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Leadership 1

Leadership
Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support
of others in the accomplishment of a common task”. Definitions more inclusive of followers have also emerged. Alan
Keith of Genentech states that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making
something extraordinary happen." According to Ken "SKC" Ogbonnia, "effective leadership is the ability to
successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the
attainment of organizational or societal goals."
The following sections discuss several important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is
and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. This article also discusses topics such as the
role of emotions and vision, as well as leadership effectiveness and performance, leadership in different contexts,
how it may differ from related concepts (i.e., management), and some critiques of leadership as generally conceived.

Theories
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." The leader may or may not have any formal
authority. Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits,[1] situational interaction, function,
behavior, power, vision and values,[2] charisma, and intelligence among others. Arieu, A. defines a leader as "a
person capable of inspiring and associate others with a dream." It is therefore important that organizations have a
visionary mission, since it is a powerful way to strengthen the leadership of its directors.

Early history
The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been ongoing for centuries. History's greatest philosophical
writings from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question of "What qualities distinguish an
individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the
assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is
based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership."
This view of leadership, the trait theory, was explored at length in a number of works in the previous century. Most
notable are the writings of Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton, whose works have prompted decades of research. In
Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose
to power. In Galton's (1869) Hereditary Genius, he examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men.
After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when moving from first degree to second degree
relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of
these notable works lent great initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of the leader.
For decades, this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership.[3] Using early
research techniques, researchers conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of characteristics that
distinguished leaders from nonleaders: intelligence, dominance, adaptability, persistence, integrity, socioeconomic
status, and self-confidence just to name a few.[4]

Rise of alternative theories


In the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies (e.g., Bird, 1940;[5]
Stogdill, 1948;[6] Mann, 1959[7] ) prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces
behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common
across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not
necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait, as situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be
effective in certain situations, but not others. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research
Leadership 2

for the next few decades.

Reemergence of trait theory


New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish the
trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the
round robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders
across a variety of situations and tasks.[8] Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to
conduct meta-analyses, in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of
studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous
leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership
researchers revealed the following:
• Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks[8]
• Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as:
• intelligence[9]
• adjustment[9]
• extraversion[9]
• conscientiousness[10] [11] [12]
• openness to experience[11] [13]
• general self-efficacy[14] [15]
While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a
corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.[3]
Specifically, Zaccaro (2007)[3] noted that trait theories still:
1. Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive
abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills
2. Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are
shaped by, and bound to, situational influences
4. Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective
leadership

Attribute pattern approach


Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different
perspective of leader individual differences - the leader attribute pattern approach.[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] In contrast to
the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of
individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather
than a summation of individual variables.[19] [21] In other words, the leader attribute pattern approach argues that
integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader
emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of
multiple attributes.

Behavioral and style theories


In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors,
evaluating the behavior of 'successful' leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy and identifying broad leadership
styles.[22] David McClelland, for example, Leadership takes a strong personality with a well developed positive ego.
Not so much as a pattern of motives, but a set of traits is crucial. To lead; self-confidence and a high self-esteem is
useful, perhaps even essential.[23] [Kevin Mick]
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Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939


the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and
performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups
of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In
each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group
decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the
management of the group tasks (project management) according to
three styles: (1) authoritarian, (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire.[24] Authoritarian climates were characterized by
leaders who make decisions alone, demand strict compliance to his
orders, and dictate each step taken; future steps were uncertain to a
large degree. The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from
participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and A graphical representation of the managerial grid
criticism for the work done. Democratic climates were model
characterized by collective decision processes, assisted by the
leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are gained from group discussion and technical advice from a
leader. Members are given choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in such an
environment are objective, fact minded and given by a group member without necessarily having participated
extensively in the actual work. Laissez faire climates gave freedom to the group for policy determination without any
participation from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked, does not participate in
the division of labor, and very infrequently gives praise.[24] The results seemed to confirm that the democratic
climate was preferred.[25]

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement.[26]
B.F. Skinner is the father of Behavior Modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of
that behavior in the future.[27] The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business
setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on
time every day. The manager of this employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the
employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because
the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (i.e. stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee
because the employee arrives (i.e. behavior) to work on time more frequently after being praised for showing up to
work on time.
The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by leaders to motivate and attain
desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air
Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.[28] Empirical research covering the last 20 years
suggests that reinforcement theory has a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement
techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.
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Situational and contingency theories


Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history
was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) said that the
times produce the person and not the other way around.[29] This theory assumes that different situations call for
different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader
exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent
upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."[30]
Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,
academics began to normatize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and
identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved
in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of their followers in the day-to-day management; the
democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez faire
leadership style is appreciated by the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leader does not "take charge", he can
be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.[31] Thus, theorists defined the style of
leadership as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory. Four contingency
leadership theories appear more prominently in the recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision
model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency.
This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control").
The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with
the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself
(task-oriented).[32] According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders
can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a
highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler
found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favourable or unfavourable situations, whereas
relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favourability.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)[33] and later with Arthur Jago (1988),[34] developed a
taxonomy for describing leadership situations, taxonomy that was used in a normative decision model where
leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which
situation.[35] This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different
group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred as
situational contingency theory.[36]
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory
of Victor Vroom.[37] According to House, the essence of the theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be
effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that
compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit
performance.[38] The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and
supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler
contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt
any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a
contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, but also as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory
emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles and four levels
of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate
level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the
characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well.[39]
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Functional theory
Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a particularly useful theory for
addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues
that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be
said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al.,
1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often
been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader
organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski
et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)),
Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting
organization's effectiveness. These functions include: (1) environmental monitoring, (2) organizing subordinate
activities, (3) teaching and coaching subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening actively in the group's
work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader
behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad
categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering
effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a
supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task
accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates
accountable to those standards.

Transactional and transformational theories


Eric Berne[40] first analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of Transactional Analysis.
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[41] is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the
team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead
to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct
and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected
outcome is reached.
The transformational leader (Burns, 1978)[41] motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is
the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is
highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture,
needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the
organization to reach the company's vision.

Emotions
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social
influence process.[42] In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These effects can be
described in 3 levels:[43]
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more
positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other
group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion.[43] Mood contagion may be one of the
psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers.[44]
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective
reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the
group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more
positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.[43]
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3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. Public expressions of mood impact how
group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders
signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of
positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond
to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.[43]
In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the
performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.[45]
Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The
leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during
interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events.
Examples – feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and productivity are
directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to
organizational leaders.[46] Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the
self and others, contributes to effective leadership in organizations.[45] Leadership is about being responsible.

Neo-emergent theory
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created
through the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader
himself. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by
the majority. It is well known that the great naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was
involved in, so that when he arrived home in England he would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society, the
press, blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader, which may be based on reality, but may also be
based on a political command, a payment, or an inherent interest of the author, media or leader. Therefore, it can be
contended that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all.

Styles
Leadership style refers to a leader's behaviour. It is the result of the philosophy, personality and experience of the
leader.

Autocratic/Authoritarian Style
Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictator
leaders.
They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been
successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person
decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to himself until he feels it is needed to be shared with the rest of
the group.[47]

Participative/Democratic Style
The democratic leadership style favors decision-making by the group as shown, such as leader gives instruction after
consulting the group.
They can win the co-operation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The decisions of the
democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group
members and participation by them.[47]
Leadership 7

Laissez-faire/Free Reign Style


A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown; such a leader allows maximum
freedom to subordinates, i.e., they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.
Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an
agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team,
an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a
homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted
should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its
individual members.[47]

Narcissistic leadership
Various academics such as Kets de Vries, Maccoby and Thomas have identified narcissistic leadership as an
important and common leadership style.

Toxic leadership
A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the
leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when s/he first found
them.

Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated
and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions
however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and
research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser,
Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure
leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell,
1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the
dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006).
Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance, including
outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance,
leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group
or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While
these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied/research
focus.
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Contexts

Organizations
An organization that is established as
an instrument or means for achieving
defined objectives has been referred to
as a formal organization. Its design
specifies how goals are subdivided and
reflected in subdivisions of the
organization. Divisions, departments,
sections, positions, jobs, and tasks
make up this work structure. Thus, the
formal organization is expected to
behave impersonally in regard to
relationships with clients or with its
members. According to Weber's
definition, entry and subsequent
The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign
advancement is by merit or seniority. company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. People in the dark blue shirts are the leaders of this
Each employee receives a salary and formal organization
enjoys a degree of tenure that
safeguards her/him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the
hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work
carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the
appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the
authority attached to their position.[48]

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the
informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal
objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of
the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally
characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.
In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now
humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for organizations. Her/His need to identify with a
community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from
prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[49] [50]
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the
situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or
several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent
leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of
persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to
enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[49]
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal
authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar). Ogbonnia (2007)
defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be
recognized as meeting the expectations of an organization or society." Leaders are recognized by their capacity for
caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.[51] An individual who is appointed to a
Leadership 9

managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position.
However, she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only
potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an
emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However,
only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and
power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[49]
Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every
level.[52]

Management
Over the years the philosophical terminology of "management" and "leadership" have, in the organisational context,
been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the
use of these terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978)
between "transactional" leadership (characterised by e.g. emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management
by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterised by e.g. charisma, personal relationships,
creativity).[41]

Group leadership
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than
one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of
increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing
too much in team performance. In some situations, the main the team member(s) best able to handle any given phase
of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s). Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.[53]
Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination and synergistic communication skills will bring out the
same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner mentors to energize their team and organizations
and lead a team to achieve success.[54]
According to the National School Boards Association (USA)[55]
These Group Leadership or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics:
Characteristics of a Team
• There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.
• There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, learn from and work with
others.
• The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:
• Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and
goals.
• Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals.
• Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain
task.
• Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
• Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.
• Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.
• Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups.
• Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together.
Leadership 10

• Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly.
• Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members.

Primates
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence
of leadership in nonhuman animals, from leadership in ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that
leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can be
found in other social species too.[56] Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins
of Human Violence present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on earth, share
a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief
male of the land.[57] This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit
violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and
Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (which
are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others. It would be
beneficial, to examine that most accounts of leadership over the past few millennia (since the creation of Christian
religions) are through the perspective of a patriarchal society, founded on Christian literature. If one looks before
these times, it is noticed that Pagan and Earth-based tribes in fact had female leaders. It is important also to note that
the peculiarities of one tribe cannot necessarily be ascribed to another, as even our modern-day customs differ. The
current day patrilineal custom is only a recent invention in human history and our original method of familial
practices were matrilineal. The fundamental assumption that has been built into 90% of the world's countries is that
patriarchy is the 'natural' biological predisposition of homo sapiens. Unfortunately, this belief has led to the
widespread oppression of women in all of those countries, but in varying degrees. The Iroquoian First Nations tribes
are an example of a matrilineal tribe, along with Mayan tribes, and also the society of Meghalaya, India. By
comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do not unite behind the chief male of the land.
The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other
females, can prove as strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest
number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective
leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly "peaceful" nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a
"hippie chimp".[58]

Historical views
Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained
with examples from history and mythology.[59]
Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or genes: monarchy takes an
extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking
divine sanction: see the divine right of kings. Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to
examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.
In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater
familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them
emotionally-attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with
matriarchies.
Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on "right living" relate very much to the ideal of the
(male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.
Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline . . . Reliance
on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness.
Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive
Leadership 11

discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each
appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader. — Sun Tzu[60]
In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. (Note
that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One
response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism, which demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as
the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership.
The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on
leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources - human and material - and their
deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant leadership.
For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the statesman.

Action oriented environments


This is a unique approach to team leadership that is aimed at action oriented environments where effective functional
leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. In other words
leadership of small groups often created to respond to a situation or critical incident.
In most cases these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or
backup (action environments). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of
front line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate both the needs of the
individual, team and task within a changeable environment. This has been termed Action Oriented Leadership. Some
example action oriented leadership is demonstrated in the following ways: extinguishing a rural fire, locating a
missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous
environment.

Titles emphasizing authority


At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied different degrees or ranks of leadership
in society. Thus a knight led fewer men in general than did a duke; a baronet might in theory control less land than
an earl. See peerage for a systematization of this hierarchy, and order of precedence for links to various systems.
In the course of the 18th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-traditional paths to become
dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but
existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient or
downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies
employ express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite
article when used as part of the title (in languages that use definite articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true"
leader.

Critical thought
Noam Chomsky[61] and others[62] have brought critical thinking to the very concept of leadership and have provided
an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the
conventional view of leadership is rather satisfying to people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that
one should question why they are being subjected to a will or intellect other than their own if the leader is not a
Subject Matter Expert (SME).
The fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle is challenged by the introduction of concepts
such as autogestion, employeeship, common civic virtue, etc., which stress individual responsibility and/or group
Leadership 12

authority in the work place and elsewhere by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather
than separating out leadership as the basis of a special class of individuals.
Similarly, various historical calamities are attributed to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership.

Varieties of individual power


According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, the ability to attain these unique powers is what enables
leadership to influence subordinates and peers by controlling organizational resources. The successful leader
effectively uses these power(s) to influence employees, and it is important for the leader to understand the uses of
power to strengthen the leadership functioning.
The authors distinguish the following types of organizational power:
• Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within an organization structure that
inherit such power (e.g. Manager, Vice President, Director, Supervisor, etc.). These levels of power correspond to
the hierarchical executive levels within the organization itself. The higher position such as President of the
company has a higher power than the rest of professional positions in the hierarchical executive levels.
• Reward Power is the power given to managers that attain administrative power over a range of rewards.
Employees who work for managers desire the reward from the manager and will be influenced by receiving it as a
result of work performance. The rewards may be pay raisse or promotions.
• Coercive Power is the manager's ability to punish an employee. Punishment can be a mild punishment such as a
suspension or a serious punishment such as termination.
• Expert Power is attained by the manager due to his or her own talents such as skills, knowledge, abilities, or
previous experience. A manager which has this power within the organization may be a very valuable and
important manager in the company.
• Charisma Power A manager who has charisma will have a positive influence on workers, and create the
opportunity for interpersonal influence. A person has charisma, and this will confer great power as a manager.
• Referent Power a power that is gained by association. A person who has power by association is often referred to
assistant or deputy.
• Information Power a person who has possession of important information at an important time when such
information is needed to organizational functioning. Someone who has this information knowledge has genuine
power. For example, a manager's secretary would be in a powerful position if the secretary has information
power.[63]

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Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.
Leadership 13

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Books
• Blake, R.; Mouton, J. (1964). The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing
Co..
• Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
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• Fiedler, Fred E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. McGraw-Hill: Harper and Row Publishers Inc..
• Heifetz, Ronald (1994). Leadership without Easy Answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN 0130175986.
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Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.
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• Tittemore, James A. (2003). Leadership at all Levels. Canada: Boskwa Publishing. ISBN 0973291400.
• Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of
Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0822932660.
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Journal articles
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• Spillane, James P.; et al., Richard; Diamond, John (2004). "Towards a theory of leadership practice". Journal of
Curriculum Studies 36 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1080/0022027032000106726.
• Vroom, Victor; Sternberg, Robert J. (2002). "Theoretical Letters: The person versus the situation in leadership".
The Leadership Quarterly 13 (3): 301–323. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00101-7.

Further reading
• Argyris, C. (1976) Increasing Leadership Effectiveness, Wiley, New York, 1976 (even though published in 1976,
this still remains a "standard" reference text)
• Avolio, B. J., Sosik, J. J., Jung, D. I., & Berson, Y. (2003). Leadership models, methods, and applications. In W.
C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen & R. J. *Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational
psychology, Vol. 12. (pp. 277–307): John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. J. (in press). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future
directions. Annual Review of Psychology.
• Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (1995). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Permission Set.
Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden.
• Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications (3rd
ed.). New York, NY, US: Free Press.
• Bennis, W. (1989) On Becoming a Leader, Addison Wesley, New York, 1989
• Borman, W. C., & Brush, D. H. (1993). More progress toward a taxonomy of managerial performance
requirements. Human Performance, 6(1), 1-21.
• Bray, D. W., Campbell, R. J., & Grant, D. L. (1974). Formative years in business: a long-term AT&T study of
managerial lives: Wiley, New York.
• Campbell, J. (1990). An overview of the Army selection and classification project. Personnel Psychology, 43,
231-240.
• Campbell, J., McCloy, R., Oppler, S., & Sager, C. (1993). A theory of performance. In N. Schmitt & W. Borman
(Eds.), Personnel Selection in organizations (pp. 35–71). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Crawford, C. J. (2005). Corporate rise the X principles of extreme personal leadership. Santa Clara, CA: XCEO.
ISBN 0-976-90190-0 9780976901907
• Day, D. V., & Lord, R. G. (1988). Executive leadership and organizational performance: suggestions for a new
theory and methodology. Journal of Management, 14(3), 453-464.
• Den Hartog, D. N., & Koopman, P. L. (2002). Leadership in organizations. In N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. K.
Sinangil & C. Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2:
Organizational psychology. (pp. 166–187): Sage Publications, Inc.
• Fleishman, E. A. (1953). The description of supervisory behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 37(1), 1-6.
• Fleishman, E. A., Mumford, M. D., Zaccaro, S. J., Levin, K. Y., Korotkin, A. L., & Hein, M. B. (1991).
Taxonomic efforts in the description of leader behavior: A synthesis and functional interpretation. Leadership
Quarterly, 2(4), 245-287.
• Frey, M., Kern, R., Snow, J., & Curlette, W. (2009). Lifestyle and Transformational Leadership Style. Journal of
Individual Psychology, 65(3), 212-240.
• Greiner, K. (2002). The inaugural speech. ERIC Accession Number ED468083 (http://www.eric.ed.gov/).
• Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A Theory of Team Coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30(2),
269-287.
• Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing
effective work groups (pp. 72–119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Hogan, R., Curphy, C. J., & Hogan, J. (1994). What we know about leadership: effectiveness and personality.
American Psychologist, 49(6), 493-504.
Leadership 16

• House, R. J. (2004) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, SAGE
Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2004 (http://www.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book226013).
• Howard, A., & Bray, D. W. (1988). Managerial lives in transition: advancing age and changing times: New York:
Guilford Press.
• Jacobs, T. O., & Jaques, E. (1987). Leadership in Complex Systems In Praeger (Ed.), Human Productivity
Enhancement (Vol. 2, pp. 7–65). New York.
• Jacobs, T. O., & Jaques, E. (1990). Military executive leadership. Measures of leadership, 281-295.
• Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and
quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765-780.
• Kaiser, R. B., Hogan, R., & Craig, S. B. (2008). Leadership and the Fate of Organizations. American
Psychologist, 63(2), 96.
• Klein, K. J., Ziegert, J. C., Knight, A. P., & Xiao, Y. (2006). Dynamic delegation: Shared, hierarchical, and
deindividualized leadership in extreme action teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(4), 590-621.
• Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). The leadership challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Kozlowski, S. W. J., Gully, S. M., Salas, E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Beyerlein, M. M., Johnson, D. A., et al.
(1996). Team leadership and development: *Theory, principles, and guidelines for training leaders and teams. In
Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3. (pp. 253–291): Elsevier
Science/JAI Press.
• Laubach, R. (2005) Leadership is Influence
• Lord, R. G., De Vader, C. L., & Alliger, G. M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits
and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generlization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology,
71(3), 402-410.
• Machiavelli, Niccolo (1530) The Prince
• Maxwell, J. C. & Dornan, J. (2003) Becoming a Person of Influence
• McGovern, George S., Donald C. Simmons, Jr. and Daniel Gaken (2008) Leadership and Service: An
Introduction, Kendall/Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7575-5109-3.
• McGrath, J. E. (1962). Leadership behavior: Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Civil Service Commission.
• Meindl, J. R., & Ehrlich, S. B. (1987). The romance of leadership and the evaluation of organizational
performance. Academy of Management Journal, 30(1), 91-109.
• Morgeson, F. P. (2005). The External Leadership of Self-Managing Teams: Intervening in the Context of Novel
and Disruptive Events. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(3), 497-508.
• Motowidlo, S. J. (2003). Job performance. Borman, Walter C (Ed); Ilgen, Daniel R (Ed); et al., (2003). Handbook
of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Mumford, M. D. (1986). Leadership in the organizational context: Conceptual approach and its application.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16(6), 508-531.
• Mumford, M. D., Zaccaro, S. J., Harding, F. D., Jacobs, T. O., & Fleishman, E. A. (2000). Leadership skills for a
changing world solving complex social problems. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 11-35.
• Nanus, Burt (1995) The visionary leadership
• Ogbonnia, SKC. (2007). Political Parties and Effective Leadership: A contingency Approach
• Pitcher, P. (1994 French) Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The dreams realities and illusions of leadership,
Stoddart Publishing, Toronto, 2nd English edition, 1997. ISBN 0-7737-5854-2
• Renesch, John (1994) Leadership in a New Era: Visionary Approaches to the Biggest Crisis of Our Time, San
Francisco, New Leaders Press (paperback) 2002, New York, Paraview Publishing
• Renesch, John (2001) "Conscious Leadership: Taking Responsibility for Our Better Future," LOHAS Weekly
Newsletter, March 1, 2001 (http://lohas.datajoe.com/app/ecom/pub_article_details.php?id=67115)
• Roberts, W. (1987) Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun
Leadership 17

• Stacey, R. (1992) Managing Chaos, Kogan-Page, London, 1992


• Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature. New York: Free Press
• Stogdill, R.M. (1950) 'Leadership, membership and organization', Psychological Bulletin, 47: 1-14
• Terry, G. (1960) The Principles of Management, Richard Irwin Inc, Homewood Ill, pg 5.
• Torbert, W. (2004) Action Inquiry: the Secret of Timely and Transforming Leadership, San Francisco, CA:
Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
• Warneka, P and Warneka, T. (2007). The Way of Leading People: Unlocking Your Integral Leadership Skills with
the Tao Te Ching. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. website (http://www.wayofleadingpeople.com)
• Warneka, T. (2006). Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders
Today. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. website (http://www.blackbeltconsultants.com)
• Warneka, T. (2008). Black Belt Leader, Peaceful Leader: An Introduction to Catholic Servant Leadership.
• Yukl, G. A. (2006). Leadership in Organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). The nature of executive leadership: A conceptual and empirical analysis of success.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Zaccaro, S. J., & Klimoski, R. J. (2001). The nature of organizational leadership: An introduction. In S. J. Zaccaro
& R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), The nature of organizational leadership: Understanding the performance imperatives
confronting today's leaders (pp. 3–41). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
• Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Team leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 12(4), 451-483.
• Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). Trait-based perspective. American Psychology , 62 (1), 7-16.
• Zaleznik, A. (1977) "Managers and Leaders: Is there a difference?", Harvard Business Review, May–June, 1977
• Montana Patrick J. and Charnov Bruce H. (2008) Managerment: Leadership and Theory, Barron's Educational
Series, Inc., Hauppauge, New York, 4th English edition, 2008. ISBN 0-7641-3931-2

External links
• Leadership (http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Management/Leadership//) at the Open Directory Project
Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and Contributors


Leadership  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423529660  Contributors: 0goodiegoodie0, 5 albert square, 9831236gddshs, A. B., AOC25, Aaron Brenneman, Abchotty,
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