S FH,~S ~FH,S ~FH,~S
LC 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.1
~LC 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.9
(b) The conditional probability table for
value of the variable Lung Cancer (LC)
showing each possible combination of the
value of its parents.
A belief network has one conditional
probability table (CPT) for each variable.
The CPT for a variable Y specifies the
conditional distribution P(Y | Parent(Y)),
where Parent(Y) are the parents of Y.
61. What is rule based classification?
Rules are good way of representing
information or bits of knowledge. A rule
based classification uses a set of IF-THEN
rules for classification. An IF-THEN rule is
an expression of the form
IF condition THEN conclusion
Eg:
R1: IF age = youth AND student = yes
THEN buys computer
Explanation: The “IF” part (or left hand
side) of a rule is known as antecedent or
precondition. The “THEN” part (or right
hand side) is the rule consequent.
The rule R1 also can be written as
R1: (age = youth) ∩ (student = yes) =>
(buys_computer = yes)
62. What is sequential covering
algorithm? How is it different from
decision tree induction?
IF-THEN rules can be extracted directly
from the training data (i.e. without having to
generate a decision tree first) using a
sequential covering algorithm. Sequential
covering algorithms are most widely used
approach to mining disjunctive sets of
classification rules. Popular sequential
19
covering algorithms are AQ, CN2, and the
most recent RIPPER. The general strategy is
as follows. Rules are learned one at a time.
Each time a rule is learned, the tuples
covered by the rule are removed, and the
process repeats on the remaining tuples. The
sequential learning of rules is in contrast to
decision tree induction. The path to each leaf
in a decision tree corresponds to a rule.
63. What is back propagation?
Back propagation is a neural network
learning algorithm. Neural network is a set
of connected input/output units in which
each connection has a weight associated
with it. During the learning phase, the
network learns by adjusting the weights so
as to be able to predict the correct label or
input tuples.
Back propagation learns by iteratively
processing a data set of training tuples
comparing the network’s prediction for each
tuple with the actual target value.
64. What is associative classification?
In associative classification, association
rules are generated and analyzed for use in
classification. The general idea is that we
can search for strong association between
frequent patterns (confirmation of attribute-
value pairs) and class labels. The decision
tree induction considers only one attribute at
a time where as association rules explore
highly confident associations among
multiples attributes.
Various associative classification methods
are -
CBA classification – based associative CBA
uses an iterative approach to frequent item
set mining.
CMAR (classification based on multiple
association rules) – it differs from CBA in
its strategy for a frequent item set mining
and its construction of the classifier.

65. What are k-Nearest Neighbour
classifier?
Nearest neighbour classifier are based on
learning by analogy, i.e. by comparing a
given tuple with training tuples that are
similar to it. The training tuples are
described by n attributes. Each tuple
represents a point in an n-dimensional space.
In this way, all of the training tuples are
stored in an n-dimensional pattern space.
When given an unknown tuple, k-nearest-
neighbour classifier searches the pattern
space for the k training tuples that are
closest to the unknown tuple.
66. What is regression analysis?
Regression analysis can be used to model
the relationship between one or more
independent or predictor variables and a
dependent or response variable (which is
continuous-valued). The predictor variables
are attributes of interest describing the tuple
(i.e. making up the attribute vector). In
general, the values of predictor variables are
known. The response variable is what we
want to predict. Given a tuple described by
predictor variables, we want to predict the
associated value of the response variable.
Many problems can be solved by linear
regression. Several packages exist to solve
regression problems. Examples include –
SAS, SPSS and S-Plus.
67.What is non-linear regression?
If a given response variable and prediction
variable have a relationship that may be
modeled by a polynomial function, it is
called non-linear regression or polynomial
regression. It can be modeled by adding
polynomial terms to the basis linear model.
68. Explain clustering by k-means
partitioning.
The k-means algorithm takes the
input parameter k , and partitions a set of n
20
objects into k clusters so that the resulting
intra cluster similarity is high but inter
cluster similarity is low. Cluster similarity is
measured in regard to the mean value of the
objects in a cluster (cluster centroid or
center of gravity).
How does k-means algorithm work?
The k-means algorithm proceeds as follows :
First it randomly selects k of the objects,
each of which initially represents a cluster
mean or center. For each of the remaining
objects, an object is assigned to the cluster
to which it is the most similar, based on the
distance between the objects and the cluster
mean. It then computes the new mean for
each cluster. This process iterates until the
exterior function converges. Typically, the
square – error criterion is used, defined as
E = ∑i=1i=k ∑ p є Ci | p-mi|2
Where E = sum of the square errors for all
objects in the data set
p = point in space representing the
given object
mi = mean of cluster mi
69. What is k – Medoids method?
The k – means algorithm is sensitive to
outliers because an object with an extremely
large value may substantially distort the
distribution of data.
Instead of taking the mean value of the
objects in a cluster as a reference point, we
can pick actual objects to represent the
clusters, using one representative objects per
cluster.
Each remaining object is clustered with the
representative object to which it is the most
similar. The partitioning method is then
performed based on the principle of
minimizing the sum of the dissimilarities
between each object and its corresponding
reference point. The absolute error criterion
is defined as
E = ∑ j=1j=k ∑ p є Cj | p-oj|

Where E = sum of the absolute errors for all
objects in the data set
p = point in space representing the
given object in cluster Cj
oj is the representative object of Cj
The algorithm iterates until eventually, each
representative object is actually medoid or
most centrally located object of its cluster.
This is the basis of the k – Medoids method
for grouping n objects into k clusters.
70. What is outlier detection and
analysis?
One person’s noise could be another
person’s signal. Outliers are data objects that
do not comply with the general behavior or
the model of the data. Outliers can be caused
by measurement or execution error. Many
data mining algorithms try to minimize the
inference of outliers or eliminate them all
together. However, outliers may be of
particular interest such as in the case of
fraud detection.
71. What is outlier mining?
Outlier detection and analysis is a interesting
data mining task refered to as outlier mining.
Outlier mining has wide applications. It can
be used in fraud detection (detecting unusual
usage of credit cards etc). outlier mining can
be described as follows :
Given a set of n data points or objects and k,
the expected number of outliers, find the top
key objects that are considered the
dissimilar, exceptional, or inconsistent with
respect to the remaining data.
72. Explain in brief different outlier
detection.
Computer based methods for outlier
detection :
There are four approaches :
21
Statistical approach.
The distance based approach.
The density based local outlier approach.
Deviation based approach.
UNIT – V
1. What are the areas in which data
warehouses are used in present and in
future?
The potential subject areas in which data
ware houses may be developed at
present and also in future are
(i).Census data:
The registrar general and census
commissioner of India decennially
compiles information of all individuals,
villages, population groups, etc. This
information
is wide ranging such as the individual slip.
A compilation of information of individual
households, of which a database of
5%sample is maintained for analysis. A data
warehouse can be built from this database
upon which OLAP techniques can be
applied,
Data mining also can be performed for
analysis and knowledge discovery
(ii).Prices of Essential Commodities
The ministry of food and civil supplies,
Government of India complies
daily data for about 300 observation centers
in the entire country on the prices of
essential commodities such as rice, edible
oil etc, A data warehouse can be built
for this data and OLAP techniques can be
applied for its analysis
2. What are the other areas for Data
warehousing and data mining?
Agriculture
Rural development
Health
Planning
Education

Commerce and Trade
3. Specify some of the sectors in which
data warehousing and data mining are
used?
Tourism
Program Implementation
Revenue
Economic Affairs
Audit and Accounts
4. Describe the use of DBMiner.
Used to perform data mining functions,
including characterization,
association, classification, prediction and
clustering.
5. Applications of DBMiner.
The DBMiner system can be used as a
general-purpose online analytical
mining system for both OLAP and data
mining in relational database and
datawarehouses.
Used in medium to large relational databases
with fast response time.
6. Give some data mining tools.
DBMiner
GeoMiner
Multimedia miner
WeblogMiner
7. Mention some of the application areas
of data mining
DNA analysis
Financial data analysis
Retail Industry
Telecommunication industry
Market analysis
Banking industry
Health care analysis.
8. Differentiate data query and
knowledge query
A data query finds concrete data stored in a
database and corresponds to a
22
basic retrieval statement in a database
system.
A knowledge query finds rules, patterns and
other kinds of knowledge in a
database and corresponds to querying
database knowledge including
deduction rules, integrity constraints,
generalized rules, frequent patterns and
other regularities.
9.Differentiate direct query answering
and intelligent query answering.
Direct query answering means that a query
answers by returning exactly what
is being asked.
Intelligent query answering consists of
analyzing the intent of query and
providing generalized, neighborhood, or
associated information relevant to the
query.
10. Define visual data mining
Discovers implicit and useful knowledge
from large data sets using data and/
or knowledge visualization techniques.
Integration of data visualization and data
mining.
11. What does audio data mining mean?
Uses audio signals to indicate patterns of
data or the features of data mining
results.
Patterns are transformed into sound and
music.
To identify interesting or unusual patterns
by listening pitches, rhythms, tune
and melody.
Steps involved in DNA analysis
Semantic integration of heterogeneous,
distributed genome databases
Similarity search and comparison among
DNA sequences
Association analysis: Identification of co-
occuring gene sequences
Path analysis: Linking genes to different
stages of disease development

Visualization tools and genetic data analysis
12.What are the factors involved while
choosing data mining system?
Data types
System issues
Data sources
Data Mining functions and methodologies
Coupling data mining with database and/or
data warehouse systems
Scalability
Visualization tools
Data mining query language and graphical
user interface.
13. Define DMQL
Data Mining Query Language
It specifies clauses and syntaxes for
performing different types of data mining
tasks for example data classification, data
clustering and mining association
rules. Also it uses SQl-like syntaxes to mine
databases.
14. Define text mining
Extraction of meaningful information from
large amounts free format textual
data.
Useful in Artificial intelligence and pattern
matching
Also known as text mining, knowledge
discovery from text, or content
analysis.
15. What does web mining mean
Technique to process information available
on web and search for useful data.
To discover web pages, text documents ,
multimedia files, images, and other
types of resources from web.
Used in several fields such as E-commerce,
information filtering, fraud
detection and education and research.
16.Define spatial data mining.
23
Extracting undiscovered and implied spatial
information.
Spatial data: Data that is associated with a
location
Used in several fields such as geography,
geology, medical imaging etc.
17. Explain multimedia data mining.
Mines large data bases.
Does not retrieve any specific information
from multimedia databases
Derive new relationships , trends, and
patterns from stored multimedia data
mining.
Used in medical diagnosis, stock markets
,Animation industry, Airline
industry, Traffic management systems,
Surveillance systems etc.
18. What is Time Series Analysis?
A time series is a set of attribute values over
a period of time. Time Series
Analysis may be viewed as finding patterns
in the data and predicting future values.
19. What are the various detected
patterns?
Detected patterns may include:
Trends
 : It may be viewed as systematic
non-repetitive changes to the values over
time.
Cycles
 : The observed behavior is cyclic.
Seasonal
 : The detected patterns may be
based on time of year or month or day.
Outliers
 : To assist in pattern detection ,
techniques may be needed to remove or
reduce the impact of outliers
20.What is a spatial database?
A spatial database stores large
amount of space – related data, such as
maps, preprocessed remote sensing or

medical imaging data, and VLSI chip
layout data.
21.Define spatial data mining?
Spatial data mining refers to the
extraction of knowledge, spatial
relationships, or other interesting
patterns not explicitly stored in the
spatial database. Such mining demands
an integration of data mining with spatial
databases.
22. What is spatial data warehouse?
A spatial data warehouse is a
subject – oriented, integrated, time –
variant, and nonvolatile collection both
spatial and nonspatial data in support of
spatial data mining and spatial – data –
related decision – making process.
23. What are the different dimensions in a
spatial data cube?
There are three dimensions in a
spatial data cube
e. Nonspatial dimension
f. Spatial – to – nonspatial
dimension
g. Spatial – to – spatial
dimension
24. What is progressive refinement?
Progressive refinement is an
optimization method for mining spatial
association rules from spatial database. This
method first mines large data sets roughly
using a fast algorithm and then improves the
quality of mining in a pruned data set using
a more expensive algorithm.
25. What is spatial classification?
Spatial classification analysis
spatial objects to derive classification
schemes in relevance to certain spatial
properties such as neighborhood of a
district, highway, river etc.
24
26. What are the two multimedia indexing
and retrieval systems?
The following are the problems in
using decision tree
1) Description – based retrieval
system – builds indices and perform
object retrieval based on image
descriptions such as keywords, time of
creation, size etc
2) Content – based retrieval
system – these systems support retrieval
based on the image content such as color
histogram, texture, shape etc
27. What are the retrieval methods (based
on signature) proposed for similarity –
based retrieval in image databases?
h. Color histogram – based
signature
i. Multimedia composed
signature
j. Wavelet – based signature
k. Wavelet – based with region
– based granularity
28. What is feature descriptor?
A feature descriptor is a set of
vectors for each visual characteristic.
The main vectors are the color vector, a
MFO (Most Frequent Orientation)
vector, and a MFC (Most Frequent
Color) vector.
29. What is a time – series database?
A time – series database consists
of a sequence of values or events that
change with time. It is a sequence
database in which the values are
measured at equal intervals.
30. What is a sequence database?
A sequence database contains
sequence of ordered events with or
without concrete notion of time.

31. What are the two popular data
independent transformations?
1) Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT)
2) Discrete Wavelet Transform
(DWT)
32. What are similarity searches that
handle gaps and differences in offsets and
amplitudes?
The searches that handle gaps
and amplitude are
• Atomic matching
• Window stitching
• Subsequence ordering+
33. What are the parameters that affect
the result of sequential pattern mining?
o Duration
o Event folding window
o Interval
34.What is a serial episode and a parallel
episode?
A serial episode is a set of
events that occurs in a total order,
whereas a parallel episode is a set of
events whose occurrence ordering is
trivial.
35. What is periodicity analysis? What
are the problems in periodic analysis?
Periodicity analysis is the mining
of periodic patterns, i.e. the search for
recurring patterns in a time – series
database. The following are the
problems in periodic analysis
l. Mining full periodic patterns
m. Mining partial periodic
patterns
n. Mining cyclic or periodic
association rules
36. What is text database?
A text database consists of large
collection of documents from various
25
sources such as news articles, research
papers, books, digital libraries, e – mail
messages, and web – pages. Data is
stored in semi-structured form.
37. What is Information retrieval (IR)?
Information Retrieval is
concerned with the organization and
retrieval of information from large
number of text based documents. A
typical information retrieval problem is
to locate relevant documents based on
user input, such as keywords or example
documents.
38.What are the basic measures for
accessing quality of text retrieval?
1) Precision – This is the
percentage of retrieved documents that
are in fact relevant to the query.
2) Recall – This is the percentage
of documents that are relevant to the
query and where, in fact, retrieved
39.Write short notes on multidimensional
data model?
Data warehouses and OLTP tools are based
on a multidimensional data model.
This model is used for the design of
corporate data warehouses and department
data
marts. This model contains a Star schema,
Snowflake schema and Fact constellation
schemas. The core of the multidimensional
model is the data cube.
40.Define data cube?
It consists of a large set of facts (or)
measures and a number of dimensions.
41.What are facts?
Facts are numerical measures. Facts can also
be considered as quantities by which
we can analyze the relationship between
dimensions.
42.What are dimensions?

Dimensions are the entities (or) perspectives
with respect to an organization for
keeping records and are hierarchical in
nature.
43.Define dimension table?
A dimension table is used for describing the
dimension.
(e.g.) A dimension table for item may
contain the attributes item_ name, brand and
type.
44.Define fact table?
Fact table contains the name of facts (or)
measures as well as keys to each of the
related dimensional tables.
45.What are lattice of cuboids?
In data warehousing research literature, a
cube can also be called as cuboids. For
different (or) set of dimensions, we can
construct a lattice of cuboids, each showing
the
data at different level. The lattice of cuboids
is also referred to as data cube.
46.What is apex cuboid?
The 0-D cuboid which holds the highest
level of summarization is called the apex
cuboid. The apex cuboid is typically denoted
by all.
47.List out the components of star
schema?
_ A large central table (fact table) containing
the bulk of data with no
redundancy.
_ A set of smaller attendant tables
(dimension tables), one for each
dimension.
Star schema.
Multidimensional data model
can exist in the form of star schema. It
consists of
26
a) A large central table (fact
table) containing data with
no redundancy
b) A set of smaller attendant
tables (dimension tables),
one for each dimension
48.What is snowflake schema?
The snowflake schema is a variant of the
star schema model, where some
dimension tables are normalized thereby
further splitting the tables in to additional
tables.
49.List out the components of fact
constellation schema?
This requires multiple fact tables to share
dimension tables. This kind of schema
can be viewed as a collection of stars and
hence it is known as galaxy schema (or) fact
constellation schema.
50.Point out the major difference between
the star schema and the snowflake
schema?
The dimension table of the snowflake
schema model may be kept in normalized
form to reduce redundancies. Such a table is
easy to maintain and saves storage space.
51.Which is popular in the data
warehouse design, star schema model (or)
snowflake schema model?
Star schema model, because the snowflake
structure can reduce the effectiveness
and more joins will be needed to execute a
query.
52.Define concept hierarchy?
A concept hierarchy defines a sequence of
mappings from a set of low-level
concepts to higher-level concepts.
53.Define total order?
If the attributes of a dimension which forms
a concept hierarchy such as

“street<city< province_or_state <country”,
then it is said to be total order.
Country
Province or state
City
Street
Fig: Partial order for location
54.Define partial order?
If the attributes of a dimension which forms
a lattice such as
“day<{month<quarter; week}<year, then it
is said to be partial order.
55.Define schema hierarchy?
A concept hierarchy that is a total (or)
partial order among attributes in a database
schema is called a schema hierarchy.
56.List out the OLAP operations in
multidimensional data model?
_ Roll-up
_ Drill-down
_ Slice and dice
_ Pivot (or) rotate
57.What is roll-up operation?
The roll-up operation is also called drill-up
operation which performs aggregation
on a data cube either by climbing up a
concept hierarchy for a dimension (or) by
dimension reduction.
58.What is drill-down operation?
Drill-down is the reverse of roll-up
operation. It navigates from less detailed
data
to more detailed data. Drill-down operation
can be taken place by stepping down a
concept hierarchy for a dimension.
59.What is slice operation?
The slice operation performs a selection on
one dimension of the cube resulting in
a sub cube.
27
60.What is dice operation?
The dice operation defines a sub cube by
performing a selection on two (or) more
dimensions.
61.What is pivot operation?
This is a visualization operation that rotates
the data axes in an alternative
presentation of the data.
62.List the applications data warehousing
* Decision support
* Trend analysis
* Financial forecasting
* Churn Prediction for Telecom subscribers,
Credit Card users etc.
* Insurance fraud analysis
* Call record analysis
* Logistics and Inventory management
* Agriculture
63.Name some of the data mining
applications?
Data mining for Biomedical and DNA
data analysis
Data mining for Financial data analysis
Data mining for the Retail industry
Data mining for the Telecommunication
industry
64.What are the contribution of data
mining to DNA analysis?
Semantic integration of
heterogeneous,distributed genome databases
Similarity search and comparison among
DNA sequences
Association analysis: identification of co-
occuring gene sequences
Path analysis: linking genes to different
stages of disease development
Visualization tools and genetic data
analysis
65.Name some examples of data mining in
retail industry?
 28

Design and construction of data a. class based generalization of complex

warehouses based on the benefits of data
mining
Multidimensional analysis of
sales,customers,products,time and region
Analysis of the effectiveness of sales
campaigns
Customer retention-analysis of customer
loyalty
Purchase recommendation and cross-
reference of item
66. Name some of the data mining
applications
Data mining for Biomedical and DNA
data analysis
Data mining for Financial data analysis
Data mining for the Retail industry
Data mining for the Telecommunication
industry
objects including set valued,list
valued,class-subclass hierarchies, and class
composition hierarchies
b. constructing object data cube
c. performing generalization -based mining.
69. Give an example of star -schema of
spatial data warehouse.
There are 3000 weather probes
distributed in British Clombia (BC),
Canada, each recording daily temperature
and precipitation for a designated small area
and transmitting signals to a provincial
weather station with a spatial data
warehouse that supports spatial OLAP, a
user can view weather patterns on a map by
mouth, by region,etc.

67. What are the features of object-

relational and object oriented data bases?

Both kinds of systems deal with the

efficient storage and access of vast amounts
of disk-based complex structured
objects.They organise a large set of data
objects into classes , which in turn organised
into class/sub class hierarchies.each object
in a class is associated with a. an object-
identifier,b. a set of attributes,c. a set of
70. How a spatial data warehouse is
methods that specify that computational
constructed?
routines or rulesassociated with each object
class.
As with relational data, we can integerate
spatial data to construct a data warehouse
68. How data mining is performed on
that facilitates spatial data mining.
complex data types?
A spatial data warehouse is a subject
oriented, integerated, time-variant and non
Vast amounts of data are stored in
volatile collection of both spatial and non
various complex forms.The complex data
spatial data.
type include objects,spatial data, multimedia
data, text data and web data.
71. What are spatial association rules?
Multidimensional analysis and data mining
can be performed by
Similar to mining of associations rules in
transaction and relational databases, spatial

association rules can be mined in spatial
databases. A spatial association rule is of the
form A=>B [s%,c%],where A and B are sets
od spatial or non spatial prediactes, s% is the
support of the rule, and c% is the
confidence of the rules.
Eg. : is_a(X,"school") ^
close_to(X,"spors_center") =>
close_to(X,"park") [0.5%,80%]
This rule states that 80% of schools are close
to the park and 0.5% of the data belongs to
such a case. Various kinds of spatial
predicates can constitute a spatial
association rule.
Eg. : a. Distance information(such as
close_to and far_away)
b. topological relations (like intercept,
overlap, and disjoint) and
c.spatial or (such as left_of and
right_of).
72. What are different categories of
mining associations in multimedia data?
Associations rules involving multimedia
objects can be mined in image and video
databases. the three categories in mining
associations are
a. Association betweem image content and
non image content features: A rule like " If
at least 50% of the upper part of the picture
is blue, then it is likely to represent "
Here the image content is limited to the
keyword "sky".
b. Association among image contents that
are not related to spatial relationships. Eg: If
a picture contains two blue squares , then it
is likely to contain one red circle as well.
c. Associations among image contents
related to spatial relationships. Eg: A rule
like" If a red triangle is in between two
yellow suares, then it is likely a big oval-
shaped object is underneath.
To mine association among multimedia
objects, we can treat each image as a
transaction and find frequently occuring
patterns among different images.
29
73. Explain Audio & Video Data mining.
There are great demands for effective
content-based retreival and data mining
methods for audio and video data.Examples
include:
Besides still images, an in commisionable
amount of audio visual informaionis in
digital archives , in the world wide web, in
broadcast data streams, and in personal and
professional datbases. Typical examples
include searching for and multimedia
editing of particular video clips in a TV
studio, detecting suspicious persons or
secures in surveilance videos.
To facilitate the recoeding , searchand
analysis of audio and video information
from multimedia data, the following
industry standards are available
a. MPEGV(Moving Picture Expert Group)
b. JPEG(Joint Photography Experts Group )
74. What are the different text retrieval
methods?
a. Document Selection methods- A query
specifies constraint function selecting
relevant documents.A typical method is the
Boolean retreival model in which the
document is represented by a set of
keywords and Boolean expressions.
Eg: "Database systems but not Oracle"
b. Document ranking methods - Used to
rank all documents in the order of
relavance.In these methods, we may match
the keywords in the query with those in the
documents and score each document based
on how well it matches the query. The goal
is to approximate the degree of relevance of
documents with a score computed based on
information such as the frequency of words
in the document and the whole collection.
75. How can automated document
classification be performed?

There are tremendous number of online
documents available. Automated document
classification is an important text mining
task as need exists to automatically prganize
documents into classes to facilitate
document retrrreival and subsequent
analysis.A general procedure for automated
document classification
First a set of pre classified document is
taken as a trainiing set. The training set is
thenanalyzed in order to derive a
classification scheme.Such a classification
scheme often needs to be refined with a
testing process. The so-derived classification
scheme can be used for classification of
other on-line documents.
A few typical classification methods used in
text classification are
a. Nearest-neighbour classification
b. Feature selection methods
c. Bayesian classification.
76. Explain breifly some data
classification methods.
a. Nearest-neighbor classification: Using
the k-nearest-neighbor classification which
is based on the intution that similar
documents are expected to be assigned the
same class label.
i)We can simply index the training
documents and associate each with a class
label.
ii)The class label of Text document can be
determined based on class label distribution
of k nearest neighbors.
By timing k and incorporationg refinements,
this kind of classification can acheive
accuracy of a best classification. statistically
uncorrelated with the class labels.
c. bayesian classification first trains the
model by calculating a generative document
distribution P(d/c) to each C of document d
and then tests which class is most likely to
generate the test document.
30
77. What are the different methods of
document clustering?
Document clustering is one of the most
crucial techniques for organizing documents
in an unsupervised manner ( class label not
unown earlier)
a. Spectral clustering method: first performs
spectral embedding (dimensionality
reduction) on the original data, and then
applies the traditional cluatering algorithm
(eg k-means) on the reduced document
space.
b. The mixture modal clustering method :
models the text datawith a mixture
model(invloving mutilnormal component
models)
Clustering involves two steps
(1). estimating the model parameters based
on the text data and any additional prior
knowledge and
(2) infering the clusters based on the
estimated model parameters.
c. The latent semantic indexing (LPI) :
These are linear dimensionality reduction
methods.We can acquire tranformation
vectors or embedding function through
which we use function and embed all of the
data to lower-dimensional space.
78. What is time series data base?
A time series database consists of
sequences of values or events obtained over
repeated measurements of time(hourly ,daily
, weekly) .TIme- series databases are
popular in many applications, such as stock
market analysis ,economic and sales
forecasting , budgetory analysis.workload
projections , process and quality control ,
natural phenomena (such as atmosphere)
temperature wind, earth quake), scientific
and engineering experiments and medical
treatments.
The amount of time-series data is increasing
rapidly (giga bytes/day) such as in stock
 31

trading or even per minute (such as NASA

space programs). Need exists to find
correlation relationships within time series
data as well as analysing huge numbers of
regular patterns, trends, bursts(such as
sudden sharp changes) and outline with fast
or even real-time response.

79. What is trend analysis?

A time series data involving a variable

Y, representing, say, the closing price of a
share in a stock market, can be viewed as a
function of time t, that is , Y = f(t). Such a
fig : TIme series data of stock price
function can be illustrated as a time -series
Dashed curve shows the trend
graph.
How can we study the time series data ?
80. What are the basic measures for text
There are two goals
retrieval?
(1)Modelling time series (to gain insight into
the mechanisms or underlying forces that
a.Precision - This is the percentage of
generate time series.
retreived documents that are relevant to the
(2)forecasting time series (to predict the
query ( ie correct response)
future values of the time series variables.
Trend analysis consists of following 4
precision = | { Relevant} n(intersection)
major components
{retreived} |
1)trend or long-term movements- displayed
| { Retreived} |
by a trend curve or a trend line.
2)Cyclic movements or cyclic variations -
b. Recall - This is the percentage of
refer to cycles - the long-term oscillations
documents that are relavant to the query and
about a trend line or curve.
retreived
3)Seasonal movement5s or variations -
These are systematic or claendar related.
recall = | {Relevant} n {retreived} |
Eg: Events that recur annually - sudden
| {Relevant} |
increase in sales of items before christmas.
The observed increase in water consumpton
during summer
b. A feature selection preocess can be used
to remove terms in the training documents
that are
4)irregular or random movements
Eg:floods, personal changes within
companies.

. 81. What is an object cube?


In an object database, data generalization
and multidimensional analysis are not
applied to induvidual objects but to classes
of objects. The attribute oriented induction
method developed for mining characteristics
of relational databases can be extended to
mine data characteristics in object
databases.The generalization of
multidimensional attributes of a complex
object class can be performed by a complex
object class can be performed by examining
each attribute (or dimension ) generalizing
each attribute to simple - valued data, and
constructing a multidimensional data
cube,called an object cube.once an object is
constructed , multidimensional analysis and
data mining can be performed on it in a
manner similar to that for relational data
cubes.
82. What are the challanges faced in web
data mining ?
1) The web seems to be too large for
effective datawarehousing and data mining.
2) the complexity of web is far greater than
that of any text document collection. Web
pages lack a unifying structure.They contain
far more authorityu style and content
variations.
3) The web is highly dynamic information
source. news, stock market , weather etc are
updated regularly on the web.
4) The web serves a broad diversity of user
communities. The internet currently
connects more than 100 million work
stations. users can easily get lost by
grouping in the " darkness" of the network.
5) Only small portion of the information on
the web is truely relevant or useful.
83. Whatr are the data mining
applications?
1) Intrusion detection
2) Association & correlation analysis.
32
3) Analysis of stream data.
4) Distributed data mining.
5) Visualizing & querying tools.
84. What are the recent trends in data
mining ?
1)Applications exploration - in financial
analysis,telecommunications,biomedicine,
countering terrorism etc.
2)Scalable and interactive data mining
methods - constraint based mining
3) integeration of DM systems with db,dw,
and web dB systems.
4) Standardiztion of data mining language.
5) Visual data mining.
6) New methods for mining complex types
of data.
7) Bilogical data mining - mining DNA and
prtein sequences etc.
8) Dm applications in software engineering
9) Web mining
10) Distributed data mining
11) Real-time or time critical DM
12) graph mining
13) Privacy protection and information
security in DM
14) Multi relational & multi database DM
85. What is web usage mining?
Besides mining web contents and web
structures , another important task for web
mining is web usage mining which mines
weblog records to discover user access
patterns of web pages. This helps to identify
high potential custimers for electronic
commerce , improve web server
performance etc. A web sewrver usually
registers a weblog entry , for every access
of web page. It includes URL requestes , IP
address from which the request originated
and a time stamp.
86. What are similarity based retreival in
image data bases?
 33

a. Description based retreival systems -

which bulids indices and perform object
retreival based on image description such as
keywords , captions, size and time of
evaluation.
b. Content based retreival systems - which
supports retreival based on the image
content , such as color histogram , texture ,
pattern , image topology , and the shape of
the objects and their in the image.

87. What are the approaches used for

similarity based retreival in image data
bases?

1) Colo-histogram based signature : It is

based on the color composition of tha image,
It does not contain aany information about
shape,image topology or texture.
2) Multifeature composed signature : The
signature of the image includes multiple
features - color histogram,shape,image
topology and texture. The extracted features
are stored as meta data and images are
indexed based on meta data.
3) Wavelet based signature : This approach
uses the dominant wavelet coeffiecients of
an image as signature.Wavelets capture
shape,texture, and image topology
information in a single unified frame work.
4) Wavelet-based signature with region-
based granularity : The computation and
comparison of signatures are at the
granularity of regions.