A programme of research in POwder Science and TEChnology

Novem b er 2001
No. 20

Powder Technology
Contributing to a Greener Environment

Tel-Tek, dept. POSTEC / Telemark University College

Kjoelnes ring, 3918 Porsgrunn, Norway.
Tlf: 35 57 40 00 Fax: 35 57 40 10
www.tel-tek.no - kontakt@hit.no
 What is Tel-Tek?
he Telemark Technological Research and Development Centre
was founded in 1986 by Telemark County and local business
This POSTEC Newsletter -
- is a report on the research activities
interests to promote the transfer of competence, technology and
in Powder Technology carried out at research results from the then Telemark Institute of Technology to local
the Telemark Technological Research
and Development Centre and
industries, as well as to promote the formation of new enterprises. Its
Telemark University College. various departments are headed by professors at what is now the Faculty of
POSTEC Newsletters are published
Technology of Telemark University College, and its personnel are allowed
annually and distributed free of charge full access to the Faculty’s facilities. In addition to Powder Technology,
to anyone who indicates an interest in
receiving them. Please fill in the appro-
groups have been established in Simulation of Industrial Flow Processes,
priate form on the last page of this Chemometrics, Polymeric Membranes, Process Equipment, Combustion
issue if you want your own copy.
and Environment and Water and Waste Water Treatment.
We will publish articles from our part-
ners and friends from other parts of

...and POSTEC?
the world, if we consider such articles
to be topical and of interest to our
readers. Such articles are to be sub-
mitted to the editor by June. The editor,
however, neither guarantees publica-
tion nor the return of any material so
sent. OSTEC is the Department of Powder Science and Technology at
In order to support the costs of pub- Tel-Tek. The name originates from the time that a multi-client
lication and distribution, we welcome programme was set up to support the research activities in Powder
advertising. 3000 copies of the News-
letter are distributed around the world. Technology at Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, in 1983. The programme
Advertising copy must also be sent to continues to this day, and members receive concessional hourly rates,
the editor by June.
discounts on services, and access to the results of all general research
Publisher projects. It is one of the longest surviving multi-client programmes of
its kind in the world.
Tel-Tek
Telemark Technological Research and

Contact Persons
Development Centre
Department of POwder Science and
TEChnology (POSTEC)
Teknologisentret,Kjoelnes Ring
3918 Porsgrunn,Norway
Telephone:
Silo Design Gisle Enstad Gisle.Enstad@hit.no
+47 35 57 40 00 Silo Flow & Pressures Mladen Jecmenica Mladen.Jecmenica@hit.no
Fax: Segregation Are Dyrøy Are.Dyroy@hit.no
+47 35 57 40 10 Bulk Powder Properties Sivert Ose Sivert.Ose@hit.no
Editors Homogenisation & Mixing Ali Ghaderi Ali.Ghaderi@hit.no
Pneumatic Conveying Biplab Datta Biplab.K.Datta@hit.no
Prof. Sunil R. de Silva
Eksath R. de Silva Air Classification Franz O. von Hafenbrädl Franz.O.vonHafenbradl@hit.no
Air Slides Thoralf Sannes Thoralf.Sannes@hit.no
Design and Lay-out Electrostatics Sivert Ose Sivert.Ose@hit.no
Simulation of Flow Proc. Vidar Mathiesen Vidar.Mathiesen@hit.no
Eksath R. de Silva Process Equipment Morten Melaaen Morten.C.Melaaen@hit.no
Combustion&Environment Dag Bjerketvedt Dag.Bjerketvedt@hit.no
Administration Membrane Separation Magnar Ottøy Magnar.Ottoy@hit.no@hit.no
Water & Waste Water Treatm. Rune Bakke Rune.Bakke@hit.no
Managing Director:
Yngve Stentun

Dept. Manager (POSTEC): Cover Picture

Gisle G. Enstad Particulate emissions to the atmosphere are every bit as undesirable as gaseous emissions.
Advertisements:
As the article on page 12 demonstrates, Powder Technology can make a significant
Eksath R. de Silva
contribution to keeping these under control.
Printed by:
Wergeland Grafisk

Ønsker du å være
Høgskole- eller Sivilingeniør
uten å si opp din stilling?
Vi kan tilrettelegge et
deltidstudium
i samarbeid med deg
og din arbeidsgiver!
Ta kontakt med:
Ragnar Moland
Tel: 3557 5106 Fax: 3557 7547
E-post: Ragnar.Moland@hit.no
Avdeling for teknologiske fag
Kjølnes Ring 56, 3918 Porsgrunn
www.hit.no
Marie Curie Fellowships
Tel-Tek is a foundation which carries
out industrially oriented R&D in coopera-
tion with Telemark University College. Its
Department for Powder Science and Tech-
nology is one of the leading groups in this
field in the Nordic countries.
We invite applications for
• 1 post-doc position (1 year)
• 3 post-graduate positions (1-2 years)
from those with prior experience of the
behaviour of particulate materials (pow-
ders). The post-graduates must be regis-
tered for doctorates at their home univer-
sities and be citizens of an EU country.
The Fellowships will be awarded under the
EU Marie Curie programme, at the follow-
ing rates (less Norwegian taxes)
• Post-doc Euro 4.702 / month
• Post-graduate Euro 3.411 / month
Contact:
Sunil de Silva at
Sunil.deSilva@hit.no
Tel.: +47 3557 5120
C
O
N
In This Issue
T
E
N
T
S
Editorial
POSTEC Fighting for a Greener Environment in a
Global World .............................................................. 4
More Changes in Norwegian Education and
Research - New Challenges for the State Colleges.... 5
News Items ................................................................. 6
Upcoming Events ....................................................... 7
One Summer in Norway............................................ 8
From Poland to Norway ............................................ 8
Mythical Place Called Powder Hall........................... 9
Current Activities
A Study of Pressure Gradients in Vertical and
Horizontal Pneumatic Transport Lines ................. 10
Effects of Segregation on the Environment and
Yield in Aluminium Production ........................... 12
Using Noise to Predict Particle Size and
Segregation Online .................................................. 16
Uniaxial Tester as a Tool for Predicting Tabletting
Performance of Powder Mixtures........................... 17
Predictions of Loads on Walls and Insert in a
Gravity Flow Silo using ABAQUS™........................ 18
Use of an FE-Method for Calculating Stresses in
Silo Structures.......................................................... 21
Other Activities
CFD Modelling of a Lab-Scale Fluidised Bed ........ 23
Computational & Experimental Studies of a Vane
Separator .................................................................. 24
Comminution and Air Classification ..................... 28
Services
Publications and Reports ........................................ 30
Standard Services at Affordable Prices! ................. 32
Enquiry Form........................................................... 33
POSTEC-members List ........................................... 35
POSTEC-programme benefits ................................ 36
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 3
POSTEC Fighting for a Greener
Environment in a
Gisle G. Enstad
I
t is now more than one year since Sunil
de Silva handed over the leadership
of POSTEC to the new leader group,
which also included him. Recently he has
seldom come to the meetings of the leader
group, claiming he has not got time. He
is getting more and more involved in the
affairs of the Telemark University College,
and only now and then gives us some strong
advice on what to do. We are, however,
grateful that he still is handling most of
the applications for public funds, which
still makes him a key person of the leader
group.
This type of leadership may seem an
experiment in itself, so now we are doing
research not only on Powder Technology,
but also on research management. There
have been some hints that the leadership is
a bit too soft, not giving clear signals about
what should be done and what should
not be done, and when people should be
allowed to relax. On the other hand it
seems that what has to be done, is being
done. We are in fact better off than we were
one year ago. The members of the leader
group are still good friends, we are getting
new projects, and we are able to carry out
most of the work on time. Since we do
not have Sunil to take the responsibility
for us anymore, we have to share it, and
take more personal responsibility, at the
same time as this also gives a feeling of
more freedom. Maybe this also improves
our creativity?
The work that Are Dyrøy currently is
heading from our side, together with
Morten Karlsen from Hydro Aluminium,
is now paying off. The anti segregation
system that has been described before, as
well as other innovations, have resulted in
better environment, both internally and
externally at the aluminium plants, at the
same time as the stability of the production
has been considerably improved, which
leads to higher yields as well. This is the
result of a long-term co-operation (started
in 1985!) between POSTEC and Hydro
Aluminium, which has led to increased
competence of the employees of Hydro
Aluminium, who also have made their own
inventions, sometimes in co-operation with
us, but also sometimes independently of us.
4 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
Thanks to the long-term co-operation, and
to the enthusiastic people who have been
involved, where Are Dyrøy and Morten
Karlsen are the key persons, we now see
results that are very pleasing both for
Hydro Aluminium and POSTEC.
Unfortunately we have never had any
similar long-term co-operation with any
other branches of Norsk Hydro, or any
other companies, since we have never
had any other client as visionary and stub-
born as Morten Kalrsen, and we therefore
have not been able to achieve similar
improvements with other partners. One sad
example is Hydro Magnesium Porsgrunn,
right on our doorstep. Over the years we
have been called in to solve some small
problems, but we have never been able to
get into a long-term co-operation, which
could bring any significant breaks-through
like the ones we have had with Hydro
Aluminium, although we could see there
was a lot we could have done. Now it is
too late. Although Hydro Magnesium in
Porsgrunn is one of the cleanest and most
efficient magnesium producers in the
world, it has been decided that it is going
to be closed down in the spring of the
year 2002. Some wise, but shortsighted,
economists have decided it is not possible to
compete with the cheap magnesium pro-
duced in China, where there is cheap labour
and much less environmental restrictions.
This is a result of the free market forces,
and the globalisation that is going on. It is
a tragedy for those who have lost their jobs
in Porsgrunn. Maybe it feels like a victory
for the Chinese, who now can take over a
bigger share of the world market, but if it is
at the expense of the environment, it may
be only a short term victory. In the long
run the environment is more important
than any market shares, and it has to be
taken seriously on a global basis, not only
in our part of the world. China will have
to implement the same environmental
restrictions as we have, if they are entering
into the industrial era. Hopefully their
wages will gradually increase, and China
will start to use magnesium, perhaps at
a higher rate than it can produce. Then
China will become a growing market for
magnesium, and it will be a pity that Norsk
Hydro closed down its magnesium plant
early in 2002.
A more long-term approach would have
been to improve the efficiency sufficiently
to make the production of magnesium in
Norway able to compete with the produc-
tion in China. Especially in those parts of
the world that are so densely populated,
protection of the environment is of vital
importance, and has to be implemented. It
is also seen over and over again that proper
protection of the environment makes
production more profitable. Pollution is
nearly always raw materials in the wrong
place, and it will pay off to collect these
raw materials instead of just letting them
disappear into the air, or into the water.
After the cold war ended, the free market
forces really have come into play, and we
must be careful and watch in what direction
they are taking us. We see the multinational
concerns are moving production from the
industrialised countries in the West to
developing countries in the East, where
there is cheap labour, and where there
are less environmental restrictions. One
positive effect of this is that industry and
development is being brought to new parts
of the world, but other effects are that
industry becomes less environmentally
friendly, and that people in the industrial-
ised world are losing jobs, often replaced by
people in the East, who are being exploited
nearly as slaves by the multinational con-
cerns, perhaps indirectly via local compa-
nies. Leaving everything to the free market
forces, we will end up with unemployment
and decreasing wages in the West, as people
will have to compete for jobs, and damaged
environment in addition to continued low
wages in the East, where dictatorship and
oppression prevent people from demand-
ing their human rights. We may end up
with a few extremely rich people, and the
rest of us extremely poor. Somehow the
market forces have to be controlled to
avoid such a development.
In the global world where we are living
now, the big gap between rich and poor has
to be reduced to avoid a growing conflict,
with oppression and violence. Recently
the development has been in the other
direction. We can see a growing pressure
where people from the poor countries or
oppressive regimes are trying to escape to
the rich countries, who are closing their
borders, using warships to enforce the
departure of the ones who did not drown
on their way in their miserable vessels.
Should not free and borderless markets
also apply to people?
Perhaps the terrible act of terror on the
World Trade Center on September 11 this
year was also part of this growing global
conflict between rich and poor? Osama
bin Laden, who has been pointed out to
be mainly responsible for this terror, is
hardly fighting for the rights of the poor.
He seems to be closely connected to the
Taliban regime, a regime known for its
oppression of women and people opposing
them, with little concern for the poverty of
More Changes in Norwegian
Education and Research
- New Challenges for the State Colleges
Sunil R. de Silva
A
fter the revolutionary document
“Research at a Paradigm Shift” (see
Newsletter No. 18) the outgoing
Norwegian Government has come up with
another revolutionary White Paper - this
time entitled “Do Your Duty, Demand
Your Rights” (Gjør din plikt - Krev din
rett). The White Paper was approved by
the Norwegian Parliament and is currently
being transformed into law. I have previ-
ously complained about the tendency of
Norwegian authorities to ostensibly give
autonomy while retaining the right to
overrule or change decisions made by the
supposedly autonomous institutions (see
Newsletter No. 16). The new law which is
being proposed will change this situation
significantly. Financing of education and
research at universities and the state col-
leges will no longer be based on a decision
by the Ministry of Education and Research
on how many students a university or
college is supposed to have, but more and
more on what they actually produce - both
in terms of credits and in terms of research.
There will still be a basic grant, based on
historical data, but this will only be 50-70%
of the total. As far as Telemark University
College is concerned, the basic grant will
be 60.4%. The remaining 40% will be
based on the production of credits (25%)
and research activity (15%). This creates
Telemark University College: www.hit.no
its people. He is probably seeking power by
using terror. What is his goal is hard for us
to understand, but somehow it probably
has something to do with the gap between
rich and poor, and if we want to avoid
such atrocities in the future, we have to do
something to reduce this gap.
At POSTEC we are grateful we are not
responsible for solving the tremendous
problems our politicians have to face as
a result of the globalisation of the world.
Our job is to help industry in the Nordic
countries to develop in such a way that
they can compete on a global market, at
the same time as all the environmental
major challenges since the Government
simultaneously wishes to open the doors
to higher education to all and sundry, a
considerable portion of whom will not
have the necessary competence to complete
a higher degree. Nor does it appear to have
considered the high risk of institutions
lowering their standards to achieve a higher
pass rate! To try to counter this risk, it is
creating a body for accreditation, with the
power to examine the quality of education
provided, and a right to cancel previous
accreditations given to courses considered
not to be upto standard. With 26 state
colleges, 4 wide-rangeing and 6 specialist
universities in Norway, which together
have something like 150,000 students, this
is going to be no easy task!
The Ministry of Education’s suggestion
as to how the 15% for research is to be
allocated is even more surprising. Both
the universities and state colleges will
receive 40% of this 15% based on senior
positions (assistant-, associate- and full
professors) and not on publications by the
institutions concerned. This at a time when
the Ministry insists on better reporting of
publications. Then comes the difference.
Universities will receive 30% of the 15%
for doctorates produced, 10% for Masters
degrees and 20% for funds obtained from
the EU and the Research Council (no
mention of other income sources, i.e. the
industrial relevance of their research is not
requirements are met. Very often Powder
Technology is an important component
of this work, and we are here to help. If
you are willing to invest in a long-term co-
operation, we may end up with successes
like we have had with Hydro Aluminium. In
any case we can help making sure industry
in our part of the world can compete,
without being harmful to the environ-
ment. In that way we will help a develop-
ment towards a greener, more just, global
world.
Remember, what the future is going to
be, is a result of the combined efforts of
all of us.
important). The state colleges will have to
rely on credits produced for 40% of the
15% and must in fact count all external
income for the remaining 20%. It is not
easy to understand why there is such a dif-
ference at the same time as instructions are
given to state colleges to increase ‘depth’ at
the cost of ‘breadth’. Such a large emphasis
on credits produced will lead to exactly
the opposite result! Nor is the proposed
basis of allocations consistent with the
main objective of the reform - the develop-
ment of knowledge of high quality and
relevance! The number of senior positions
doesn’t necessarily reflect high quality.
It is what they produce that does. Thus
publications, doctorates and master degrees
ought to receive a much greater weighting
than that proposed. Relevance must be
judged by a) student numbers - one part
of our market and b) external income -
the other part of the market. Both types of
institutions should have the same criteria
- total external income.
There is, however, a bright spot for the
state colleges. This is the allocation of 15
MNOK for strategic programmes. Previ-
ously state colleges were denied the right to
apply for strategic university programmes
- much to their frustration! This is a step
in the right direction, and one hopes that
in a few years time the amounts available
for strategic research at both types of
institutions will be identical.
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 5

Thoralf becomes a Father
Thoralf Sannes (or Speedy as he is affec-
tionately known) got married last year and
hasn’t wasted much time in ensuring a line
of succession! His wife Mette gave birth
to a daughter, Mia, on June 19th. With the
added responsibility Thoralf will find it
necessary to be a little slower in his more
adventurous endeavours!
Roger gets his Craftsmans
Certificate
Roger Lid, who has spent his last two
years as an apprentice automatician at
Telemark University College and POSTEC,
was awarded his craftsmans certificate at
the end of his training period at the end
of March.
He has been supervised and trained by
personnel from both Telemark University
College (Morten Pedersen) and POSTEC
personnel (Svein Thorstensen and Jens Atle
Møller Johansen), who all had a share in
looking after him and guiding him on his
way towards getting his certificate.The final
examination was at the end of March, and
Roger passed well with good results.
After he had finished his exam, we
applied for funds to have him with us
for a period of 2-3 months to help us in
completing the wiring of the large silo
battery, on which he did an excellent job.
The funds were made available by Leif Åge
Eilertsen, who is responsible for promoting
cooperations between Telemark University
College and SME’s (small to medium
sized enterprises), to whom we extend our
thanks. Roger’s work has already permitted
us to accept an external contract, which
we otherwise would have been unable to
commence on time.
Roger is now doing his military service,
and will - hopefully - decide to carry on
with his education at Telemark University
College! We wish him all the best for the
future.
Sivert is Awarded a Ph.D.
After nine years of hard work possibly
trying to explain the inexplicable (bipolar
electrostatic charging of powders), Sivert
Ose was awarded a Ph.D. by the Univer-
6 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
News Items
sity of Southampton in May
based on a thesis with the
title “Characterisation of the
Bipolar Electrostatic Charg-
ing of Powders”. In his thesis,
he shows that physical prop-
erties of the particles (particle size etc.) do
not influence the polarity of the electro-
static charge. The charge is mainly a func-
tion of the process in which the powder
is charged. The distribution of charges
is very similar between various powders
that are bipolarly charged, evn though
the magnitude varies so that electrically
insulating materials have a higher charge.
The external examiner was Brian Makin
from the University of Dundee and the
internal examiner from the University
of Southampton Alun Vaughan. He was
supervised at Southampton by Prof. Adrian
Bailey and in Norway by Sunil de Silva.
Franz gets Married
Franz Otto von Haf-
enbrädl (who by the
way doesn’t speak
any German in spite
of his very German
name) got married
to his Heidi in Sep-
tember. He has been
even quicker than
Thoralf in ensuring
his line of succes-
sion.
A Dr.Ing degree for
Qianpu Wang…
Qianpu Wang, who has con-
tributed articles to previous
versions of this Newsletter,
defended his Dr.Ing. thesis entitled “An
Experimental and Computational Study
of Gas/Particle Multiphase Flow in Process
Equipment” in August. Qianpu (or Sham-
poo as he was inevitably called), simulated
three pieces of process equipment ( a cross
flow air classifier, the acceleration tube in
an erosion tester and a de-duster) using the
CFD code FLUENT™ and then compared
his results with measurements carried out
using LDA. His work revealed both the
potential and weaknesses of CFD simula-
tions and will provide a useful platform
for further work in modelling process
equipment.
The examination committee consisted
of Dr. Michael Bradley of the University of
Greenwich, Prof II Stein Tore Johansen of
SINTEF/NUST and Prof II Gisle Enstad.
Qianpu was supervised by Prof. Morten
Melaaen, with Sunil de Silva as co-super-
visor. Qianpu has been awarded a post-doc
fellowship at NUST (Norwegian University
of Science and Technology) and intends to
stay in Norway for a while before returning
to China.
…and for Jun Huang
Jun Huang, who came to us at the same
time as Qianpu in 1997 from Zejian Uni-
versity of China, also defended his Dr.Ing.
thesis entitled “Developments in Applied
Chemometrics: AMT, Acoustic Chemo-
metrics and N-way Image Analysis” in
May.
Jun’s thesis contained a new unified
Angle Measure Technique (AMT) for
characterizing and discriminating between
components of images based on multivari-
ate data modelling, which will be marketed
by a leading software company, and a
contribution to acoustic chemometrics
which involved acoustic monitoring of
particle attrition in pneumatic conveying
(see article on page 16).
The examination committee consisted
of Prof. Paul Gelardi of the University
of Umeå, Prof II Harald Martens of the
Norwegian University of Science and
Technology and Dr. Kristian Helland of
Borealis AS. Jun was supervised by Prof.
Kim Esbensen.
Heading for New Pastures
Kim Esbensen, who was our professor of
Kimometrics (Chemometrics), decided to
return to his homeland, Denmark, in July
and has been appointed Research Profes-
sor in Chemometrics at the University of
Aalborg at Esbjerg, where he joins our
former colleague Bjørn Hjertager. Logically
enough, his partner May-Britt Hägg, who
was one of the pillars of the faculty of
Technology, decided to head in the other
direction, and has accepted a position
as Professor of Separation Processes at
the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology in Trondheim! When free, they
will rendezvous on the island Løvøya - a
few kilometres from Porsgrunn, so we still
expect to see them quite often.
Cooperations with both are expected
to continue via participation in joint
research programmes, but we will miss
their enthusiasm and engagement. We
wish them the best of luck in their new
habitats!
Upcoming Events
The 4th International Conference
for Conveying and Handling of
Particulate Solids
Budapest, Hungary, 27-30 May, 2003
The Conference will take place in Hungary,
in the very heart of Budapest, at Hotel
Inter-Continental, between 27-30 May,
2003. Its objective is to bring together
researchers, engineers and industrialists
from all over the world, who are active in
the areas of conveying and handling of
particulate solids, to report on the recent
developments in the field and to exchange
experiences and insights. The Conference
will consist of plenary and keynote lectures
on emerging technologies, as well as con-
tributed papers, to be presented in oral or
poster sessions. Satellite workshops and
meetings are also envisaged. The scope of
this event covers all the important topics
of particle technology, such as production
and processing of particulate solids (e.g.
crystallization and precipitation, drying
and coating of particulate materials; size
reduction & enlargement, production &
handling of nanoparticles, etc.); storage
of bulk solids; pneumatic, hydraulic &
capsule conveying; freight transportation;
mechanical conveyors & feeders; separation
& classification; environmental aspects;
measurements, control & on-line monitor-
ing; particle characterization, segregation
& mixing; modeling and fundamentals;
and other relevant topics.
More and updated information, First
Announcement and Call-for-Papers, Forms
for Preliminary Indication of Interest and
Abstract Submission can be obtained from
Prof. J. Gyenis, Conference Chair, or can be
downloaded from the official web-site of
the Conference at www.partconf2003.hu.
The deadline for Abstracts submission
is August 15, 2002.
10th European Symposium on
Comminution
Heidelberg, Germany, 2-5 Sept., 2002
The Symposium will take place in Heidel-
berg, one of the most famous and pleasant
cities in Germany about 100 km south
of Frankfurt am Main and at the rim of
the Black Forest. The objectives of the
Symposium are to provide a forum for
the presentation and discussion of recent
developments in science and technology
relating to Comminution and Classifica-
tion. It will offer the opportunity to meet
researchers, engineers and industrialists
active in these fields, not only from Europe
but from all over the world. The program
will consist of plenary lectures and oral
presentations held in three parallel sessions.
Comminution and classification of all kind
sof materials will be considered (i.e. miner-
als, metal, coal, chemicals, pigments, fillers,
biological materials, pharmaceuticals,
food, agricultural products, ceramics, waste
and recycling materials, etc.). Areas being
covered will be fundamentals (micro-
processes including fracture physics, par-
ticle breakage, material characteristics
related to comminution, particle motion
and stressing in mills, multi-phase fluid
dynamics, local energy density distri-
butions, residence time distributions,
etc.), mechanical activation, mechano-
chemical reactions and mechanical alloy-
ing, modelling and simulation, machines
and apparatus (design, operation, wear)
and comminution/classification systems
(operation, control and instrumentation,
mill-classifier-circuits).
More and updated information, addres-
ses for first contact and forms for indica-
tion of interest can be downloaded from
the official web-site of the Symposium at
www.comminution2002.de.
For more information contact the chair-
man of the Organizing Committee: Dr.-
Ing. Detmar Redeker, Wolff Walsrode
AG, Stormstraße 19, D-29664 Walsrode,
Germany, phone: +49 (05161)-912772, fax:
+49 (05161)-912769, e-mail: dredeker@t-
online.de.
4th World Congress on Particle
Technology
Sydney, Australia, 22-26 July, 2002
The technical program will run for four full
days from Monday July 22 to Thursday July
26. The program consists of plenary lec-
tures, research oral presentations, research
poster presentations, and tutorial sessions
on “Getting Started in Particle Technol-
ogy”.
Both oral and poster presentation ses-
sions will be organised to maximise discus-
sion and debate. The Sydney Convention
and Exhibition Centre provides wonderful
facilities for all presentations.
The conference covers all aspects of
Particle Technology. We have divided the
conference into four main themes, particle
and bulk solids characterisation, particle
design and new technologies, powder
handling and multiphase flow and solid-
fluid separation. Each theme is further
divided into a number of topic areas.
We expect between 400 and 500 research
presentations at the conference running in
four parrallel streams each day.
“Getting Started in Particle Technology”
will be a series of invited overviews of
different aspects of Particle Technology by
international experts in the field. These
tutorials are designed for practitioners that
are new to the field or wish brush up on
their knowledge in a particular area. They
will provide a quick and easy way to get up
to speed in an area of interest.
For more information and forms for
indication of interest please check out our
website at www.wcpt4.com.
Reliable Flow of Particulate
Solids IV
Colombo, Sri Lanka, January 2004
Planning has begun for the fourth Sympo-
sium on the Reliable Flow of Particulate
Solids. Since it will be the last of these
symposia for which Sunil de Silva will be
responsible, we hope (conditions permit-
ting) to hold it in Sri Lanka! Sri Lanka
is a beautiful island just south of India
of which it has been said “every prospect
pleases and only man is vile”! The weather
in January is barmy, and the ocean very
inviting. Its long history, which stretches
back some 2500 years, has left it with many
interesting sights to see, including the giant
artificial reservoirs built by ancient kings
and a palace built on the top a sheer 300 m
high rock by a patricidal king who wished
to escape the wrath of his brother in the
5th century AD.
We hope the symposium will bring
together scientists, suppliers of equipment
and engineers from industry in much
the same proportions as the first three
symposia did. We expect much greater
participation from Asian countries and
especially invite our colleagues in these
countries to submit papers. There will be
eight invited plenary lectures and, hope-
fully, upto 60 papers in parallel sessions.
The deadline for submissions of abstracts
is December 31st, 2002. Full manuscripts
will be required by July 31st, 2003. Contact
Sunil.deSilva@hit.no for details.
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 7
One Summer in Norway
Stephanie Tappe, Exchange Student
Technical University of Cottbus
A
fter having spent almost 6 months
working at POSTEC, I have to say
that I enjoyed my time here very
much.
Before I came here I could not imagine
how it would be to live that far away from
home and working for the first time in my
life. But it went better than expected. The
nice and friendly atmosphere at POSTEC
made it easy feeling comfortable, and soon
I got used to my all day life. I was living in
one of the quiet students houses where it
is rather easy to get in contact with other
students. Thus, it did not take a long time
till I met some nice people with whom I
spent my time after work. Also the first
parties at the weekend started, and let me
forget my distance from home. When in
spring the weather was cold and rainy I
went often to the swimming hall nearby,
but finally the clouds disappeared in the
From
Michal Wójcik, Marie Curie Post-Graduate
Fellow
ilo problems have always appealed to
me. Therefore I particularly welcomed
the chance to come to Norway. How-
ever, I must admit I wasn’t keen on going to
a “cold country” at first, after hearing about
it from my Polish supervisor, Prof. Jacek
Tejchman. He was the one who encour-
aged me to collect materials for my Ph.D
thesis and to get some experience here at
POSTEC. And as I had already searched
for quite a long time in Poland, I found
the idea to carry on my work in a
foreign country a very good one. But
Norway? Scandinavia was always said to
be rather “cold”, in more than one sense.
Finally, I plucked up courage, took warm
clothes and arrived in Porsgrunn...and so
far I’ve never used those clothes. Summer
this year was even hotter than the one
in my home town - Gdansk. And even if
it happened to be a bit colder here, the
atmosphere makes me feel really comfort-
able. I enjoy meeting, at work as well
as elsewhere, nice and helpful people,
both Norwegian and from all over the
8 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
beginning of May and the sun came out
so that I could use my bicycle I brought
to Norway
world. And what’s most important, the
working process on my Ph.D project is
being improved productively here. I deal
with a numerical simulation of silo flow
and structures and take advantage of great
possibilities to carry out the calculations
with me from home. Although Norway
is supposed to be very mountainous, the
area around Porsgrunn is ideal for cycling.
More hills than mountains are covering
the landscape and a lot of well signed
bicycle routes lead through the nature.
Soon I explored a very nice forest lake
near Skotfoss that became my favourite
bathing place.
The project I was working on was inves-
tigations of pressure drops in horizontal
and vertical pneumatic conveying. It was
really impressive listening to the noise
created by the plugs moving through the
pipeline and I found out that working
could even be enjoyable. Especially at the
end of my stay time seemed to run so
fast that the end was coming faster than
expected. Thus, unfortunately my time is
over now, I have to go back home, but I
will remember POSTEC and Norway as
being an enjoyable time in my life. Thanks
a lot.
and compare them with research work.
What more could I expect? Working condi-
tions enable me to work efficiently and to
not come home too late. Then I can spend
nice evenings with my wife and weekends
surrounded by beautiful nature. Now I’m
sure - it was a good decision!!
Marie Curie
Fellowships
We invite our colleagues in the EU
to consider sending their Ph.D.
students to spend a year with us.
As the advertisement on page
3 indicates - the pay is good,
and as the stories here indicate,
those visiting us enrich both
themselves and us! Candidates
must be citizens of an EU country
and be working on the reliable
flow of particulate materials. We
also have a 12 month Fellowship
for a post-doc. Any takers?
Mythical Place Called Powder Hall
Saverio Tani, Exchange Student,
University of Rome
A
bout six months have past since
I’ve left Norway and my memories
are still fresh and lovely.
I was in Porsgrunn to carry out a project
under the EU’s Leonardo da Vinci pro-
gramme for my degree in Environmental
Engineering of Rome University. My thesis
focused on gas cyclones, and my task was
to verify through experimental data, and
check how accurate the predictions were
of the mathematical models that are used
to describe a cyclone’s flow in terms of
separation efficiency and pressure drop.
After having given an overview on lots
of powder technology’s fields and applica-
tions, I started going in detail into my
project. Initially I spent most of my time
collecting information by reading and
studying books, reports and articles. This
was an inevitable and fundamental phase
of learning, and thanks to all of the docu-
ments and references that have been col-
lected through the years at POSTEC on
cyclones, I managed to put together several
models and analyse the evolution of these
throughout the years.
My conclusions were that no current
analytical model is able to take correctly
Obituary - Predrag Marjanovic
I
t is with the deepest regret that we
learnt of the premature and untimely
death of our colleague and friend
Predrag Marjanovic in September. He
was playing golf at Troon, near Ayr in a
University tournament, when he suddenly
collapsed and died instantly. He had no
prior history of illness and was only 50
years old.
Predrag was born on 1 May 1951 in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia, where he lived until
November 1992. He then moved with
his wife Mara and daughter Nevena to
Glasgow, Scotland, where he continued to
reside throughout his time in the UK.
Predrag obtained a 1st class Honours
degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1974
from the University of Belgrade. He then
joined the Fluid Mechanics Department
of the University of Belgrade as a teaching
assistant - where he was employed for 18
into account all of the parameters that
influence the separation process and there-
fore only by combining different models,
which follow different approaches, is it
possible to represent the separation proc-
ess. A possible design tool may come in
the next years with software development
on CFD, but currently the approximations
that are necessary to represent a highly
turbulent two-phase flow, as the one inside
a cyclone, are still too many.
The experimental phase of my thesis
years rising to the position of Associate
Professor. During this time he obtained an
MSc with distinction in Process Engineer-
ing and a PhD for a thesis entitled ‘An
Investigation of the Behaviour of Gas-
Solids Mixture Flow Properties for Verti-
cal Pneumatic Conveying in Pipelines’.
The experimental work for the PhD was
undertaken at Thames Polytechnic (now
the University of Greenwich) and Predrag
was awarded a PhD in 1984.
I first met Predrag and his wife Mara
in Stratford-on-Avon in 1982 when he
was doing his research for a PhD at the
then Thames Polytechnic, and had kept
in sporadic touch ever since. After his
return to the UK (to Glasgow Caledonian
University) in 1990 our contacts were more
regular, and we were very pleased to
have him here in Norway for RELPOWFLO
III in August 1999. The last time I saw him
was carried out in the mythical POWDER
HALL, a place where practicality and
innovation, geniality and experience are
continuously combined by everyone. I have
to admit that during this phase I collected
several failures, but at the same time I
learnt much more from these than I did
from most of my successes. Mainly because
I was allowed to make my own mistakes
and it was up to me to find the correct
solutions to my problems. It was also very
nice that everyone found some time to talk
about my project with me, that allowed
me to get a broader view and different
perspective of my work.
Conversations often then carried on
following all sorts of pathways and I found
it highly fascinating getting to know people
coming from such different countries and
cultures from mine.
These are just some of the reasons that
made me spend an unforgettable winter
in Norge, on both the human and profes-
sional sides. I do regret not having learnt
more Norwegian and I still have to visit the
north and the west coast of the country.
This means that I definitely will be coming
back, maybe for work or maybe on holiday
but I’m sure to see you all soon, tusen takk
for everything.
was in Israel last
year, and at all
such meetings
Predrag’s intrin-
sic friendliness
was always de-
monstrated.
After his eleva-
tion to a Chair
in 1999, I had
hoped that we
could increase
our coopera-
tions, but time
has now run out.
Predrag will be
sadly missed by all of us in the powder
technology community. The whole team
at POSTEC, and I, extend our deepest
sympathies to Mara and their daughter
Nevena on their great loss.
- Sunil de Silva
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 9
A Study of Pressure Gradients
in Vertical & Horizontal
Pneumatic Transport Lines
Dr. Biplab K. Datta, Senior Scientist
Stephanie Tappe, Exchange Student
In the next three years Tel-Tek hopes to
‘re-visit’ the scale-up of pneumatic convey-
ing systems. In the last issue, Chandana
Ratnayake reported on our preliminary
findings regarding scale-up with respect
to pipe diameter. Here Biplab Datta and
Stephanie Tappe look at pressure drops in
vertical and horizontal sections.
ratio of the pressure gradient in the vertical
pipe section to that in the horizontal pipe
section varied between 1.2 and 2.1, and
that the ratio was also dependent on the
material being conveyed. Hettiaratchi et
al. undertook a study using polyethylene
pellets and wheat flour and concluded that
the pressure gradient ratio was in the range
of 1.3 to 2.0 for polyethylene pellets and in
the range of 2.0 to 9.5 for wheat flour.
9 8 7 6
tests in order to achieve a wide range of
pressure drops. The start pressures used at
the blow tank for this study were 2.5 bar,
3.0 bar, 3.5 bar, 4.0 bar, 4.5 bar.
The variation of solids flow rate with
change in air flow rate at the different
start pressures used at the blow tank are
presented in the Figure 2. The variation
of the solids loading ratio with change in
inlet air velocity is presented in the Figure
3 for all the blow tank start pressures used
during the experimentation.

T
he major challenge now facing the
2m 3m 2m
5 60
2.5 bar
m is mass loading ratio
designers of pneumatic transporta-
2m 3,0 bar
50 3.5 bar 150 100 70

tion systems is to scale-up reliably

4 4.0 bar 50
4.5 bar

Capacity [t/h]
40
2m
based on the results from pilot scale test
3 30
facilities. Whatever might be the scaling
30
1m
2
technique used, it is of utmost importance
20
1m
1
to be able to predict the total pressure 10 10

drop of the system. A large number of Figure 1. Schematic layout of the test 0
0 200 400 600 800
m

1000
articles [1- 6] can be found in the literature section showing location of the pressure Air flow rate [m3/h]

dealing with calculation techniques for transducers. Figure 2. Variation of solids flow rate with
pressure drops in pneumatic conveying change in airflow rate.
systems. Many of these techniques depend The complete experimental test rig (not
200
on conveying trials in a pilot scale test shown here) consisted of a 140 m long 180
facility. The results obtained are then test loop of 3” bore pipeline. In order to 160

processed using empirical tools to predict study the variation of pressure drop along a 140
Mass loading ratio

the expected pressure drop of a full-scale vertical pipe section and a horizontal pipe 120

plant. While calculating the total pressure section under near identical conditions 100

drop of the system, people often differenti- with respect to gas velocity and volumetric
80

60
ate between steady state pressure drop concentrations, a section of the transport 40
2,5 bar
2.8 bar

and acceleration pressure drop. Also the loop was chosen as the test section as shown 20
3.5 bar
4.0 bar

steady state pressure drop rate in vertical in Figure 1. The vertical pipe was followed 0
4.5 bar

0 5 10 15 20 25
and horizontal conveying is generally by a bend (R/D = 5) and a horizontal Air velocity [m/s]

recognised to be different because of the
additional gravitational force in the vertical
pipeline. Naturally, the question arises ‘Is
there any relationship between these two
pressure drops?’ If there existed such a
reliable relationship then it would be an
extremely useful tool for designers, because
then they could undertake experiments
using only horizontal test loops and predict
the pressure drop for the vertical pipes as
well. This would eliminate the need for an
elaborate test loop.
Unfortunately very little published work
could be found in the literature in this
respect. The only literature found was that
of Marjanovic [7,8] and that of Hettiaratchi
et al [9]. Marjanovic carried out a large
number of tests and concluded that the
stretch of pipeline of about 10 m length.
The transducers used for this experiment
had an accuracy of +/-1 mbar and it was
expected that in spite of the inherent
fluctuation of pressure during pneumatic
transportation, we would be able to get
a trend of variation of pressure with a
reasonable degree of accuracy. The pres-
sure data was recorded using LabVIEW™
software and analysed. The test material
was alumina used in aluminium produc-
tion.
The size distribution of the alumina was
monitored at regular intervals during the
experimentation. The tests were conducted
at different start pressures at the blow tank,
and an attempt was made to cover a wide
range of solids loading ratios during the
Figure 3. Variation of mass loading ratio
with change in airflow rate.
During the experimentation, all the pres-
sure values at the different pressure trans-
ducers were recorded and were plotted
for different start pressure conditions. In
Figures 4 to 8 the first five points represent
the pressure readings in the vertical pipe
section and the subsequent four points
represent the pressure readings in the
horizontal section. For the zone showing
steady pressure drop rates, trend lines
were drawn for both the vertical and the
horizontal sections. Consequently, the
ratio of the gradients of these trend lines
for the vertical and horizontal sections
would give us the ratio of the pressure

10 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

 2100 3100

2000 3000

1900 2900

1800 2800

Pressure mbar
Pressure mbar

1700 2700

1600 2600
y = -37,765x + 2781,1
1500 2500

1400 y = -13,672x + 1531,5 2400

y = -30,817x + 2725,5
1300 y = -27,276x + 1666,9 2300

1200 2200
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Distance, m Distance, m

Figure 4. Variation of pressure along the vertical and horizontal Figure 7. Variation of pressure along the vertical and horizontal
section. Start pressure 2.5 bar, loading ratio 46.11. section. Start pressure 4.0 bar, loading ratio 93.84.
3400
2400
3300
2300
3200
2200

2100 3100

Pressure mbar
Pressure mbar

2000 3000

1900 2900
y = -37,384x + 3090,8
1800 y = -21,362x + 1954,5
2800

1700 2700

1600 y = -33,662x + 2083,1 2600 y = -30,685x + 3015,4

1500 2500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Distance, m Distance, m

Figure 5. Variation of pressure along the vertical and horizontal Figure 8. Variation of pressure along the vertical and horizontal
section. Start pressure 3.0 bar, loading ratio 62.46. section. Start pressure 4.5 bar, loading ratio 71.67.
2,5
2700

2600
2
2500
Pressure gradient ratio

2400
Pressure mbar

1,5
2300

2200
1
y = -35,577x + 2351,6
2100
4.5 bar
2.5 bar
2000
0,5 3,0 bar
y = -32,758x + 2335,4 3,5 bar
1900
4,0 bar
trendy
1800
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0 2 4 6 8 10 1 4
Distance, m Volume conc*Froude no

Figure 6. Variation of pressure along the vertical and horizontal Figure 9. Variation of pressure gradient ratio with product of volume
section. Start pressure 3.5 bar, loading ratio 86.38. concentration and Froude number.

drop rate in the vertical section to that of pressure gradient ratio would be dependent and there existed a trend that the ratio
the horizontal section. In the figures the on the Froude number at transducer no 1. increased with increase in the product of
first pressure transducer is mounted at a Hence for comparing the pressure gradient volume concentration and Froude number.
distance of 1 m from the line leading into ratios it was thought best to use the Froude It could be seen that at 2.5 bar pressure all
the test section. number at transducer no 1. Further, since the pressure gradient ratio values were less
Having thus obtained the pressure drop it was expected that the pressure drop rate than 1. As the pressure was increased, more
results, the gradients of the trend lines would be dependent on the volumetric numbers of points could be found above 1.
were recorded and used for calculating the concentration of solids, we plotted the At 4.5 bar pressure all the data points were
pressure drop gradient ratio between the pressure gradient ratio with change in the above 1. Although no clear relationship
vertical and the horizontal lines. Although product of the Froude number and the could be established, it was evident that
tests were conducted at different set pres- volumetric concentration on the basis of the system pressure had an influence on
sures at the blow tank, the pressures at the velocity and the pressure at transducer the pressure gradient ratio.
transducer no 1 on the vertical pipe were no 1 and the results are presented in Figure From the above study it could be con-
different for different solids loading ratios 9. cluded that the pressure gradient ratio
even for a given start pressure at the blow It could be seen that the pressure gradi- could vary between 0.1 to 1.9 for alumina,
tank. Naturally it was expected that the ent ratio varied from about 0.1 to 1.9 under the test conditions used in this study.

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 11

It also showed that the pressure gradient
ratio depends on the product of the Froude
number and volumetric concentration.
The system pressure also has a significant
effect on the pressure gradient ratio. The
results indicate that there is a need to
further investigate the nature of variation
of the pressure gradient ratio.
The authors gratefully acknowledge
the support of the Norwegian Research
Council and members of the POSTEC
programme for providing funds for this
research work, and the EU’s Leonardo da
Vinci programme for a grant to Ms Tappe
to do her project at Tel-Tek.
References
1. Chambers, A.J.: Scaling pneumatic
conveying characteristics for pipeline
pressure - a revisit. Powder and Bulk
Solids Conference, Chicago, USA, May
1995.
2. Pan, R., Wypych, P.W.: Scale-up proce-
dures for pneumatic conveying design.
Powder Handling & Processing, Vol 4,
No 2, June 1992.
3. Williams, O.A.: Pneumatic and hydrau-
lic conveying of solids. Marcel Dekker,
New York, 1983.
4. Klinzing, G.E., Marcus, R.D., Rizk,
F, Leung, L.S.: Pneumatic conveying
of solids - a theoretical and practical
approach. Chapman & Hall, UK, 1997.
5. Muschelknautz, E.: Theoretische und
experimentelle Untersuchungen über
die Druckverluste pneumatischer
Förderleitungen unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung des Einflusses von
Gutreibung und Gutgewicht. VDI-
Forschungsheft 476; 1959.
6. Bohnet, M.: Experimentelle und theo-
retische Untersuchungen über das
Absetzen, das Aufwirbeln und den
Transport feiner Staubteilchen in pneu-
matischer Förderleitungen. VDI-For-
schungsheft 507, 1965.
7. Marjanovic, P.: A comparative study
of the performance characteristics
for horizontal and vertical pneumatic
conveying in pipelines. Pneumatech
1, UK, 1982.
8. Marjanovic, P.: An investigation of
the behaviour of gas-solid mixture
flow properties for vertical pneumatic
conveying in pipelines. Ph.D. thesis,
Thames Polytechnic, London, UK,
1983.

Effects of Segregation on the

Environment and Yield in
Production
Are Dyrøy, Research Scientist
Morten Karlsen, Senior Engineer,
Hydro Aluminium, Årdal Research Centre
For several years, Tel-Tek’s POSTEC
Department and the Technology Centre at
Hydro Aluminium’s Årdal Plant have been
cooperating in identifying and counteracting
the effects of segregation in aluminium
production. In this article, the effects
of segregation are investigated
further, and it is concluded that any
further efficiencies in production Alumina shiped by boat
and any improvements as regards
environmental pollution will, to a
large extent, depend on paying
more attention to the handling of
alumina.
optimal process conditions. By collecting Production of aluminium from alumina
and analysing a large number of samples of involves large amounts of alumina (2
alumina from plants in normal operation, kg alumina gives approximately 1 kg of
and comparing the results with essential aluminium) and, as described earlier,
process variables, it has been possible to alumina is a particulate solid that can
easily segregate. Aluminium is obtained
Main storage typical
capacity of 20-60 kton
from alumina by electrolytic reduction
C - a chemical term meaning the removal
of oxygen atoms from aluminium
Buffer silo
A primary oxide. The calcined alumina is
alumina
reduced to aluminium metal in
Conveyor from main D electrolytic cells, or “pots”, con-
storage to day silo
nected in parallel to a direct cur-
B rent power source. The cells are
Fume treatment rectangular steel pots lined with
refractory bricks and carbon blocks
acting as the cathode.
Pot-rooms sampling fom
E
The pot contains a molten elec-
selected pots
trolyte, called “bath” in which alu-

T
G Buffer silo
he raw material for alumin- secondary
alumina
mina is dissolved. The electrolyte
ium production is alumina, is a mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6),
which is a particulate solid. F
and certain additives to give it the
As for most processes, constant appropriate density, conductivity
conditions are essential for obtain- Figure 10. Typical layout of one line in an aluminium plant, and viscosity. The principal addi-
ing optimal results, also in alumin- showing sampling points. tive is aluminium fluoride (AlF3),
ium production. Constant process which must be replaced from time
conditions depend on constant quality of quantify the direct effects of segregation to time due to losses through evaporation
the raw materials, but since alumina is a as well as improvements achieved after and a chemical reaction converting it into
particulate solid, segregation will easily installation of anti segregation equipment, cryolite. The emitted fluorides are collected,
cause quality variations, which can make it which have been described in previous treated in the dry scrubber section of the
nearly impossible to maintain continuous issues of this Newsletter. fume treatment plant, and recycled to the

12 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

 BMH Claudius Peters
Alumina silo with
Anti -Segregation
System
What the experts call anti-segregation
i.e. maintaining the distribution of grains
in mixtures unchanged is reached by
BMH Claudius Peters silos by specific
arrangement of aerated aeroslides and
simultaneously air locking of the inner
silo area.

Characteristic data:

• Storage capacity up to 100,000 t

• Diameter up to 75 m
• Discharge Capacity up to 2000 t/h
• Feeding Capacity up to 1500 t/h
• Residual Discharge > 99%
• No drives inside the silo

Facts at a glance:

• Reduced anode effects

• Decreased CO2 emission
• Increased efficiency of gas cleaning
systems
• Reduced dust formation
• Clearly improved working conditions

Claudius Peters

BMH Claudius Peters GmbH

Schanzenstraße 40
D-21614 Buxtehude
Phone: +49 4161 706 0
Fax: +49 4161 706 270
Email: Mail@bmhclaudiuspeters.com
Internet: www.bmhcludiuspeters.com

Brandnames of BMH BMH Technologies

Materials processing technologies and engineered systems
pots, in the form of secondary alumina. out using a NEO DM4 in one 2,500
Spesific AE Target value CO eqv . 2
12

Suspended in the electrolyte are a of the prebake pot rooms. The

Calculated CO2 equivalent pro ton and AE

10

Anode effects pro tonne produced

number of anodes (positive electrodes), alumina was sampled from 22
2,000

which act as electrical conductors for a pots with one sample from a 1,500
8

high intensity direct current. Electrical point feeder each day over a 6
current passing from the anode through period of 41 days. The average 1,000

the electrolyte to the cathode reduces the of the daily 22 samples is used 4

dissolved alumina into aluminium and in the comparison. The dust 0,500
2

oxygen at a temperature of approximately and fines content values are

950°C. This process is called electrolysis. centred and normalized in 0,000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
0
2005
The oxygen is released at the carbon anode, order to compare them with Years

where it combines with the carbon to form
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (CO
and CO2). The aluminium, having a higher
density than the bath, settles to the bottom
of the pot. Considerable electrical energy,
between 13 and 17 kWh per kilogram of
aluminium, is consumed in the process.
Each pot is tightly closed to achieve
greater energy efficiency and to capture the
pollutants emitted, and gas treatment cen-
tres provide a very effective environmental
protection. At regular intervals, the molten
aluminium is tapped from the bottom of
the pot into a crucible and transferred to
holding furnaces for casting.
In order to quantify the effects of seg-
regation, several sampling points were
each other. The centring and Figure 13. Historical data comparing the CO2 equivalent
normalizing was done using with frequency of anode effects (AE’s).
Equation 1:
bath. Nowadays one uses mostly volumetric
x - x i =1- n
yi= i (1) point feeders to add the alumina. Volumet-
s n- 1 ric measuring of a bulk solid has its very
weakness in the fact that the particle size
where distributions influence the bulk density.
yi - normalized and centred value Also the same distribution influences
xi - measured value the flowability of the bulk solid. In the
xi =1-n - mean value of all samples (1 electrolysis cells one may encounter a
to n) phenomenon called an Anode Effect (AE).
sn-1 - Standard deviation of the sample When a so called anode effect occurs in
series the reduction cell, the cell voltage increases
4,0 and as a consequence the process yield
3,0
Sub 42 Dust
drops due to solubility properties of the
alumina in the molten bath. Other process
Centered and normalized values [-]

configured as shown in Figure 10. The
intention was that all transitions and
handling operations were to be covered. As
a general approach the sampling campaigns
were carried out in such a manner that
the day to day operations did not have
to be affected in any way, since the main
objective was to find the status of the
plant in question in normal operation.
The campaigns had a duration of usually
40 days, this number being chosen based
on the process cycles in the plant in order
to avoid and identify process systematic
variations. Usually one took one sample
at every point, and in the pot room one
sample from several pots, also in some cases
several samples every day. Typically such a
campaign delivered between 1200 to 2000
samples to be analysed for size distributions
2,0
side effects are that instead of producing
1,0
aluminium, one uses energy to pollute
0,0 the environment. The form of pollution
-1,0 is emissions of CF4 and C2F6 having an
-2,0
approximate CO2 equivalent of 8000, and
these gases are mainly produced by AE
-3,0
in the primary aluminium production
-4,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
process. Anode effects are countered by the
Day [-] use of different feeding programs for the
Figure 11. Centred and normalized data for alumina to the pot. The variations in the
sub 42 µm content and dust concentration fine fraction, below 42 µm, found from
in pot room. the sampling campaign are compared with
the anode effects. In order to do this, one
As can be seen from the plot in Figure 11, has to compare an integer value (number
the dust concentration in the pot room air of AE’s) with a real number (% below 42
follows the content of fines in the alumina µm), so the values were normalized using
fed to the pots. This plot illustrates not only the same normalization procedure as given
the variation in the working environment before.
for the operators, but also the total dust 4,0

and sometimes for chemical composition emission from the pot room. Keeping a 3,0
Sub 42 AE

of samples after fume treatment. strict control of the alumina when handled
Centered and normalized values [-]

2,0
Data generated from a campaign were can reduce this variation. However, the
compared and checked against logged data co-variation also indicates a possibility 1,0

from the electrolysis process, levels in of using dust monitoring to indicate the 0,0

silos and other logged material. All these alumina quality. Also this co-variation -1,0

data are then pre-analysed by the use of shows that when buying a cargo of alumina -2,0
multivariate tools, and then the individual having a high content of fines, one should
-3,0
relationships were picked out and studied reroute this alumina to the sections of the
closer. factory having both sufficient “hooding” -4,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
and gas collection efficiency. Day [-]

Effects on the Working Figure 12. Centred and normalized sub 42

Environment Effects on the Process µm content and number of anode effects
During one of our sampling campaigns [1] When producing aluminium, as explained (AE) pro day at the same pots as alumina
continuous monitoring of dust was carried earlier, one adds alumina to the electrolytic is sampled.

14 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

 14, 0 14, 0
Average D3 Average C3

12, 0 12, 0
Sub 42 µm fraction [%]

Sub 42 µm fraction [%]

10, 0 10, 0

8,0 8,0

6,0 6,0

4,0 4,0

2,0 2,0

0,0 0,0
29.03 31.03 02.04 04.04 06.04 08.04 10.04 12.04 14.04 16.04 18.04 20.04 22.04 24.04 26.04 28.04 30.04 02.05 31.03 02.04 04.04 06.04 08.04 10.04 12.04 14.04 16.04 18.04 20.04 22.04 24.04 26.04 28.04 30.04 02.05

Time Time

Figure 15. Comparing variations in fines with pot section using ADS (C3) and section filled using overhead cranes (D3).

As can be seen from the curves [1] (Figure homogenisation factor, is equal to 1, there different methods of conveying. If one
12) the co-variation is not random and, is no segregation or homogenisation. If the runs such systems in the right way, one will
especially when the content of fines rises value is below 1 one has segregation, and both preserve the homogeneity achieved
rapidly, the regulating system cannot if larger than 1 one has a homogenisation earlier in the upstream handling processes,
respond quickly enough and results in AE. effect. The new system gives a Hfact of 1.7 and ensure that different pots gets the
Later comparisons show also the same level compared to the old storage having 0.7 (as same quality of raw material. This gives
of co-variation. shown in Figure 14), indicating that the one the opportunity to run several pots as
Looking further at the next figure (Figure old storage increases the variations because one unit instead of several individuals. A
13) one sees the correlation between the of segregation, while the new system not system developed by Hydro Aluminium
CO2 equivalent of the emissions, and AE’s. only prevents segregation but also reduces uses high capacity air-slides for distribution
Of course, in a complex process as in the the variations (homogenising). of alumina in small amounts rapidly to
production of aluminium, variations of the different pots. This method of running
fines due to segregation are not the sole the distribution system, results in what can
reason for AE’s. However, a co-variation be seen when looking at Figure 15. The
has been found. Co-variations show that section filled by the distribution system
the variations from segregation, undoubt- called Aerated Distribution System (ADS)
edly contribute to both the production to the right in Figure 15 marked C3, gives
yields and environmental impacts of the less variation than the section filled using
aluminium production. overhead cranes (Figure 15 to the left
marked D3).
Counteraction By the use of AS-system© and ADS©, the
In an attempt to reduce the variations variations of the alumina to the pots may
described in the foregoing sections, systems be reduced to a negligible level. Considering
to counter segregation and reducing the Figure 14. Homogenising factors from old the co-variations described earlier, one can
effects of the segregation in the aluminium A-frame storage compared with homogenis- improve the yield by stabilising the process,
industry have been developed. To directly ing factors for new silos using AS-System the stability will further also have a positive
counter segregation one would need to put (A99/C99 = A-frame and A00/C00 = new effect on the working environment and the
the effort into the filling procedures for, or silos). overall emissions from the process.
the configurations of, the storage systems.
A system for filling a silo via several tubes As shown, the reduction of variation is References
has been installed in two 6000 t silos. possible by using the AS-System©, however 1. Dyrøy, A: Segregation and attrition
To measure the effect, the standard one needs to do this throughout the whole when conveying from main storage
deviation of the content of fines in the in- of the process line in order to preserve the in Øvre Årdal to electrolysis pot in
going material is divided by the standard homogeneity gained. For further distribu- sections ÅIIC and ÅIII (Norwegian
deviation of the content of fines in the tion of the alumina to the pots, there are restricted report). Tel-Tek report no.
material discharged. If this value, called the available several distribution systems using 410089-3, March 2000.

Are you interested in

bulk solids handling or
powder handling and processing?
Then contact Trans Tech Publications and contribute to their journals! Both
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Trans Tech Publications, Postfach 1254,

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www.bulk-online.com
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 15
Using Noise to Predict Particle
Size and Segregation Online
Sivert Ose, Scientist
Jun Huang, CAMO as
Table 1. Correlation coefficients between particle transported in two loops of 70 metres
size and noise. each. The rig is fully instrumented
with pressure transducers, load cells

D
Type of Alumina Sampler/Dust Fraction Corr.Coeff
ifferent sounds and noises AL-A Sampler A: <21 µm 0.72 etc, and also with acoustic measure-
surround us, and we all know Sampler A: <42 µm 0.71 ment equipment. Physical samples
the familiar feeling of “What Sampler B: <21 µm 0.80 of the powders were taken during
Sampler B: <42 µm 0.73
has happened now” when a familiar AL-B Sampler A: <21 µm 0.94
transport with two samplers placed in
sound suddenly disappears. From the Sampler A: <42 µm 0.95 the rig. The particle size distributions
factory floor, we know the mechanic Sampler B: <21 µm 0.95 of the samples were then determined
that can hear a ball bearing running Sampler B: <42 µm 0.96 using our laser diffraction instrument:
AL-C Sampler A: <21 µm 0.83
warm or the operator that can hear Sympatec Helos.
Sampler A: <42 µm 0.84
when a process does not run as Sampler B: <21 µm 0.80 Using a LabVIEW™ application
expected. In many ways, this is what Sampler B: <42 µm 0.82 developed by ACRG, we sampled the
acoustic chemometrics does in a more AL-D Sampler A: <21 µm 0.95 acoustic signals and then correlated
automated way. For a number of Sampler A: <42 µm 0.96 them with results from particle size
Sampler B: <21 µm 0.94
years, POSTEC has maintained close Sampler B: <42 µm 0.95
analysis data. For the correlation, the
relationships with the chemometrics AL-E Sampler A: <21 µm 0.85 dust content, i.e. percentage smaller
group (ACRG) at Tel-Tek and HiT. Sampler A: <42 µm 0.86 than 21 and 42 µm was used. The
As an add-on part to another Sampler B: <21 µm 0.91 content of particles below 21 and
Sampler B: <42 µm 0.91
project on the abrasion of particles, we 42 µm serves as important quality
AL-F Sampler A: <21 µm 0.84
investigated the relationship between Sampler A: <42 µm 0.79 parameters in the aluminium indus-
noise and particle size distribution. Sampler B: <21 µm 0.89 try, which is why they were chosen for
This was done using an accelerometer Sampler B: <42 µm 0.87 initial correlation.
mounted on the conveying pipeline. 25 A typical trend in the particle size
For information about our earlier Sampler A-21 µm
Sampler A-42 µm distribution is shown in Figure 16.
use of accelerometers on pneumatic 20 Sampler B-21 µm
Sampler B-42 µm
The different alumina types had dif-
% below 21 or 42 µm

pipelines, see POSTEC Newsletters ferent breakage characteristics, which

nos 15 & 16. The accelerometer will
pick up both general “noise” as well
as vibrations from the pipeline. Our
hope (and assumption) was that
this “noise” would be related to the
particle size distribution and thus the
dust content in the powder. We knew
from earlier experience that repeated
runs in a pneumatic pipeline would
crush particles. The powders used
in the test were 6 different alumina
powders, from different manufactur-
ers and with various production
histories, making them both strong
and weak. These tests were originally
commissioned to search for attrition
patterns in various aluminas. As an
add-on to the attrition testing, we
investigated whether we could find a
correlation between noise and particle
size.
We did the attrition testing in our
industrial scale pneumatic conveying
rig with a transport length of 140 m in
each run. In each run, the powder was
15
will report on later, if permitted.
10
Chemometric analysis is an ad-
vanced mathematical tool to search
5 for patterns within a large quantity
of data. The correlation coefficient
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
shows how well we could model the
Transport cycles correlation between particle size and
Figure 16. Increase in fines content as the powder sound, and the results are shown in
is transported through the pneumatic conveying line Table 1. In general we had a correla-
(no of rounds). tion coefficient of 0.8-0.9, something
that is considered reasonably good. A
correlation coefficient = 1 is ideal. It
is however to be noted that the slope
of the model was somewhat lower
than hoped for.
We find the results of this investiga-
tion promising. We were able to find
a model that can find a correlation
between the noise and dust content
in the pipe. This is something that
surely can be of help, especially in
determining whether severe segrega-
tion occurs. We hope to develop this
Figure 17. Acoustic sensors are small and quite method further, so that it can be
robust. implemented for use by industry.

www.tel-tek.no
16 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
Uniaxial Tester as a Tool for
Predicting Tabletting
Performance of Powder Mixtures
Gisle G. Enstad, Prof. II, Chief Scientist
T
he uniaxial tester developed by
POSTEC, has been described in a
number of previous issues of this
Newsletter [1], but as a reminder, the main
principles are repeated in Figure 18. The
consolidation stage is shown in Figure 18a,
where the powder in the cylindrical die
is consolidated axially by means of the
piston moving in the downward direction.
An elastic membrane between the powder
and the die wall, and with lubrication on
the interface with the die wall, reduces the
friction along the die wall to a minimum,
giving a homogeneous consolidation of
the powder sample. Having consolidated
the sample to the prescribed consolidation
stress σ 1u, the sample is unloaded by a
small upward movement of the piston,
before the die is pulled upwards, leaving
the consolidated sample as an unconfined
powder plug, as shown in Figure 18b. In
this position the strength is measured by
moving the piston downwards until the
axial stress passes a peak value, which is the
strength fc for that particular consolidation
stress σ1u.
σ1u
fc
Piston
Die
ε1u
Flexible
membrane
Sample
α = 45˚+ ϕ/2
Bottom
plate
Figure 18. The main principles of the
uniaxial tester is a) consolidation and b)
strength measurement.
In 1999 a major investigation was carried
out for Pharmacia AB by means of the
uniaxial tester in order to see if the tester
could be used to predict the behaviour of
powders in a tabletting machine. Figure
19 shows a picture of the tester Table 2. Tabletting performance of powder mixtures
developed by POSTEC, in use during in relation to the results from the uniaxial tester.
this investigation, where 4 points Batch Tabletting Tabletting lkon konso40
of the uniaxial flow function were performance machine speed [kPa] [kPa]
determined, using the consolidation (tablets per hour)
802 Poor - 5 6.384
stresses 5, 10, 20 and 40 kPa. Most
803 Poor - 5 7.028
of the mixtures that were tested had 804 Medium 110 000 20 4.984
very low strength, and in a few cases 805 Good 130 000 10 3.283
where no cohesive plug was obtained 812 Medium 77 000 20 3.381
even at 40 kPa, consolidation stresses 813 Good 130 000 40 1.841
814 Good 130 000 40 2.380
of 80 kPa were also used. A number 815 Good 130 000 40 2.989
of other parameters were tested as 821 Poor - 5 5.922
well, including particle size distribu- 823 Poor - 5 5.985
tions, moisture contents, and other 824 - - 10 5.453
flow property measurements, and
a detailed description of the results is Flow functions crossing the abscissa some-
now being published elsewhere [2]. Only times appear, often when the powder is
some important details will be summarised a mixture which might contain agglomer-
here. ates, which may start to disintegrate,
contributing more to the strength at high
stresses, but not at low stresses.
The mixtures consisted of 19.0% of the
active ingredient, 77.5% of a filler, 2.2%
of a binder/disintegrant, 0.5% of a glidant
and 0.8% of a lubricant. The ingredients
were tested individually, except the glidant
and the binder/lubricant, showing that the
active ingredient was considerably more
cohesive than all the mixtures. The filler
was somewhat more cohesive than the most
Figure 19. The investigations of the mixtures cohesive mixtures, whereas the lubricant
from Pharmacia AB were carried out by was like the less cohesive mixtures, except
Anne Berdal, using the latest version of at the low stress levels, where it always
the uniaxial tester. formed a coherent plug. It was interesting
to see that the mixtures mostly were less
The normal type of flow function as illus- cohesive than the individual ingredients.
trated in Figure 20 was obtained for many This shows that the minor ingredients, like
of the powder mixtures that were tested, the glidant and the lubricant, are acting as
but more typical of the mixtures was a flow aids, as is the intention.
flow function crossing the abscissa, as also Mixtures included in the investigation
indicated in Figure 20. were used for pressing tablets in a tablet-
ting machine using forced feeding. The
f
c performance of the various mixtures in
Normal flow function
Flow function typical of most
the tabletting machine was noted, and
mixtures from this investigation can be compared with the results from
the uniaxial tester, as has been done in
Table 1, where the results from the uniaxial
1u σ
tester are represented by lkon, the lowest
consolidation stress giving a coherent plug,
Figure 20. Illustration of flow functions and konso40, which is the strength of the
obtained during the investigation for Phar-
macia [2]. Continues on page 27...
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 17
Predictions of Loads on Walls
and Insert in a Gravity Flow Silo
using ABAQUS™
Songxiong Ding, Stipendiate
Mladen Jecmenica, Assoc. Prof.
Telemark University College
This article describes the first attempts to
use the finite element package ABAQUS™
to predict the load on the walls of silos.
Next year the large silo battery at Telemark
University College will be used to test these
has been dedicated to such an approach. 1000 kg/m3, the material internal friction
As a result, significant progress has been angle ϕ = 30°, and its friction angle with
achieved so far [7, 8]. In some aspects, the the wall φ = 18°. Young’s modulus Ep was
results produced are quite realistic. assumed as 10 MPa, while its Poisson ratio
It is well known that a ‘smooth’ hopper νp is given by [11] as:
surface is one of the requirements for
mass flow to occur. Deterioration of the 1 - sin ϕ
νp = (1)
surface during operation could cause the 2 - sin ϕ
flow pattern to change from mass flow to τ

predictions. funnel flow and even lead to stoppages.

Interaction between the material and silo

I
n the case of the structural design of wall can be quite complex. It depends on (σ, τ)

silos, considerable uncertainty still both wall material and granular material
exists because of the complexity of properties, wall roughness etc [9], so ϕ
c
S = (σ1 - σ3) / 2

the pressures which a silo is subjected to. modelling the mechanical interaction is σ1 σ1
σm = (σ1 - σ3) / 2
σ3 σ3 σ

Until now, there has been no international still a great challenge, and is essential [10].
agreement on a standard for silo design, Since the research to be carried out here q

even though many such attempts are cur-
rently being made [1, 2]. Instead, one has
still to rely on a formula developed by
Janssen in 1895, and its modifications [3,
4, 5, 6]. Janssen’s simple model, and its
is assumed to be in a mass flow silo, a
‘smooth’ wall surface is a precondition, and
β
therefore a constant friction coefficient
between the granular material and possible
inserts was assumed. d

modified versions have been proven to be There were two kinds of geometry under p

acceptable for the analysis of simple geo-
metrical shapes and granular materials at
rest conditions, but, because of their basic
assumptions for mathematical simplifica-
tion, they are inadequate for more complex
situations created by silo geometry, the
interactions between the granular material
and the silo wall, and various handling
processes.
The assumptions made by Janssen, and
others who have followed him, have been
necessary to obtain analytical solutions to
the equations governing the loads on the
walls of a silo; otherwise such attempts
will be extremely difficult. In order to
extend current knowledge, however, other
methods are required to gain a better
understanding in more complex situa-
tions. To date computational models and
numerical approaches present the possibili-
ties and opportunities for such progress.
Eliminating a number of assumptions, the
numerical models, which are still at an early
stage of development, can theoretically
provide a description of problems in as
great a detail as required to resolve all types
of problem. With the provision of various
software packages in the market, such work
has become easier. In fact, much research
investigation. In the first case, the silo is
made of steel. The cylindrical section was
6 m in height and 2.5 m in diameter, and
its wall thickness was 6 mm. The hopper
in the first case was 3.94 m high, with a
15° hopper angle and a 0.41 m in diameter
outlet. In the second case, the height of
hopper was shortened to 1.5 m with a
35° hopper angle; the other geometries
remained unchanged; but a double-cone
insert was installed. Since the installation
of a double-cone insert would make the
geometry complex, the silo itself was kept
axi-symmetrical for the sake of simplicity;
for the same reason, the double-cone insert
was designed axi-symmetrically and put
into the silo axi-symmetrically too. The
material was filled to a height 2 m below
the top of the silo, from which a conical
surcharge with a 25° repose angle η starts
to form.
For the steel silo wall, the Young’s modu-
lus Ew and Poisson’s ratio νw was set as
2 × 10 11 Pa and 0.25 respectively. The
setting of material parameters relates to
the material model. In this investigation,
the measurable parameters were based on
the Mohr-Coulomb model for a granular
material. They are: the bulk density ρ =
Figure 21. Mohr-Coulomb (upper) and
linear Drucker-Prager model (lower).
The material plastic parameters were
adjusted during the analysis for the sake
of convergence, but are usually set as 1
thousandth of its Young’s modulus at the
beginning of failure.
However, these data cannot directly
used; they need to be converted into for
the parameters of a linear Drucker-Prager
model offered in ABAQUS™. In a non-
associated flow case, the converted relation-
ships are [12]:
tan β = 3 sin ϕ (2)
d
= 3 cos ϕ (3)
c
where β, ϕ, c and d are parameters in the
Mohr-Coulomb failure model and the
Linear Drucker-Prager model for granular
material as shown in Figure 21.
As known, the flow patterns and magni-
tudes of pressures in silos are related; the
pressure cannot itself be predicted without
the flow pattern being known. If the flow
pattern is mass flow, the silo pressures can

18 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

 l 1,6
that a mass flow pattern arc35_10
arc35_5
1,4
will occur in our cases,
1,2
the work of predicting

Height of insert m
the loads generated by the 1
granular material on the 0,8
Ref. Pt walls of the silo and 0,6
the surface of insert was 0,4
carried out. In such a 0,2
flow, there is a moment 0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000
at the beginning of dis- Pressure Pa

charge when the stress Figure 24. Abaqus predictions of pressure on

state changes from the the insert.
Ref. Pt so-called active to a pas-
sive state in the hopper sec- insert.
tion. This change leads to a With such a mesh design, gravity load-
dramatic increase of pressure ing was applied and the outlet was kept
on the wall at the transition open. Under such conditions, the material
between the hopper and cyl- will undergo a deformation. Divergences
(a) (b) (c) (d) inder. This is usually the cause were met, but overcome by adjusting the
Figure 22. Examples of meshes in use. (a) Steep silo of damage to most silos, so material parameters, namely the materials
mesh (b) Steep silo’s hopper mesh (c) Flatter silo the analysis was carried out plastic yield parameter. Converging results
mesh(with insert) (d)After smoothing corner, flatter in order to cover the change were achieved with this parameter set at
hopper mesh with insert. occurring during this period. between 50,000-280,000 Pa.
This part of work was car- Very high pressure peaks were obtained
be predicted reasonably well. However, at ried out using ABAQUS™/Standard,where at the transition when this was modelled as
present, the flow pattern itself is still dif- more flexible element designs are available. a sharp corner. So finite element smoothing
ficult to predict. Even with such difficulties, In the mesh design, partition was always technology was used to avoid any sharp
mass flow in a silo with a steep hopper can used in the material region where a CAX8R corners. In both silo cases, the transition
be secured for most materials. This was (8-node axi-symmetric quadrilateral, was assigned radii of 0.5 m and 1 m,
confirmed for the first case [13]. reduced) element was adopted. A SAX2 and a 0.1 m radius was assigned to the
A Lagrangian-Eulerian approach was (3-node quadratic axi-symmetric thin corner of the insert. After such geometry
therefore used to simulate the material shell) was used for the wall, and a rigid modifications, the mesh was redesigned as
movement in the silo. Based on the silo analytical surface was defined for the shown and given in Figure 22d. By doing
geometry, axi-symmetrical shell (SAX1) 6 so, convergence was much easier
elements and structural continuum ele- arc35_10
arc35_5
to achieve, and some results for
ments (SAX4) were designed for the wall 5
the contact pressures are shown
and granular material. A rigid element was 4
in Figures 23, and 24 for the silos
used to represent the insert. In order to walls and the surface of the insert
Height [m]

get a better mesh domain, partition was
used in the material region. Examples of
meshes used are shown in Figure 22. In
the material region, an adaptive mesh was
defined. In this adaptive mesh region, a zero
movement of adaptive mesh constraint
and an Eulerian surface region type were
applied to the boundary of the outlet. By
doing so, the meshes at the outlet were
fixed, but the material can still flow through
across these meshes. Whereas at other
boundaries, a Lagrangian region type was
applied to ensure that the edges of the
3 respectively. There are theories to
predict silo wall pressures induced
2
by stored material [4, 5, 14, 15]. The
1 results shown in Figures 23 and 24
were compared with results using
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
theories in these references. In order
Pressure [Pa]
to make such comparisons easier,
(a) Steep silo a Fortran and a Matlab program
9
arc15_10
were created respectively based
8 arc15_5 on these formulae. They were run
7 independently and comparisons
6 of the calculations gave the same
results. Comparisons were then car-
Height [m]

5
meshes follow the movement of material. ried out using these two programs
4
Two simulation steps were carried out. by importing the data in Figures 23
In the first step, by applying the silo’s active 3
and 24. The results are shown in
state stress i.e. 0.0 Pa at the material on 2
Figures 25 and 26. In the figures, it
the top, but 35,000 Pa at that on the outlet 1 can be seen that the Janssen’s active
as an initial condition (see Figure 25), an 0 state was extended to the hopper
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
equilibrium state was adopted to simulate Pressure [Pa] section based on Roberts’ suggestion
the material storage state stress. This stress (b) Flatter hopper with insert [16]. The result at the top from
is needed to trigger material motion. In Figure 23. Abaqus predictions of pressure along Janssen’s and the result at the outlet
the second step, a free discharge process the wall (arc15_5/10 means hopper angle 15°, from Roberts’ suggestion were used
was simulated. With the pre-knowledge filleted radius 0.5 m/1.0 m). as an initial condition.

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 19

 8

Overall, as seen in Figures 25 and

Abaqus, arc 0.5 m
Walker modified, active 1989.
Enstad, passive
7
26, the ABAQUS™ predictions agree
Walker, passive
Abaqus, arc 1.0 m
2. Rotter, J.M.: Flow and Pressure in Silo
6
quite well with those from theoreti-
Janssen, active
Structural Integrity Assessment. Sym-
cal predictions in the silo’s cylinder posium on Reliable Flow of Particulate
section in both cases, but differences Solids (RELPOWFLO III), Porsgrunn,
Silo height m

4 exist in the hopper section. The August 1999.

differences become greater as the 3. Walker, D.M.: An Approximate Theory
3
hopper becomes flatter. In such flat for Pressures and Arching in Hoppers.
2
Roberts’ suggestion: Stress at the
hoppers, there is a doubt whether Chemical Engineering Science, 1966.
outlet used as an initial condition the theoretical formulae can still be 4. Walters, J.K.: A Theoretical Analysis
1
applied. But in any case, the results of Stress in Silos with Vertical Walls.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
from ABAQUS™ for the two radii Chemical Engineering Science, 1966.
Pressure Pa x 10 used at the transition fit reasonably 4
5. Enstad, G.G.: A Novel Theory on the
Figure 25. Comparisons between ABAQUS well through the whole silo. Arching and Doming in Mass Flow
predictions and theoretical results in a steep The fact that the ABAQUS™ pre- Hopper. Ph.D. Thesis, Norwegian Insti-
hopper silo. diction results drop to zero before tute of Technology, Bergen, 1981.
6
Abaqus, arc 0.5 m reaching its peak is apparently wrong. 6. Jenike, W.: Storage and Flow of Solids.
Walker modified, active
Enstad, passive
Walker, passive
That is because when the material Bulletin 123, Utah Engineering Exper-
5 Abaqus, arc 1.0 m
Janssen, active deforms, there exist separations in iment Station, University of Utah,
that area (Figure 27). With no con- 1964.
4
tact, the pressure in this area then 7. U. Häß, Eibl, J.: Numerical Investigation
Silo height m

becomes zero. of Discharging Silos. Journal of

3
Below the separation, there are
contact pressure peaks. These peaks
2
could be very high (8 × 105 Pa for
the flatter hopper and 5 × 105 Pa for
1
the steep hopper) due to point (line)
0
contact between the material and wall
0 1 2 3 4
Pressure Pa
5 6 7
x 10
8
when there was no fillet at the transi-
Figure 26. Comparisons between ABAQUS tion. These line contacts were modi-
predictions and theoretical results in a flat hopper fied into surface contacts by filleting
silo with a double-cone insert. the corner. After such modifications,
the peaks dropped close to and even
lower than the theoretically predicted
peaks.
Separation and line It was also interesting to observe the
contact between effect the insert had on the pressures
material and wall on the wall. Referring to the results as
at the transition
shown in Figure 24, one found that
the insert takes a significant part of
the load. Comparing the maximum
contact pressure in the steep hopper
with those in the flat hopper (Figure
28) shows that the insert decreases the
pressure peak at the transition greatly,
Figure 27. When material deforms, it drops down even though there is no significant
a bit and separates from the wall at the transition; change in other places. The insert
it leads to line contact which is responsible for does have some effects on the peak
the very high pressure peak. of contact pressure. However this
decrease gets less obvious when the
4 1,5
Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 110,
1984.
8. Tuzun, U., Heyes, D.M.: Distinct Ele-
ment Simulations and Dynamic Micro-
structural Imaging of Slow Granular
Flows. Mechanics of Mechanics and
4 Porous Material (Eds. Fleck, N.A.
and Cocks, A.C.F.), Kluwer Academic,
London.
9. Ooms, M., Roberts, A.W.: Significant
Influence on Wall Friction in the Gra-
vity Flow of Bulk Solids. Bulk Solids
Handling, December 1985.
10. Ooi, J.Y., Rotter, J.M.: Wall Pressure in
Squat Silos from Simple Finite Element
Analysis. Computers & Structures, Vol.
37, 1990.
11. Qu, Q., Negi, S.C., Jofriet, J.C.: Storage
of Cohesive material in Silos - Part 2:
Parametric Study. Powder Handling
Processing, January/March, 2001.
12. Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, INC
ABAQUS: Theory Manual, 2001.
13. Ding, S., Enstad, G.G., Jecmenica,
M., de Silva, S.R.: Simulation of a
Double-Cone’s Effects on the Granular
Material Flow in Silos. 7th Interna-
tional Conference on Bulk Materials

3,5
fillet radius becomes larger. Storage, Handling and Transportation,
1,2
3 Newcastle, Australia, 2001.
Steep silo's hopper height [m]

Flat silo's hopper height [m]

2,5
0,9
Acknowledgement 14. Nedderman, R.M.: Static and Kinema-
2
The authors acknowledge their grati- tics of Granular Materials. Cambridge
arc15_10
arc15_5
0,6
tude to the Norwegian Research University Press, 1992.
1,5 arc35_5
arc35_10
Council and members at the POSTEC 15. Drescher, A.: Analytical Methods in
1
0,3
programme for financial support. Bin-Load Analysis. Elsevier Science
0,5 Publishers B.V., 1991.
0 0
References 16. Roberts, A.W.: Storage, Flow and Han-
1. Roberts, A.W.: Loads on Bulk dling of Bulk Solids. Department of
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Pressure [Pa]

Figure 28. Insert significantly decreases the Solids Containers. Draft Austra- Mechanical Engineering, University of
pressure peak at the transition lian Standard for Comment, Newcastle, N.S.W. Australia, 1987.

20 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

Use of an FE-Method for Calculating
Stresses in Silo Structures
Mladen Jecmenica, Assoc. Prof.
Telemark University College
Michal Wójcik, Marie Curie Post-Graduate
Fellow, Tel-Tek
FEM is a very useful means for calculating
stresses and deformations in the silo
structure, since it can take into account
complex silo geometries and wall pres-
sures. In this paper, some numerical results
for large axisymmetric silo at Telemark
University College are presented. The
calculations were carried out with the com-
mercial software ABAQUS™. A symmetric
and non-symmetric load according to Jans-
sen [1] and a load from an FE-simulation
was considered. In the calculations, the
stiffening rings and ribs along the silo
mantle were taken into account.
Finite Element Implementation
The silo is made of steel and consists of
a cylindrical part and a conical hopper.
The height of the cylinder is about 8 m
and the diameter 2.5 m. The height of the
hopper is 4 m. Its inclination to the vertical
is 15°. The wall thickness of the silo is 6
mm. Along the bin, there are 5 stiffening
rings and 52 stiffening ribs (Figure 29a).
2.51
6.73
7.94
11.89
support
level
15.0˚
5.15
3.95
a)
b)
Figure 29. Axisymmetric large silo at
Telemark University College showing actual
dimensions (a) and the FE grid used (b).
Figure 30. FE-mesh with stiffening ribs.
The FE-calculations were performed with
16000 shell elements (4-node elements
with 6 degrees of freedom). The symmetry
of the silo was taken into account (Figure
29b). The following elastic data were
assumed for the silo wall: modulus of
elasticity E = 2.0⋅1011 Pa and Poisson’s ratio
v = 0.3. In reality, the cylindrical part of
the silo is connected with the hopper along
the perimeter with the aid of bolts. In the
calculations, a fixed connection between
the cylinder and the hopper was assumed.
Each rib of a trapezoid shape was fixed on
3 edges (Figure 30).
The following material properties of
the bulk solid were assumed to calculate
horizontal loads on the wall: bulk specific
weight γ = 10.5 kN/m3, coefficient of the
wall friction µ = 0.3 and angle of internal
friction φ = 35°. The analysis was carried
out with 3 different horizontal loads for
the case of flow: a symmetrical and a
non-symmetrical load distribution of
the normal based on Janssen equations
and Australian Standards [1] and a load
obtained from a FE-simulation of the
silo flow [2]. A non-symmetric load was
created by allowing the height of the solid
on one side of the silo to be lower than on
the other side.
Numerical Results
Figures 31 and 32 (see nest page) present
the calculated circumferential normal
stresses and displacements in the silo wall
using the equations proposed by Janssen
[1]. The positive values of stresses indicate
a tensile region.
The maximum tensile stresses are at the
transition point between the cylindrical
section and the hopper. They are about
12-13 MPa (Figure 31). They are insignifi-
cant as compared to the strength of the
shell (250 MPa). The stresses during non-
symmetric loading are higher by 10%. A
non-symmetric load influences the wall
displacements strongly (Figure 32). The
maximum wall displacement occurs at the
top and is about 0.2 mm.
The results of Figure 33 presents the
circumferential normal stresses in the silo
wall produced by symmetric horizontal
loads from the FE-simulation of the silo
flow [2]. The maximum tensile normal
stresses take place below the transition
level and the local compression at the silo
support.
Conclusions
The presented results show that a FE-
method is a useful tool to calculate stresses
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 21
 a) b) a) b)
Figure 31. Calculated circumferential stresses in the silo wall for a Figure 32. Calculated magnitude of displacements of the silo wall
symmetric (a) and a non-symmetric (b) horizontal load. for (a) a symmetric and (b) a non-symmetric horizontal load.

in the silo wall. It is particularly useful when

the geometry of the silo is complex and the
distribution of wall pressures caused by
the bulk solid is non-uniform.
In the next calculation step, wall shear
stresses will be taken into account which
are of importance for the stability of steel
silos.
The authors are grateful to the Nor-
wegian Research Council which largely
financed the construction of the large
silos at Telemark University College and
to the EU’s Marie Curie programme for
the post-graduate Fellowship to Michal
Wójcik.

References
1. Roberts, A.W.: Bin wall loads. Course of
Bulk Solids Handling. The University
of Newcastle, January 1997.
2. Ding, S., Wojcik, M., Jecmenica. M.:
Finite element predictions of loads on
Figure 33. Calculated circumferential normal stresses of the silo wall for a symmetric walls and insert in a gravity flow silo.
horizontal load [2]. In preparation.

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22 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

CFD Modelling of a Lab-Scale
Fluidised Bed
Britt Halvorsen, Senior Engineer Table 3. Experimental conditions. The results of the simulations with one
Vidar Mathiesen, Assoc. Prof. Conditions and three particle phases are given in
Telemark University College Height of experimental set-up 63.0 cm Figures 36 and 37 respectively.
http://www-pors.hit.no/tf/forskning/gisp/ Width of experimental set-up 19.5 cm
Depth of experimental set-up 2.50 cm
Mean particle size 550 µm
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) of Freeboard pressure 101325.0 Pa
multiphase flow processes provides a Initial bed height 28.0 cm
new tool for design and optimisation of Fluidisation velocity 0.29 m/s
multiphase gas/solids flow systems. In Jet velocity 4.9 m/s
order to be able to calculate complex Solid density 2485 kg/m
industrial fluidised bed reactors, the bed Bulk density 1500 kg/m
expansion and bubble formation have to be Figure 36. Volume fraction of solids, simulation
19,5 cm
correctly calculated. The flow behaviour of with one particle phase
a lab-scale fluidised bed with a central jet
has been simulated. The study has been
performed using FLOTRACS-MP-3D [1].
The CFD model is based on a multi-fluid
Eulerian description of the phases, where
63 cm

the kinetic theory for granular flow forms the

basis for turbulence modelling of the solids
28 cm

phases. The simulations are performed with

one and three solids phases, with two dif- Figure 37. Volume fraction of solids, simulation
ferent drag models and with different values with three particle phases.
of the coefficient of restitution. A reasonable
flow pattern, including bubble formations, is Table 4. Computational set-up.
calculated. This paper discusses different Computations
factors that should be considered when Figure 34. Experimental set-up. Height of computational set-up 63.0 cm
modelling bubbling fluidised beds. This Width of computational set-up 19.5 cm
Initial bed height 28.0 cm
paper is a summary of reference [2].
One phase

A
Particle mean diameter 550 µm
two-dimensional bed has been
Three phases
constructed in order to study the Particle mean diameters 630 µm (18%)
bed expansion and bubble forma- 500 µm (50%)
tion in gas/solid flow. The purpose of 400 µm (32%)
the experimental study was to verify the Horizontal grid size 5.0 mm
predictive capability of the CFD model. t=0.120 s t=0.320 s t=0.440 s Vertical grid size 10.0 mm
Gas phase shear viscosity 1.8⋅10-5 Pa s
The fluidised bed is constructed with a
Initial void fraction 0.50
cross-sectional area of 19.5 x 2.5 cm and a Max. volume fraction of solids 0.64356
height of 63 cm. Spherical glass particles Jet velocity 4.9 m/s
with a particle density of 2485 kg/m3 and Fluidisation velocity 0.29 m/s
a settled bulk density of 1500 kg/m3 were Freeboard pressure 101325.0 Pa
Solid density 2485 kg/m3
used in the experiments. The volume aver-
Bulk density 1500 kg/m3
age mean particle diameter is measured
to be 550 mm. The experimental set-up is t=0.740 s t=0.800 s
shown in Figure 34, and the experimental Figure 35. A movie sequence of experi- The comparison between simulations with
conditions are given in Table 3. mental results. one and three solid phases shows that
The bed is fluidised by introducing three solid phases give continuous bubble
compressed air with a velocity of 0.29 In the simulations 39 and 63 control vol- formations, whereas simulation with one
m/s through a distributor plate. Jet air is umes are used in the horizontal and verti- solid phase give formation, rise and erup-
injected at a velocity of 4.9 m/s. A digital cal direction respectively. Computational tion of only one bubble. Simulations with
video camera is applied to measure bubble set-up is given in Table 4. Simulations one particle phase give a smaller bubble.
formation and velocity. A movie sequence have been run with both one and three Figures 38 and 39 show the results from
of the experimental results is shown in solid phases in order to discuss possible the simulations with two different drag
Figure 35. improvement of several solid phases. models, Ergun/Wen and Yu drag model

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 23

and Gibilaro et al. drag model, respectively.
Three particle phases are included in both
simulations. A comparison of the two drag
models shows that Erguns drag model gives
the largest bubbles, the highest bed and
the lowest concentration of particles. The
performed measurements confirm that the
Ergun model calculates a more reasonable
Figure 38. Volume fractions of solids, simula-
tions results by using Erguns drag model.
Figure 41. Volume fraction of solids,
simulations with various values of the
Figure 39. Volume fractions of solids, simula- coefficient of restitution at time t=0.580
tions results by using Gibilaros drag model. s.
Computational & Experimental
Studies of a Vane Separator
Aage I. Jøsang, Stipendiate
Telemark University College
Morten Chr. Melaaen, Professor
Telemark University College
The separation of droplets from a gas
stream is a matter of necessity in many
processes. The equipment used for this
separation is widely spread from various
types of cyclones, vane-type separators,
packed bed separators, scrubbers, and
wire/fibre separators. In this work a vane-
type separator is studied.
Nozzle
Mist eliminator
Fan
Channel, 1 m
P The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Air F F
Liquid Drain
Water
Figure 42. Principal sketch over the experimental model.
24 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
bubble formation and bed height for these
flow conditions.
Figure 40. Volume fraction of solids,
simulations with various values of the
coefficient of restitution at time t=0.180 s.
T
he model of the vane separator unit
is designed to give a good basis
for the measurements (Figure 42).
The fluid flow in the experimental model
is studied by laser Doppler anemometry
(LDA). Detailed velocity profiles appear
and mean velocities and turbulence proper-
ties are calculated. The centre distance
between the vanes is 2.5 cm. More details
about these measurements are given in
Jøsang and Melaaen (1).
P
Airflow
Vane Separator meter
F measured profiles in the vane separator.
Figures 40 and 41 show the results from
the simulations with various coefficients
of restitution at time 0.180 s and 0.580 s,
respectively. The numerical results indicate
that the bubble velocity and the shape
of the first bubble seem to be almost
independent of the coefficient of restitu-
tion. However, it seems that the coefficient
of restitution influences the bubble size
and local concentration of solids. The
maximum concentration of solids increases
significantly when the coefficient of restitu-
tion is decreased from 1 to 0.95. After the
first bubble has erupted (Figure 41), and
by using unity coefficient of restitution, no
further bubbles are formed.
References
1. Mathiesen, V, Solberg, T, Hjertager,
B.H.: Prediction of Gas/Particle Flow
Including a Realistic Particle Size Dis-
tribution. Powder Technology, 112
(2000), p.34-45.
2. Halvorsen B., Mathiesen V.: CFD Mod-
elling and Simulation of a Lab-scale
Fluidised Bed. 42nd Conference on
Simulation and Modelling. October
2001, Porsgrunn, Norway.
The positions measured can be identi-
fied in Figure 43. In addition, an inlet
profile is measured 50 mm upstream of
the vanes, i.e. at x = -50 mm. In this posi-
tion a fully developed flow is measured.
The comparison between simulations and
measurements are carried out the same
positions as shown in Figure 43 (not at
x = 0.0 mm).
X = 68.75 mm
X = 50 mm
X = 87.5 mm
X =112.5 mm
X =137.5 mm
X = 00 mm X =165 mm
Figure 43. The different positions of the
simulations cover various turbulence
models (k-ε and RSM turbulence models),
near wall treatments (“Law-of-the-wall”
and “ Two-layer zonal model”), numerical
schemes and structured grid as well as un-
structured grid simulations. Earlier simula-
 Hvem har sagt at du må til Trondheim for å bli

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Opptakskontoret: 35 57 53 00
http://www.hit.no
E-post: opptak@hit.no

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 25

tions show that a proper matching between
the grid and the near wall treatment is
important. However, most important is
the effect of the two different numerical
schemes together with the turbulence
models. The selected numerical schemes
are two different first order schemes (the
power law scheme for Fluent v4.5 and the
first order upwind scheme for Fluent v5.3)
and the higher order QUICK scheme.
The Law-of-the-wall grid is coarse by
the wall. The number of control volumes
is considerably higher for the simulations
of the Two-layer zonal model compared
to the Law-of-the-wall since a fine grid
is needed by the wall. For the structured
simulations (Fluent v4.5) the grid size was
875 x 32 (28000) cells for the Law-of-the-
wall case, and 1440 x 52 (74880) cells for
the Two-layer zonal model. For the un-
structured simulations (Fluent v5.3) the
Law-of-the-wall grid consisted of 30202
cells, and for the Two-layer zonal model
the un-structured grid consisted of 52528
cells. For the un-structured cases, only
Table 5. Pressure drops over the vane separator.
Case DP [Pa]
First order Higher order
scheme scheme
Experimental 40.0
Structured, k-ε, Law-of-the-wall 43.1 35.0
Structured, k-ε, Two-layer zonal model 38.0 36.4
Structured, RSM, Law-of-the-wall 48.7 45.2
Un-structured, k- ε, Law-of-the-wall 44.3 42.8
Un-structured, k- ε, Two-layer zonal model 43.9 36.9
Un-structured, RSM, Law-of-the-wall 50.7 61.5
is the overprediction of the recirculation x-velocity is well predicted, even though the
zones and overprediction of the maximum magnitude of the negative velocities is not
velocities within the separator (seen from correctly predicted. The k-ε model predicts
later figures). a somewhat linear velocity profile, ending
in a negative velocity close to the wall.
Mean Velocities For the un-structured cases the deviations
The measured velocities at x = 87.5 mm are similar the structured cases, but for
show a strong recirculation zone, extending the RSM model the first and higher order
almost 5 mm from the wall, with backflow schemes produce different results.
velocities about 2 m/s (Figure 44). The 25
structured cases are shown to the left, and Structured x = 137.5 mm

triangle cells are used. the un-structured cases to the right. The
The analysed case has an inlet velocity profiles of the RSM model are closest to the 20

equal to 3.54 m/s, and the turbulence experimental values. The recirculation zone
intensity is set equal to 5%. The simulation is however not predicted well enough. Width [mm] 15
started 1 m upstream of the vane, and the 25
velocity profile is close to fully developed Structured x = 87.5 mm

when the flow reaches the vane. The inlet 10

boundary conditions for the turbulence are 20

therefore not important for the simulations 5

of the vane. The flow properties of air at
15
Width [mm]

20°C are used.

0

Pressure Drop
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
10 x-velocity [m/s]
Before presenting any comparisons 25

between measured and predicted velocities, Un-structured x = 137.5 mm

the pressure drops are studied (Table 5). 5

The measured pressure drop is equal to 20

40.0 Pa. The calculated pressure drops 0

have a large variation, from 35.0 Pa to -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
15
Width [mm]

x-velocity [m/s]
61.5 Pa. The results from the structured
25
grid have less variation compared to the Un-structured

un-structured grid. The two different wall x = 87.5 mm 10

treatments give different pressure drops, 20

but no clear trends are seen. The pressure 5

drops calculated by the k-ε turbulence
15
Width [mm]

model have a variation from -12.5% to

10.8%, and the higher order scheme does -4 -2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
not produce better results than the first 10 x-velocity [m/s]

order scheme. The RSM model overpre-
dicts the pressure drop compared to both
measurements and the k-ε turbulence
model, and the un-structured result is
worst, especially when the un-structured
grid is used together with the higher order
scheme. The most likely reason for the
k-e, Law of the wall, 1. order
5
k-e, Two-layer zonal model, 1. order
RSM, Law of the wall, 1. order
Experimental
0 k-e, Law of the wall, Higher order
-5 0 5 10
x-velocity [m/s]
k-e, Two-layer zonal model, Higher order
Figure 44. x-velocity profiles at x= 87.5mm. RSM, Law of the wall, Higher order

increased predicted pressure drop for the Figure 45. x-velocity profiles at x = 137.5
RSM cases, compared to the other cases, The transition from negative to positive mm.

26 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20

For the profiles at x = 137.5 mm a recir-
culation zone is present at the upper
wall. Figure 45 shows the structured and
un-structured results for this position. The
predicted values at position x = 137.5 mm
coincide well with measurements for most
of the k-ε cases except in the recirculation
zone. The RSM case overpredicts the posi-
tive velocity, and misses the magnitude of
the backflow. The shape of the profile in
the backflow area is better for the RSM
model. The k-ε cases are somewhat steeper
towards the upper wall. In an earlier work
by Jøsang and Melaaen (2) the rms veloci-
ties are shown.
For a full discussion of the results readers
are referred to reference 2. In the compari-
son between the simulations and measure-
ments, the pressure drop, the mean veloci-
ties and the fluctuation velocities (rms
velocities) are analysed. The predicted
pressure drop is closely related to the
prediction of the recirculation zones within
the separator. The different combination of
models produce some different results, and
it is not easy to arrive at a final conclusion.
The differences between the structured
and un-structured simulations are usually
small. Normally, the highest order scheme
is believed to produce the most accurate
results, but in the present work the combi-
nation of the best turbulence model (RSM)
and QUICK on the unstructured grid
gave the worst result. The pressure drop
was overpredicted by 50%. The pressure
drops are predicted with an accuracy of
±13% for the k-ε turbulence model. The
k-ε turbulence model combinations gave
satisfactory predictions for the flow fields,
although some deviations exist for the
prediction of the recirculation zones. To
differentiate between the k-ε and the RSM
models is not straightforward, since the
quality of the predictions varies from
position to position in the separator, and
depends on which variable is analysed
(pressure drop, mean velocity or rms veloc-
ity). For this vane separator a first order
scheme together with the k-ε turbulence
model seems best.
References
1. Jøsang, Aa.I., Melaaen, M.C. (2000):
Detailed Measurements and Simula-
tions of a Vane Separator. International
Conference on Applied Computational
Fluid Dynamics, October 17-20, Bei-
jing, China, 2000.
2. Jøsang, Aa.I., Melaaen, M.C. (2001):
Fluid Flow Simulations of a Vane Sepa-
rator. 42nd SIMS Conference, October
8-9, Porsgrunn, 2001.
...Continued from page 17
plug at a consolidation stress of 40 kPa.
The performance of the tabletting
machine is based on the variation of tablet Container Systems
weight and machine speed during com-
mercial tablet production. For the “good”
mixtures tablets within specification were
produced at top speed, for medium ones
the speed had to be reduced, but for the
poor ones tablets within specification were
not produced even when the speed was
reduced. Using the lkon value it is seen that
one can clearly distinguish batches of poor
performance from batches of medium
and good performance, as all batches of
poor performance have lkon = 5 kPa, and
medium and good batches have higher Cone Valve Container System
lkons. However, whereas both batches of with mobile weighing platform
medium performance have lkon = 20 kPa, for automatic component dosing
3 of the good ones have lkon = 40 kPa,
whereas no. 805 has lkon = 10 kPa, which
is an outlier.
On the other hand, looking at konso40,
it is seen that konso40 < 3.3 kPa applies to
all batches of good performance, 3.3 kPa
< konso40 < 5.9 kPa applies to batches
of medium performance, and all batches
of poor performance have konso40 > 5,9
kPa. The only inconsistency here seems
to be that judging by the speed, konso40
of batch 804 should have been less than
that of batch 812, and not the other way
around. However, as the forced feeding
may have caused higher stresses in the UCON Cone Valve Container
powder than 40 kPa during tabletting, on Discharge Station
the agreement might have been better if
measurements had been carried out also
at a higher stress level. That may also be
the reason why the agreement is better for
konso40 than for lkon.
The number of batches included in Table
1 is probably too low for any statistical
proof of the performance of the uniaxial
tester, but this example is an indication that Container with Butterfly Valve
the uniaxial tester can be used for predict-
ing the behavior of a powder mixture in Powder Containers 600-3000 l
a tabletting machine, or any other similar Dust free Powder Transfer
equipment. with Filling Adapters and
Discharge Stations
References Accurate Dosing and Weighing
1. Enstad, G.G.: Uniaxial Tester Devel- Manual or Automatic Operation
oped by POSTEC is Further Perfected. For Food, Pharma and Chemicals
POSTEC-Newsletter No. 18, 1999.
2. Lindberg, N.-O., Berdal, A., Enstad, Interbulk AS
G.G., Seifert, E., Lundstedt, T.: Investi- Box 89 Ytre Laksevåg
gation of Flow Properties of Powders by N-5848 Bergen
Means of a Uniaxial Tester, in Relation Tel: +47 5594 0320
to Direct Tablet Compression. Drug Fax: +47 5534 6940
Development and Industrial Pharmacy, bernt.iversen@interbulk.no
28(1), p.15-27 (2002). www.interbulk.no
The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 27
Comminution and Air Classification
Jacek Kolacz, Senior Scientist
Stein Tore Johansen, Chief Scient., Prof. II
SINTEF Materials Technology, Trondheim
During processing of minerals, combined
comminution and classification is an inte-
grated process. These two process steps
interact closely and need to be optimized
simultaneously. Due to the complexity of
these systems experienced engineers have
historically performed such optimization.
However, numerical simulation techniques
have been developed substantially during
the last decade and can now offer significant
support to the optimization process.
S
INTEF has for more then 20 years
worked with development of mul-
tiphase flow modelling techniques.
There has also been a close cooperation
with POSTEC in this area [4]. These tech-
niques have many applications in powder
technology and are continuously under
development. SINTEF is now working
with a strategic institute program called
CARPET [5]. In this program multiphase
flow methods will be further developed. In
particular methods to deal with collision
dominated flows are in focus. Applications
can be mills, classifiers and segregation
phenomena in powder handling.
At the same time SINTEF has come
up with industrially successful concepts
for comminution and air classification.
A challenge is now to bridge theoretical
and process knowledge in order to supply
industry with better equipment.
Hicom Mill
Hicom mills are new and versatile high
intensity grinding mills. Their unique
design delivers high power intensity to the
grinding process and introduces new pos-
sibilities in comminution practice [2]. They
can operate autogenously or with a charge
of steel balls or other media. Depending
on the application, steel, ceramic or sand
media may be used. Feed sizes up to 60
mm can be accepted. Thus the mills are
extremely versatile, and can be used for
a wide range of mineral processing and
industrial grinding duties, wet or dry, in
open and closed circuit, as well as in batch
mode. Hicom mills are particularly well
suited to energy-efficient fine grinding
down to 10 microns and below. Grinding
tests in Hicom mills have shown that both
hard and soft ores can be reduced efficiently
28 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
to fine sizes ranging from 80% passing 20
µm down to 2 µm and below. Available
power drives on Hicom mill ranges from
15 to 110 kW. Larger units up to 1000 kW
are planned to be manufactured.
The grinding process in Hicom mills is
achieved through a unique combination
of the grinding chamber geometry and
a high-speed nutating motion (Figure
46). The charge in the grinding chamber
tumbles rapidly in a mechanically induced
acceleration field many times stronger than
gravity. This creates very high power input
per unit mill volume and exceptionally fast
particle breakage rates, typically 50 to 100
times greater than conventional tumbling
mills. In fact, the motion of the Hicom mill
chamber is similar to that of a centrifugal
or planetary mill, except that the diameter
and acceleration intensity vary down
the length of the mill. The result is high
productivity from a compact, efficient and
cost-effective machine.
Figure 46. Cut-away view showing feed
material flow path: Hicom 110/30 mill,
with 110 kW motor and 30 litre grinding
chamber.
The SINTEF Classifier
The SINTEF air classifier was developed in
Trondheim [12] and compares favourably
with other air classifiers. The classifier
design results in increased classification
efficiency [10] and especially reduced
specific energy requirements [11]. Com-
mercially available models (licensed to
Carpco-Inprosys in USA) range in clas-
sification capacity from 1 to 100 t/h.
A schematic diagram of the classifier is
shown in Figure 47. As can be seen, the feed
material enters the classifier suspended in
air through a vertical pipe positioned at the
bottom of the classifier. Initial classification
takes place in the classifying chamber. After
passing the feed dispersion cone, the coarse
material is discharged from the classifier
by gravity through the coarse fraction
outlet. Remaining material rises with the
air stream to the top of the classifier.
A rotor accelerates the material to its
peripheral speed thus creating a centrifugal
force in the particle to act against the air
drag forces. As particle velocity increases,
the centrifugal force rises and coarser
particles can be rejected outside the rotor,
while finer particles pass through the rotor
and are discharged from the classifier fines
outlet.
A secondary air inlet, supplying the
classifier with an additional air stream, is
used to clean the coarse fraction from the
very fine particles agglomerated on the
surface of the coarser grains. This results
in an improvement of the classification
efficiency.
Figure 47. Schematic drawing of the
SINTEF air classifier.
Pilot Plant Tests
Continuous closed-circuit grinding, which
is normally more efficient than batch
grinding, has been tried with the Hicom
mill and the SINTEF air classifier [13]. A
series of tests under different conditions
have been performed to demonstrate the
effectiveness of this equipment combina-
tion for the production of many different
fine powders. As an example a closed circuit
grinding of calcium carbonate to a range of
product sizes from 98% passing 26 down
to 6.4 microns is shown, to determine the
specific energy requirements for grinding
of this material. A feed sample of the
limestone powder had a size of nominally Numerical Modelling Efforts
98% passing 94. The full particle size dis- Numerical modelling of air classifiers
tribution curves for the product curves for started in the late 80’s [6]. However, the
these three runs are displayed in Figure techniques were not able to deal with high
48. particle fractions and inter-particle colli-
sions. This defect was removed
100
later by the introduction of granu-
90
lar flow models [7]. The numerical
models have been applied to a large
80
References
1. Brown, M.R., Kolacz, J., Hoyer, D.: Fine
Dry Comminution of Calcium Carbon-
ate in the Hicom Mill and an Inprosys
Air Classifier. Minerals Engineering
Conference, 21-23 March, Brisbane,
Australia.
2. Hoyer, D.I., Boyes, J.M.: High-Inten-
sity Fine and Ultrafine Grinding in

70
number of industrial processes the Hicom Mill. XVth CMMI Con-
Percent Passing

Feed
60

50
Product 1
Product 2
[8], but so far only to a smaller gress. Johannesburg, SAIMM, 1994, 2,
40
Product 3 degree to milling and development p.435-441.
30
of classification equipment. By 3. Hicom Internet address: www.hicom-
20
introduction of Discrete Element mill.com.
10 Particle methods ([5-9]) SINTEF 4. Johansen, S.T., de Silva, S.R.: Some
0 plans to study particle-particle Considerations Regarding Optimum
interaction on a detailed level. Flow Fields for Centrifugal Air Clas-
1 10 100 1000
Size (microns)

Figure 48. Particle size distribution of the feed and Such techniques will make it pos- sification. Int. J. Miner. Process, 44-45
three products. sible to analyze various sorts of (1996), p.703-721.
mills and classification equip- 5. CARPET internet address: www.carpet.
Comparison of Grinding Results ment. ntnu.no.
The specific energies required for the In order to understand phenomena in 6. Johansen, S.T., Anderson, N.M., de
milling of this material to the products such complex devises, new and improved Silva, S.R.: A Two-Phase Model for
shown earlier are given below as Figure techniques for diagnoses and verification Particle Local Equilibrium Applied to
49. The energies for the production of the of models will be of crucial importance. Air Classification of Powders. Powder
same sized material based on d80’s for an This is also one important issue in the Technology, 63 (1990), p.121-132.
optimised ball mill are also given. These CARPET Program [5]. 7. Laux, H.: Modelling of dilute and dense
figures were estimated on the basis of dispersed fluid-particle flow. Dr.Ing
pilot scale ball mill grinding carried out Conclusions Thesis, The Norwegian University of
by SINTEF. The results were compared The efficient separation of product and Science and Technology, 1997.
with optimised industrial scale ball milling recycle material in the IAC 200 classifier as 8. Johansen, S.T.: Application of Compu-
circuits, where similar energy consumption well as the high intensity milling environ- tational Fluid Dynamics in Optimiza-
levels were recorded. All of the ball millingment of the Hicom 25 mill combine to tion and Design of Metallurgical Proc-
reference values are based on grinding in result in a substantial reduction in milling esses. Modelling, Identification and
the closed circuit with the same type of the energy requirements for the production Control, 19 (1997), p.101-122.
SINTEF air classifier. This gives confidence of fine sized material. For the material 9. Johansen, S.T., Laux, H.: Simulations of
in the accuracy of the estimates, where two sizes produced during this test the milling Granular Materials Flows. Proceedings
different grinding machines are compared energy requirements were between 31 and of the Int. Symp. on the Reliable Flow of
employing the same type of classifier. 70% lower than would be expected for a Particulate Solids (RELPOWFLO III),
ball milling circuit. 11-13 August 1999, Telemark College,
300
The milling energy requirements Porsgrunn, Norway.
of the Hicom mill/SINTEF classi- 10. Kolacz, J.: Improving the Air Classifica-
Specific energy (kW . hr/t)

250

200 fier combination is significantly

Hicom Mill Products (D80's)
Ball Mill Products (D80's)
's
tion Process by Optimal Operating
less than that of an ordinary ball
Feed Parameters. XXI International Mineral
150
milling circuit, and operating costs Processing Congress, 23-27 July, 2000,
100 are therefore likely to be substan- Rome, Italy.
50 tially lower. Further increases 11. Kolacz, J.: Optimal Air Classification.
in the milling efficiency of this Proceedings, the 3rd Processing for
0
1 10 100 plant are likely with additional Profit - International Industrial Miner-
Size (microns) optimization work on the classifier als Conference, 26-28 April, 1999,
Figure 49. Specific energy for grinding 94 micron operating parameters. Existing Antwerp, Belgium.
calcium carbonate to different sizes. numerical simulation techniques 12. Kolacz J.: Apparatus for classification of
can be a valuable support in this particulate material. Norwegian Patent
This graph clearly illustrates the reduction optimization. No. 300257, May 1997, Norway.
in energy required to mill this calcium By a further development of the under- 13. Kolacz, J.: Benefits from Optimized Dry
carbonate to fine sizes in the Hicom mill standing of the flow phenomena in these Ball Mill Circuit Grinding - Economical
dry pilot plant over what would be expected devices it may be possible to push the and Technical Aspects during Equip-
for a typical ball milling circuit. For the technology even further in the direction of ment Selection. Proceedings, the 2nd
material sizes produced during this test the higher energy efficiency and finer cut-sizes. Processing for Profit - International
milling energy requirements were between The numerical simulation techniques are Industrial Minerals Processing Confer-
31 and 70% lower than would be expected expected to be an important tool for such ence, 20-22 April, 1997, New Orleans,
for a conventional ball milling circuit. optimization in the years to come. USA.

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 29

Publications and Reports
Below is a list of the reports written after November 1998. Reports with classification K2 (strictly confidential) not included. Reports
marked K1 are confidential, but references open. Those marked P are available only to members of POSTEC. Those marked A are
freely available. Contact your library. Please use order form on next page.
Berdal, A.: Investigation of the flow
properties of some lactose mixtures
using the uniaxialtester. Tel-Tek-report
no. 430031-1, 2001 March 3. P.43. K1.
Datta, B.K.: Assessment of stickiness
of densified microsilica. Tel-Tek-report
no. 420011-1, 2001 Sept. P.12. K1.
Datta, B.K., Sannes, T., Davidsen, F.:
Pneumatic Transport of a Dry Chemi-
cal Powder for Fire Fighting on Ships.
PARTEC 2001, International Congress
for Particle Technology, Nürnberg,
Germany. Report no. 01-1000-1, 2001
March 27-29. P.6. A.
Datta, B.K., Tappe, S., de Silva, S.R.:
An Experimental Study of Pressure
Gradients in Vertical and Horizontal
Pneumatic Transport. 7th International
Conf. on Bulk Material, Storage Han-
dling and Transportation, Newcastle,
Australia. Report no. 01-1000-8, 2001
June. P.8. A.
Ding, S., Enstad, G.G., Jecmenica, M.,
de Silva, S.R.: Simulations of a Double-
Cone’s Effects on Granular Material
Flow in Silos. 7th Int. Conference on
Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and
Transportation, Newcastle, Australia.
Report no. 01-1000-3, 2001 P.11. A.
Ding, S., Hafenbrädl, F.O.v., Enstad,
G.G., Jecmenica, M., de Silva, S.R.:
Observations on the Change from
Funnel to Mass Flow in Silos by means
of a Double-Cone. 7th Int. Conference
on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling
and Transportation, Newcastle, Aus-
tralia. Report no. 01-1000-2, 2001
October. P.10. A.
Ding, S., Jecmenica, M., Wójcik, M.:
Finite Element Predictions of Loads and
Walls and Insert in a Gravity Flow Silo.
ABAQUS Scandinavian Users Confer-
ence, Sweden. Report no. 01-1000-5,
2001 September. P.11. A.
Dodd, A.: CFD Modeling of Air Current
Segregation. Loughborough University-
report 410031-2, 2001 July. P.75. A.
30 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
Dyrøy, A.: Anti segregation solution
F02, for A-frame at ASU. Tel-Tek-report
no. 410080-7, 2000 Dec 22. P.10. K1.
Dyrøy, A.: Effekt av AS-System i sam-
menligning med vanlig fylling av silo -
Tester i liten skala. Tel-Tek-report no.
410059-3, 2001 Mai. P.9. A.
Dyrøy, A., Karlsen, M.: An argument
for the use of AS-System© compared to
alternative solutions. Tel-Tek-report no.
410080-4, 2000 October 12. P.9. A.
Dyrøy, A., Karlsen, M.: A guide of how
to design an ADS based on information
given in a tender document. Tel-Tek-
report no. 410081-2, 2001 April 3. P.32.
K1.
Dyrøy, A., Karlsen, M.: Process Response
of Segregation - Environment and Yield
in Aluminium Production. 7th Interna-
tional Conf. on Bulk Material, Storage
Handling and Transportation, Newcas-
tle, Australia. Report no. 01-1000-7,
2001 September. P.10. A.
Dyrøy, A., Ose, S., Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.,
Berdal, A.: Aluminium Fluoride - Capa-
city testing and material properties.
Tel-Tel-report no. 410081-6, 2001 June
18. P.13. K1.
Enstad, G.G.: Homogeniseringsforsøk
med 1 - 10 mm FSM. Tel-Tek-report
no. 410041-1, 2001 July 23. P.17. K1.
Enstad, G.G.: Segregation of Particulate
Solids and its Mitigation based on
Understanding its Causes. Report no.
01-1000-4, 2001 P.40. A.
Enstad, G.G., Ding, S.: Måling av vegg-
friksjon av hvetemel. halvsiktet hvete-
mel og grovt rugmel, på 4 stålplater
med forskjellig overflatebehandling.
Tel-Tek-report no. 410071-6, 2001
October. P.18. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Kritiske silopara-
metere for nytt fettholdig fiskemel.
Tel-Tek-report no. 410070-12, 2000
October 18. P.16. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Kritiske silopara-
metere for massestrømning av anhydritt
og modifikasjon av eksisterende silo
ved hjelp av innmat. Tel-Tek-report
no. 410070-9, 2000 November 6. P.20.
K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua. L.: Critical silo para-
meters for mass flow of an animal feed
flour. Tel-Tek-report no. 410070-10,
2000 December. P.14. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Design of silos
for dolomite and anhydrite. Tel-Tek-
report no. 410070-11, 2000 December
19. P.35. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Silolagring av va-
nillin FP. Tel-Tek-report no. 410070-13,
2000 December 18. P.17. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Silolagring av
E-PVC - Løsning av utmatingsproble-
mer. Tel-Tek-report no. 410070-14,
2000 December 19. P.18. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Kritiske silopara-
metere for massestrømning av hyllekalk
- Design av innmat. Tel-Tek-report no.
410070-3, 2000 June 23. P.17. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Kritiske silopara-
metere for massestrømning av jernpul-
ver - Vurdering av eksisterende siloer.
Tel-Tek-report no. 410071-2, 2001
September. P.17. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Hua, L.: Kritiske silopara-
metere for massestrømning av jernpul-
ver - Utforming av egalisator med
innmat. Tel-Tek-report no. 410071-3,
2001 September. P.15. K1.
Enstad, G.G., Sjølyst, K.N.: Uniaxial
Testing of Flow Properties of Powders
Sample Preparations by Means of
Vibration. 7th Int. Conference on
Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and
Transportation, Newcastle, Australia.
Report no. 01-1000-9, 2001 P.7. A.
Enstad, G.G., Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.: Pre-
liminary investigations of the segrega-
tion of a cemented carbide powder.
Tel-Tek-report no. 410071-1, 2001 June
26. P.12. K1.
Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.: Partikkelstørrelses-
målinger av karbonprøver. Tel-Tek-
report no. 430011-2, 2001 May 4. P.48.
K1.
Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.: Uttesting av avstøver.
Tel-Tek-report no. 430011-4, 2001 July
7. P.14. K1.
Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.: Partikkeltetthet-
smålinger av FMC prøver. Tel-Tek-
report no. 430011-1, 2001 September
9. P.3. K1.
Hafenbrädl, F.O.v.: Avstøvning av kop-
peroksid. Tel-Tek-report no. 430011-3,
2001 September 8. P.5. K1.
Huang, Jun: Developments in Applied
Chemometrics: AMT, Acoustic Chemo-
metrics and N-way Image Analysis.
Dr.Ing. thesis. HiT/NTNU-report o.
sit0103, 2001 August. A.
Nilsen, A.J.: Luftstrømtørking av par-
tikulære ferroforbindelser. Høgskolen
i Telemark-report no. sit0101, 2001
Mai. P.77. A.
Ose, S.: Charactersation of the Bipolar
Electrostatic Charging of Powders.
Ph.D.-thesis, University of Southhamp-
ton-report no. R0065, 2001 August.
P.171. A.
Ose, S., Berdal, Anne: Breakage of alu-
mina during pneumatic conveying.
Tel-Tek-report no. 410111-1, 2001 June
28. P.20. K1.
STOP PRESS: Into Round Two!
Earlier this year the Norwegian Research Council invited applications
to pre-qualify for submitting an application to become a Centre of
Excellence in Research (Senter for fremragende forskning - SFF). It is
anticipated that ten such centres will be set up in 2002, which will be
guaranteed funding of 10 MNOK per year for four years and, depending
on performance, similar amounts for another six! 129 applications
were received and 40 have been invited to submit full applications. One
of the latter is the application submitted jointly by Tel-Tek, Telemark
University College, Borealis, Norcem and Norsk Hydro. We hope that
SINTEF’s Division of Materials Technology will join us in the next
round, and invite any Norwegian industry which wishes to see further
development of competence in Powder Technology in Norway - On
a long term basis to contact Sunil.deSilva@hit.no. Information on the
initiative is to be found at www.forskningsradet.no.
Tani, S.: Investigations, Development
and Experimental Verifications of
Mathematical Models of Gas Cyclones.
University of Roma-report no. R0063,
2001 March. P.92. A.
Tappe, S.: An Experimental Study on
Pressure Drops in Vertical and Horizon-
tal Pneumatic Conveying. University
of Cottbus-report no. R0064, 2001
August. P.75. A.
Wang, Q., Melaaen, M.C., de Silva, S.R.:
A Computational and Experimental
Study of Fluid Flow in a De-Duster.
SIMS 2001. Report no. 01-1000-6, 2001
October. P.10. A.
Wang, Q.: An Experimental and Com-
putational Study of Gas/Particle Mul-
tiphase Flow in Process Equipment.
Dr.Ing. thesis. HiT/NTNU-report no.
sit0102, 2001 August. A.

To order reports...
...please tick off the appropriate for the reports (P & A)
you want and return the sheet(s) to:

Tel-Tek, Dept. POSTEC, Attn.: Eksath de Silva,

Kjølnes Ring, N-3914 Porsgrunn, Norway, Fax: (+47) 35 57 40 10

Reports marked P available only to members of the POSTEC programme.

Those marked A are freely available.
Charge of NOK 2 per page will be invoiced together with POSTEC invoice
at the beginning of each year for members.

The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20 31

Standard Services at Affordable
Prices!
(POSTEC members receive a 10% discount on the listed prices)
Please note: Samples for characterization must be representative! (In terms of size, humidity etc.) Contact us for advice on proper
sampling when in doubt. Additional costs for sample splitting of very large samples is NOK 1.000.
Particle and Powder Properties
(Contact: Sivert Ose or Franz Otto von Hafenbrädl)
The first price is for the first powder sample. Prices in paranthesis
are for further samples of the same or similar material, using
the same measurement conditions. Results are normally given
as print-outs or test-sheets, in addition to a letter with a short
summary of results. For a full scientific report with comparisons,
discussions of results and comprehensive documentation, we
charge NOK 2.200 extra. Results will normally be ready within
10 working days from receipt of powder. Contact us in advance
for special prices on large numbers of samples or for “next day”
measurement results.
Particle Size Analysis
HELOS diffraction pattern analyser ............ NOK
(Range 0.6-1750 µm) Measurement
using the well known diffraction principle
(0.1 litre powder)
RODOS/GRADIS ...........................................NOK
(Range 0.6-1750 µm) The RODOS and
GRADIS dry dispersion units allow the
analysis of dry powders using the HELOS
(1 litre powder)
Coulter Counter TA II ................................... NOK
(Range 0.6-215 µm) Determines the size
distribution of particles suspended in a
conductive liquid (0.1 litre powder)
Sedigraph 5100............................................... NOK
(Range 0.1-300 µm) Determines the size
distribution using incremental sedimenta-
tion and measuring the concentration of
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Machine Dry Sieving ..................................... NOK
Consisting of max. 7 sieves with
measuring range from 90 to 11200 µm
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Machine Wet Sieving...................................... NOK
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Ultrasonic Wet Sieving .................................. NOK
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5 to 25 µm (0.5 litre powder)
Air Jet Sieving (per sieve) .............................. NOK
Analysis down to 20 µm (0,5 litre powder)
32 The POSTEC Newsletter No. 20
Density
Bulk densities ................................................. NOK 1.650 (600)
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Particle density............................................... NOK 1.650 (600)
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Specific Surface Areas
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adsorption .................................................NOK 2.200 (1000/600)
Adsorption of a helium/nitrogen mixture
2.200 (800) on the powder (Micromeritics Flowsorb
II 2300) (Range 0.01-1000 m2/g)
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Specific surface area using
2.200 (800) permeametry ..................................................NOK 1.650 (600)
Blaine apparatus which uses permeametry
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2.200 (800) Fluidization
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We have two microscopes in our laboratory. A stereomicroscope
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2.200 (800) Erosivity
(Contact: Franz Otto von Hafenbrädl)
Erosivity apparatus........................................ NOK 7.500
2.200 (800) The abrasivity of powders on a metal plate
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2.200 (800) loading and impact angle. Additional combi-
nations NOK 2.600 (20 litres of powder)
Flow Properties for Silo Design flow function, time flow function, moisture
(For more details, contact Gisle G. Enstad) content and one wall yield locus of a cohe-
sive powder (10 litres of powder)
Jenike flow function....................................... NOK 11.000 Price example 2 .............................................. NOK 12.000
Four tests are necessary to determine a Silo design based on critical silo parame-
yield locus. Four yield loci are required ters, including one wall yield locus, mois-
for a flow function ture content and the angle of repose of a
(5 litres of powder required) free flowing powder (5 litres of powder)
Biaxial flow function ..................................... NOK 11.000
Four tests are required for a flow function Electrostatic Measurements
(10 litres of powder) (For more details, contact Sivert Ose)
Jenike wall yield locus.................................... NOK 2.000
The kinematic angle of friction between Specific resistance .......................................... NOK 1.500
the solid and the wall material One powder with repeated tests
(5 litres of powder) (0.2 litre powder)
Jenike time flow function .............................. NOK 7.000 Electrostatic charging, field test ................... NOK 7.000
A six cell consolidating bench is used in Measurement of charge with Faraday cup,
conjunction with the shear tester & field meter. Prices per day (+travel costs)
(5 litres of powder) Charge decay characteristics......................... NOK 3.000
Angle of repose............................................... NOK 2.500 One powder with repeated tests
Dynamic and static angles of repose (0.2 litre powder)
(5 litres of powder) Distribution of electrostatic charges ........... Price on request
Uniaxial test.................................................... NOK 7.000 Charging during pneumatic transport
Consolidation curve, elastic properties, Small scale transport rig ............................... Price on request
relaxation curve and strength properties
(5 litres of powder) Production of Fine Powders
Uniaxial time flow function .......................... NOK 7.000 (For more details, contact Franz Otto von Hafenbrädl)
Four cell consolidating bench is used in Samples for market analyses, or product testing, can be produced
conjunction with the uniaxial tester using a range of equipment available at various Nordic laborato-
(5 litres of powder) ries. Prices will be provided on request. We can produce fine
Design of reliable silos based on above powders with top sizes of less than 3 microns by classification. An
tests..................................................................NOK 10.000 opposed jet fluid energy mill is also available for the production
Critical silo parameters, and a report with of any required size distribution below 50 micron.
silo design suggestion Our partner institutes at Trondheim (ball mill, Alpine fluid bed
Price example 1 .............................................. NOK 27.500 mill, high pressure roller mill), Luleå (stirred ball mills, annular
Silo design based on critical silo parame- ball mills, SAM mill), and Helsinki (hydrocyclones, SAM mill),
ters, including measurement of the Jenike can supplement our own services.

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lysis of tests taken with the tester (10 litres)
Pneumatic Transport
(For more details, contact Biplab K. Datta)
The transport rig with a 3 m3 blow tank and 140 m each of 1
1/2”, 2”, 3” and 70 m each of 4” and 5” piping allows flexibility
when it comes to defining projects to find solutions to problems.
Of special interest may be stepping of pipelines to save energy
and reduce product degradation. The accuracy when scaling
laboratory data to actual plant conditions is much improved
using the new rig. Design and commissioning data for pneumatic
conveying systems can thereby be improved. The systems can be
run with both positive and negative pressures. The equipment
we have should now be able to satisfy most needs, so please
take contact if you have problems we might help you to solve.
Price on request.
9.000 We have both Forberg and Ide-Con batch mixers, as well as
an Ide-Con continuous mixer and a homogenising silo. For
demonstrations and/or production of small batches for market
or loan of the units, contact Ali Ghaderi.
Large Silo Battery
(For more details, contact Sunil de Silva)
The large silo battery is functional at last! This installation
consisting of a 50 m 3 axisymmetric silo and a 50 m 3 plane
symmetric silo will be instrumented in 2002 to measure normal
and shear stresses at the walls, and is probably the largest
experimental silo facility in the world. As the articles on pages
18 and 21 show, we are well on the way to developing simulation
tools for the prediction of flow and stresses in silos. Much
more can be done. We can look at the effects of discharge aids,
loads on discharge equipment and test instrumentation for
level monitoring etc. Contact us if you want to discuss a joint
project.
Other Services
We can also offer standard services on the transportability of
powder in air-slides. Prices on request.

Check us out at:

www.tel-tek.no
or contact us at:
kontakt@hit.no

Name: ................................................................................
Organisation: .....................................................................
............................................................................................
Address:.............................................................................
............................................................................................
Eksath de Silva
Phone: ............................................................................... Tel-Tek
Kjølnes Ring,
Fax:....................................................................................
3918 Porsgrunn
E-mail:................................................................................ NORWAY

Areas of interest. Please tick: Fax: +47 35 57 40 10

Particle Characterisation Comminution
Classification Drying
Mixing Gas/Solids Separation
Size Enlargment Storage
Numerical Simulation Transport
Homogenisation
I consent to the above data being stored in a retrieval system.

______________________________________________
Signature, place and date
POSTEC-members
as of November 2001

1. Alstom Power Norway AS

Oslo (Geir Wedde/Odd Strand)
2. Astra Draco AB
Lund, Sweden (Kyrre Thalberg)
3. Astra Zeneca, Liquid Production AB
Södertälje, Sweden (Johan Drakenberg)
4. Bjølvefossen AS, Ålvik
Tore Førland
5. Dyno Industrier ASA, Forsvarsprodukter
Sætre i Hurum (Øyvind Hammer Johansen)
6. Elkem Aluminium ANS, Lista Verk
Farsund (Karl G. Forslund)
7. Elkem Aluminium ANS, Mosjøen Verk
Mosjøen (Gaute Nyland)
8. Elkem ASA, Carbon
Kristiansand (Thorbjørn Aanes)
9. Glasma AB
Emmaboda, Sweden (Arne Fransson)
10. Hydro Agri, Porsgrunn
Porsgrunn (Olav Skyllingstad)
11. Hydro Aluminium A/S, Karmøy Fabrikker
Håvik (Knut Arne Paulsen)
12. Hydro Aluminium A/S, Sunndal Verk
Sunndalsøra (Ola Jakobsen)
13. Hydro Aluminium A/S, Teknologisenteret Årdal
Øvre Årdal (Morten Karlsen)
14. Höganäs AB, Iron Powder Division
Höganäs, Sweden (Johann Arvidsson)
15. Ide-Con A/S
Porsgrunn (Geir Nordahl)
16. Larvik Pigment (Norway)
Larvik (Ludvig Levinsen)
17. MinFo
Stockholm, Sweden (Marianne Thomaeus)
18. Norcem AS, Brevik
Brevik (Erik Stoltenberg-Hansson)
19. Norconsult AS
Årdal (Robert Sandvik)
20. Norsk Hydro ASA, -PF, Forskningssenteret
Porsgrunn (Eirik Manger)
21. Norsk Hydro ASA, -PF, PVC Division
Porsgrunn (Stephen Hanson)
22. Norton A/S
Lillesand (Lars Petter Maltby/Jostein Mosby)
23. Pharmacia & Upjohn AB, Pharmaceutical R&D
Helsingborg, Sweden (Nils-Olof Lindberg)
24. T. Skretting A/S
Stavanger (Odd Geir Oddsen)
 a programme of research in
POwder Science and TEChnology
in cooperation with industry
Objectives
To provide wider access to research results
To maintain a centre of excellence in powder technology in Scandinavia
To enhance the technical competence of Scandinavian industry
To provide industry with quick and effective advice
To promote contact between people with similar problems
To ensure relevance of research to industrial need
To create a cluster of users and suppliers of powder handling and
processing equipment

Who can join?

Any company who has a registered place of business in one of the
Nordic countries*

What does it cost?

Contributions in multiples of NOK 30.000 per year depending on need,
interest and size of company (NOK 15.000 for equipment manufacturers
with an annual turnover of less than NOK 20.000.000)

What are the benefits?

Access to the results of all general research programmes
Advice at the end of a telephone
Ability to influence the direction of research
Rapid access to specialist advice in the field
Services such as systems design, literature reviews, and equipment
selection at low cost
Product development/improvement to meet special customer
requirements
Product demonstrations/evaluations
In-house and public courses in key areas of the subject
Lower hourly rates
Discounts of 10% on standard services
* The Telemark Research and Development Centre reserves the right to deny
membership in the programme to any company whatever without giving reason.