Documente Academic
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II
an introductory course
SECOND EDITION
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Preface ix
1. Basic inequalities I
This book has grown out of the Linear Analysis course given in Cambridge
on numerous occasions for the third-year undergraduates reading
mathematics. It is intended to be a fairly concise, yet readable and down-
to-earth, introduction to functional analysis, with plenty of challenging
exercises. In common with many authors, I have tried to write the kind of
book that I would have liked to have learned from as an undergraduate. I
am convinced that functional analysis is a particularly beautiful and
elegant area of mathematics, and I have tried to convey my enthusiasm to
the reader.
In most universities, the courses covering the contents of this book are
given under the heading of Functional Analysis; the name Linear Analysis
has been chosen to emphasize that most of the material in on linear func-
tional analysis. Functional Analysis, in its wide sense, includes partial
differential equations, stochastic theory and non-commutative harmonic
analysis, but its core is the study of normed spaces, together with linear
functionals and operators on them. That core is the principal topic of this
volume.
Functional analysis was born around the turn of the century, and within
a few years, after an amazing burst of development, it was a well-
established major branch of mathematics. The early growth of functional
analysis was based on 19th century Italian function theory, and was given
a great impetus by the birth of Lebesgue's theory of integration. The
subject provided (and provides) a unifying framework for many areas:
Fourier Analysis, Differential Equations, Integral Equations, Approxima-
tion Theory, Complex Function Theory, Analytic Number Theory, Meas-
ure Theory, Stochastic Theory, and so on.
ix
x Preface
For this second edition, I have taken the opportunity to correct a number of
errors and oversights. I am especially grateful to R. B. Burckel for providing
me with a list of errata.
B. B.
1. BASIC INEQUALITIES
A(a) =
1
2 Chapter 1: Basic inequalities
so
(a1+a2)2 4a1a2
with equality iff a1 = a2.
Suppose now that the theorem holds for n = m. We shall show that
it holds for n = 2m. Let a1 ,. . ,a,,,, b1 ,. . .
. be non-negative reals.
Then
.
— jj .am,
m m
— ai+...+am+bi+...+bm
2m
If equality holds then, by the induction hypothesis, we have a1 =
= tZm = b1 = = bm. This implies that the theorem holds when-
ever n is a power of 2.
Finally, suppose n is an arbitrary integer. Let
n<2k= N and a=
Set
a1 = a1 =
a1 a't,
and so
= ED.
Given a convex subset D of a real vector space, a function f: D —p
is said to be convex if
f(tx+(1—t)y) tf(x)+(1—t)f(y) (2)
tf(x1) (3)
prove and for n = 2 the assertions are immediate from the definitions,
let us assume that n 3 and the assertions hold for smaller values of n.
4 Chapter 1: Basic inequalities
E (0,1) with
taxi)
f(t1x1 +
1=2 )
=I
with equality if a1 = =
Proof. The assertion is trivial if some a, is 0; if each a is positive, the
assertion follows from (4). 0
The two sides of (5) can be viewed as two different means of the
sequence a1,... , a generalized geometric mean
and the right-hand side is a generalized arithmetic mean, with the vari-
ous terms and factors taken with different weights. In fact, it is rather
natural to define a further extension of these notions.
Let us fix P = 1: the will play the role of
weights or probabilities. Given a continuous and strictly monotonic
function (0, — R, the c-mean of a sequence a = (a1,. . . , a,,)
(a1 > 0) is defined as
Mç(a) =
= =
\i=1 I
If - is strictly concave and not all a, are equal then the inequality
above is strict since not all b• are equal.
The case when is decreasing and is convex is proved analo-
gously. 0
When studying the various means of positive sequences, it is con-
vcnicnt to usc thc convention that a stands for a sequence (a1,...
b for a sequence (b1 ,. .. and so on; furthermore,
= = a+x = (XE
ab = (a1b1 abc =
and so on.
If p(t) = r (—cx <r < x, r 0) then one usuaLly writes Mr for Mc.
For r > 0 we define the mean M, for all non-negative sequences: if
a = (a1,... (a1 0) then
in \1/r
= p,af
=l
The proofs of the first two assertions are straightforward. Indeed, let
1 m n be such that am = Then for r > 0 we have
Mr(a) = pi/ra.
so am = Since Mr(a) for every r,
we have lim,....,. = as required. Also,
1)}
= him Mr(a I
= lim Mr(a).
Mr(a) = A(a')".
Also, it is immediate that
8 Chapter 1: Basic inequalities
and so
Letting r 0, we see from (6) that the right-hand side tends to log G(a)
and so
and so
/ \1/2/ ,,
xy, ( I = 1y112
i—i \i=i / \:=1 / \i—1 / \i—1
(7)
p,q>1 and
11
—+—=1.
Then for complex numbers a1,. . . , a,,, b1,. . . , b,, we have
/ \i/,O/ \1/q
bk ( I ak I
' I ( I
(8)
k—i \k—1 I \k—1 I
i) (± I i)
IakI1' = 1.
k—i = k—i
+ q
)=_+._=1.
1 1
k=I
1/q up up
IakV)
1\k=i \k=1
/ n \h/P / n
=( Iak+bkV) +(
\k=1 /
\k=1 /
we obtain (8). The case of equality follows from that in Holder's ine-
quality. 0
Minkowski's inequality is also essentially trivial for p = i.e. for the
M,, mean:
Exercises
All analysts spend half their time hunting through the
literature for inequalities which they want to use but can-
not prove.
Harald Bohr
and
Mp(IaI)Mq(IbI),
tive reals, not all equal, then Mr(a) is a strictly log-convex function
of r, i.e. is a strictly convex function of r.
10. Show that for a fixed positive sequence a, log Mi,r(a) is a mono-
tone decreasing convex function of r > 0, that is, if =
then
{Mp(a)Mq(a)}"2.
11. Show that Mi,r(a) is a monotone decreasing convex function of r.
12. Show thatif 0<q<p<r then
/ I, \(r—p)/(r—q)/ ,, \(p—q)/(r—q)
(
i=1 /
for all positive reals
13. Deduce from the previous exercise that if 0 < q <p < r and
f(x) > 0 is continuous on (a, b) (or just measurable) then
b b (r—p)/fr—q) b (p—q)/fr—q)
frth)
ía (L
14 Chapter 1: Basic inequalities
21. For ar,... ,a,, > 0 a2) let Irk be the arithmetic mean of the
of the form
products a (1 i1 < <1k n). Show
that the sequence ir0, . . , ii,, is strictly log-concave:
f(a,) as).
16 Chapter 1: Basic inequalities
25. Prove that if f,g: satisfy (*) for all a,b1 > 0
then they are of the form given in the previous exercise.
26. Show that
abi) + b.2)
a,2+b12
(± a12)(± b?)
fdx.
{f'(x)}2 dx.
(f(x))2(f(x)yf(x)]
Chapter 1: Basic inequalities 17
Notes
In this long chapter we shall introduce the main objects studied in linear
analysis: normed spaces and linear operators. Many of the normed
spaces encountered in practice are spaces of functions (in particular,
functions on i.e. sequences), and the operators are often defined in
terms of derivatives and integrals, but we shall concentrate on the
notions defined in abstract terms.
As so often happens when starting a new area in mathematics, the
ratio of theorems to definitions is rather low in this chapter. However,
the reader familiar with elementary linear algebra and the rudiments of
the theory of metric spaces is unlikely to find it heavy going because the
concepts to be introduced here are only slight extensions of various con-
cepts arising in those areas. Moreover, the relatively barren patch is
rather small: as we shall see, even the basic definitions lead to fascinat-
ing questions.
A normed space is a pair (V, fl), where V is a vector space over
or C and is a function from V to = {r E r O} satisfying
(I) Dxli = 0 iff x = 0;
(ii) liAxD = iA lxii for all x E V and scalar A;
(iii) lxii + for all x,y E V.
We call lixii the norm of the vector x: it is the natural generalization
of the length of a vector in the Euclidean spaces or C's. Condition
(iii) is the triangle inequality: in a triangle a side is no longer than the
sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
In most cases the scalar field may be taken to be either R or C, even
when, for the sake of simplicity, we specify one or the other. If we
want to emphasize that the ground field is C, say, then we write 'com-
plex normed space', 'complex 1,, space', 'complex Banach space', etc.
18
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
tion r are said to be open (in the topology r). A topological space is a
pair (X, 'r), where X is a set and r is a topology on X. If it is clear that
the topology we take is r then we do not mention r explicitly and we
call X a topological space.
If Y is a subset (also called a subspace) of a topological space (X, r)
then {Yfl U: U C r} is a topology on Y, called the subspace topology or
the topology induced by r. In most cases every subset Y is considered
to be endowed with the subspace topology.
Given a topological space X, a set N C X is said to be a neighbour-
hood of a point x E X if there is an open set U such that x C U C N.
A subset of X is closed if its complement is open. Since the intersection
of a collection of closed sets is closed, every subset A of X is contained
in a unique minimal closed set A = {x C X: every neighbourhood of x
meets A}, called the closure of A.
It is often convenient to specify a topology by giving a basis for it.
Given a topological space (X, r), a basis for r is a collection a of subsets
of X such that a C r and every set in r is a union of sets from a.
Clearly, if a C i.e. is a family of subsets of X, then a is a basis
for a topology if
(i) every point of X is in some element of a;
(ii) if B1 , B2 E a then B1 fl B2 is a union of some sets from a.
20 Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
More generally, the sphere of radius r about a point x0 (or centre x0) is
= S(x0,r) = {x E X: iix—xoiI = r}
and the (closed) ball of radius r about x0 (or centre x0) is
= B(x(}. r) = {x E X: lix —xoli r}.
Occasionally we shall need the open ball of radius r and centre x0.
Ilfil = suplf(s)I.
sES
This norm is the uniform or supremum norm.
(iii) Let L be a topological space, let X = C(L) be the vector space
of all bounded continuous functions on L and set, as in example (ii),
Ilfil = supjf(OI.
tEL
(iv) This is a special, but very important, case of the previous example.
Let K be a compact Hausdorff space and let C(K) be the space of con-
tinuous functions on K, with the supremum norm
IlfO = = : x E K}.
Since K is compact, If(x) is bounded on K and attains its supremum.
(v) Let X be R" or C" and set
IIxII Ix,
=
This is the space li"; the norm is the l1-norm.
Also,
= max IxaI
IIXIIp kkl.0).
=
This defines the space l,' (real or complex); the norm is the
The notation is consistent with that in example (v) for li" and also, in a
natural way, with that for (see Exercise 6). Note that I"' is exactly
the n-dimensional Euclidean space.
24 Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
If(t)I dt.
= j-
(viii) Let X consist of all continuous complex-valued functions on
[0,1] and forfE Xput
\1/2
/ rl
If(t)12 dt
11f112 = I j
\0
(ix) For 1 p< the space i,, consists of all scalar sequences
x = (x1,x2,...) for which
\I/P
\i=1 /
The norm of an element x is
i/p
IIXIIp
=
The space consists of all bounded scalar sequences with
= sup 1x11
and Co is the space of all scalar sequences tending to 0, with the same
norm As remarked earlier, we have both real and complex forms
of these spaces.
(x) For I p the space 1) consists of those Lebesgue
measurable functions on [0, 1] for which
/ \iIP
= (j d:}
/
Note that L1(0, 1) is precisely the space of integrable functions.
Strictly speaking, a point of 1) is an equivalence class of func-
tions, two functions being equivalent if they agree almost everywhere.
Putting it another way, fi and f2 are equivalent (and so are considered
to be identical) if = 0.
(xi) By analogy with the previous examples, the astute reader will
guess that L(0, 1) Consists of all essentially bounded Lebesgue measur-
able functions on [0, 11, i.e. those functions f for which
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 25
= esssuplf(t)I
Recall that the essential supremum esssuplf(r)I is defined as
f(t)
k=O
Ilfil (k+1)lckI.
=
(xv) Let X be the space of bounded continuous functions on (—1, 1)
which are differentiable at 0, with norm
If'(O)I + 'gIfWI.
(xvi) Let X consist of all finite trigonometric polynomials
11111 = ( ICkI
—n
26 Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
(xvii) Let V be a real vector space with basis (e1,e2), and for x E V
define
+ e2)
lixil = inf1iai + lbI + id: a,b,c E and x = ae1+be2+
114
Let us prove that the examples above are indeed normed spaces, i.e.
that the underlying spaces are vector spaces and the functions U ii satisfy
conditions (i)—(iii). It is obvious that conditions (i) and (ii) are satisfied
in each example so we have to check only (iii), the triangle inequality.
Then it will also be clear that the underlying space is a vector space.
Furthermore, the triangle inequality is obvious in examples (ii)—(v),
(vii), (xi) and (xii)—(xv). In the rest, with the exception of the last
three examples, the triangle inequality is precisely Minkowski's inequal-
ity in one of its many guises. Thus Theorem 1.7 (Minkowski's inequal-
ity for sequences) is just the triangle inequality in 1:
ilx+ylip IIxIlp+Ilyllp (1)
llflip + (2)
function spaces. These spaces have been extensively studied for over
eighty years: much is known about them but, in spite of all this atten-
tion, many important questions concerning them are waiting to be set-
tled. In many ways, the most pleasant and most important of all
infinite-dimensional Banach spaces is '2' the space of square-summable
sequences. This space is the canonical example of a Hilberi space.
Similarly, of the finite-dimensional normed spaces, the space 1$ is cen-
tral: this is the n-dimensional Euclidean space.
The spaces in Examples (i)—(vi), (ix)—(xiv) and (xvii)—(xix) are com-
plete, the others are incomplete. Some of these are easily seen, we
shall see the others later. -
Let us remark that if X is a normed space then its completion X as a
metric space has a natural vector space structure and a natural norm.
Thus every normed space is a dense subspace of a Banach space. We
shall expand on this later in this chapter.
Having mentioned the more concise formulations of Minkowski's ine-
quality (inequalities (1) and (2)), let us draw attention to the analogous
formulations of Holder's inequality. Suppose p and q are conjugate
indices, with p 1 and q = permitted. If x = E I,, and
Y= E then
kkYkl iiXiipiiYiiq.
k=1
T(A1x1+A2x2) = A1T(x1)+A2T(x2)
for all x1,x2 E X and scalars A1 and A2. The vector space of linear
operators from X to Y is denoted by Y). The image of T is
Im T = {Tx: x E X} and the kernel of T is Ker T = {x: Tx = 0}.
Clearly Ker T is a subspace of X and Im T is a subspace of V. Further-
more, T is a vector-space isomorphism if Ker T = {0} and Im T = V.
A linear operator T E £e(X, Y) is bounded if there is an N> 0 such
that
IITxII NIIxII for all x E X.
We shall write Y) for the set of bounded linear operators from X
to Y; = X) is the set of bounded linear operators on X.
Clearly Y) is a vector space. The operators in Y)
are said to be unbounded. A linear functional on X is a linear operator
from X into the scalar field. We write X' for the space of linear func-
tionals on X, and X* for the vector space of bounded linear functionals
on X. It is often convenient to use the bracket notation for the value
of a functional on an element: for x EX and f€X' we set <f,x> =
(x,f) = f(x). This is in keeping with the fact that the map XXX' R
(or C) given by (x, f) f(x) is bilinear.
Theorem 2. Let X and Y be normed spaces and let T: X—+ V be a
linear operator. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(1) T is continuous (as a map of the topological space X into the topo-
logical space Y);
(ii) T is continuous at some point x0 E X;
(iii) T is bounded.
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 29
equivalent if they induce the same topology on V, i.e. if the formal iden-
tity map from X1 = (V, to X2 = (V, 1112) is a topological isomor-
phism. As an immediate consequence of Theorem 2, we see that if a
linear map is a topological isomorphism then both the map and its
inverse are bounded.
Corollary 3. Let X and Y be normed spaces and let T E Y). Then
T is a topological isomorphism if T E Y) and T' E X).
Two norms, and V on the same vector space V are equivalent
if there are constants c, d> 0 such that
dlxii dIixiI i
for all x E V.
on Y) is given by
11111 = inf{N>O: liTx!i Niixii for alix E X} = sup{iiTxIi: ilxii 1}.
11111 = inf{N > 0: f(x)I NIIXII for all xE X} = sup{If(x)l: IIxU 1).
lim lim
TE Y).
Furthermore, given e > 0, there is an n0 such that ii — ii <€ if
n,m Then for x C X and m n0 we have
=
= iihm(Tn—Tm)xIi
eiixiI.
Theref ore
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 31
€IIxIl (C + TmII)
so that
Irgil IITU and iirii liii.
The operator T* is the adjoin: of T. In fact, as we shall see later
(Theorem 3.9), ijrii = liii.
definition of the adjoint looks even more natural in the bracket
The
notation: rg is the linear functional satisfying
(rg,x) = (g,Tx).
Given maps T: X Y and S: Y —' Z, we can compose them: the
map ST: X—' Z is given by (ST)(x) = (SOT)(x) = S(T(x)). IfS and T
are linear then so is ST; if they are bounded linear operators then so is
ST.
Theorem 5. Let X, V and Z be normed spaces and let T€ (X, F),
S (F', Z). Then ST: X —' Z is bounded linear operator and
1ISTII ilSPlilllI.
Sx = (O,x1,x2,...).
This is the right shift operator.
The left shift T E is defined by
Tx = (x2,x3,...).
Clearly S is an injection but not a surjection, T is a surjection but not
an injection, IISII = 11Th = 1, and TS = 1 (the identity operator) but
1: KerST= {(x1,O,...):x1 E R}.
(iv) Let = 1) be the normed space of functions on (0, 1)
with k continuous and bounded derivatives, as in Examples 1 (xiii). Let
D: —p C°" be the differentiation operator: Df = f'. Then
ODD = 1.
(v) Let T: be the formal identity map Tf = f. Then
11111 = 1.
= d(i,9)+d(9,i).
Finally, = 0, and if d(i,9) = 0 then so that
x = y. -
metric space (X,d) is complete. Indeed, let
The be a Cauchy
sequence in Xand let 1(k) (k = 1,2,...). Let be such that
<2-k if n,m
The same space CEO, 1] is also the completion of the space of polynomi-
als and of the space of infinitely differentiable functions. Similarly, for
1 p< 1) is the completion of the space of polynomials with
the norm
dx)
= (L'
and also of the space of piecewise linear functions with the same norm.
36 Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
(x,1.€X)
n1
is said to the convergent to x E X if
N
x,—x
n1
i.e. if
N
urn x— =0.
N-." ii=1
We also say that x is the sum of the x,, and write
xn.
n1
A series is said to the absolutely convergent if <
In a Banach space X every absolutely convergent series x,, is
convergent. Indeed, let YN = be the Nth partial sum. We
have to show that is a Cauchy sequence. Given e > 0, choose an
n0 such that n—no <€. Then for n0 N < M we have
M M
Ii = IIXnII <6.
nN+1 nN+1
Hence is indeed a Cauchy sequence and so converges to some
x E X, so that x =
In an incomplete space X the assertion above always fails for some
absolutely convergent series x,: this is often useful in checking
whether a space is complete or not.
Before showing this, let us mention a very useful trick when dealing
with Cauchy sequences in metric spaces: we may always assume that we
are dealing with a 'fast' Cauchy sequence. To be precise, given a Cau-
chy sequence )°, a priori all we know is that there is a sequence
say = 2k, such that d(Xn,Xm) < 1/k if n,m However,
we may always assume that our sequence is much 'better' than this:
d(Xn,Xm) <2's if m fl, Oi d(xn,xm) <2-2 if m n, or whatever
suits us. Indeed, let f(n) > 0 be an arbitary function. Set = f(1) and
choose an n1 such that d(xn,xm) <Ej whenever n,m n1. Then set
€2 = f(2) and choose an n2 > n1 such that ,Xm) <€2 whenever
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 37
by setting
Il[x]ilo = inf{IIyii : y x} = inf{lIx+zlI : z E Z}.
It is easily checked that 11110 is indeed a norm on X/Z: the homo-
geneity and the triangle inequality are obvious and Ii [0] lb = 0. All that
remains is to show that if [x] 1 = 0 then [x] = 0. To see this, note that
if [xlii = 0 then lix — fi —' 0 for some sequence (zn) C Z. Hence
z,, x and so, as Z is closed, x C Z.
We call X/Z, endowed with the quotient normed space of X by
Z, and call the quotient norm. Throughout this book, a quotient
11 lb
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 39
H
To[x] II inf{II ill :y x} = 1171111 [xJ
II 11111.
Conversely, let e > 0 and choose an x E X such that lixil = 1 and
IITxIl > 11711—c. Then II[x}H 1 and IIT0[x]Il = IIT1V > 11711—c.
Hence II > 11111 — 0
In fact, the quotient norm II 110 on X/Z is the minimal norm on X/Z
such that if T E Y) and Ker T 3 Z, then the operator T0: X/Z
Y induced by T has norm at most 11711 (see Exercise 13).
Suppose that X and Y are closed subspaces of a normed space Z,
with Xfl Y = {0} and X+ Y = Z. If the projections Px: Z —* X, and
py: Z —p Y, given by = x and py(x,y) = y, are bounded (i.e.
continuous) then we call Z a direct sum of the subspaces X and V. It is
easily seen that Z is a direct sum of its subspaces X and Y if the topol-
ogy on Z (identified with Y = {(x, y): x E X, y E Y}) is precisely
the product of the topologies on X and V. Note that, if Z is a direct
sum of X and V. Z' is a direct sum of X' and V'. and X is isomorphic to
X' and Y is isomorphic to Y', then Z is isomorphic to Z'. If Z is a
direct sum of X and Y then the projection Px: Z —. X induces an iso-
morphism between Z/Y and X.
Conversely, given normed spaces X and V. there are various natural
ways of turning Y, the algebraic direct sum of the underlying vec-
tor spaces, into a normed space. For example, for 1 p we may
take the norm = Il(lIxII, Thus for 1 p < we take
= and for p = we define =
It is easily seen that all these norms are equivalent;
max{IlxII, IlylI}.
indeed, each induces the product topology on XEPJ V. The normed
40 Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators
IIxII =
Exercises
1. Show that in a normed space, the closure of the open ball Dr(X0)
(r > 0) is the closed ball B,(xo) and the boundary c3Br(XO) of B,(x0)
is the sphere Do these statements hold in a general metric
space as well?
2. Let B1 D B2 J ... be closed balls in a normed space X, where
B,, = B(x1, , r1,) = {x C X: 1k1, — xli r1,} (r1, > r > 0).
Does
n1
hold? Is there a ball B(x,r) r> 0, contained in B1,?
3. Prove or disprove each of the following four statements. In a com-
plete space every nested sequence of closed has a
non-empty intersection.
4. Let X = (V, il) be a normed space and W a subspace of V. Sup-
H
equivalent?
6. For 1 p let be the on R1, Show that if
I p< r then llXIlr. For which points x do we have
equality?
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 41
Prove that for every €> 0 there is an N such that if N <p <oo
then
IIXIIpIIYIIqIIZIIr.
State and prove the analogous inequality for s vectors from C's.
9. Show that I,, is a Banach space for every p, (1 p and that
c0, the set of all sequences tending to 0, is a closed subspace of
Show also that 4 (1 p <cc) and c0 are separable Banach spaces
(i.e. each contains a countable dense set) while is not separable.
10. Let p, q and r be positive reals satisfying p1 + q' = r1. Show
that for f E 1) and g E Lq(O, 1) the function fg belongs to
Lr(0,1) and
IIfIIpIl8iIq.
11. Let e, = (O,...,0,1,0,...) = €4, where 1 <x.
Show that (e1,e2,...) is a basis of 4, called the standard basis, i.e.
every x 4 has a unique representation in the form
x= A•e1.
IIxII' = : m = 1,2,. .
Let
d0 = {x E c0: IIxII' < rx}
Show that is a norm on d0. Is this space complete?
17. For x E set
IIxII' =
19. Prove that if two norms on the same vector space are not
equivalent then at least one of them is discontinuous on the unit
sphere in the other norm. Can each norm be discontinuous when
restricted to the unit sphere of the other?
20. Give two norms on a vector space such that one is complete and
the other is incomplete.
21. Find two inequivalent norms and 1116 on a vector space V
such that (V, fl fly) and (V, •112) are isometric normed spaces.
22. Let Y be a closed subspace of a Banach space X and let x be an
element of X. Is the distance of x from Y attained? (Is there a
pOint Yo E Y such that = inf{IIx—yII: y E Y}?)
Chapter 2: Normed spaces and bounded linear operators 43
Notes
The main aim of this chapter is to show that, as far as the questions
above are concerned, Candide and Pangloss were right, tout est pour le
mieu.x dans le meilleur des mondes possibles; indeed, everything is for
45
46 Chapter 3: Linear functionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem
all x with 11111 < 1, i.e. if and only if 1(f) is disjoint from the open unit
ball D(0,1) = {x X: llxll <1).
Chapter 3: Linear functionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem 47
Proof. (a) Suppose that f is continuous. Then K(f) and 1(f) are
closed, since they are inverse images of closed sets. If f(x0) 0 then
f(x) f(x + fx0) for 0. Hence K(f) and 1(f) have empty interiors,
and so are nowhere dense.
Suppose now that K(f) is not dense in X, say B(x0, r) fl K(f) = 0 for
some x0 E X and r> 0. Then f(B(xo, r)) = f(x0) +rf(B(X)) does not
contain 0, so f(B(X)) is not the entire ground field. Hence, as we have
seen, f is bounded.
Since 1(f) is a translate of K(f), it is dense if K(f) is dense.
(b) This is immediate from (a) and Theorem 1(c). 0
In fact, B(x0, r) fl K(f) = 0 implies a bound on the norm of f,
namely the bound Ilfil f(xo)I/r. Indeed, otherwise If(x)I >
I IJxII/r for some x E X and so
—
= r)
C>
c p(y' +z)—f0(y')
for all y' E Y, and the latter holds iff
c —p(y" — z) + fo(Y")
pair (P. a partially ordered set; in keeping with our custom concern-
ing normed spaces and topological spaces, (P, is often abbreviated to
P. A subset C of P is a chain or a totally ordered set if for all a, b E C
we have a orb a. Anelementm E Pisamaximalelejnentof P
if m a implies that a = m; furthermore, we say that b is an upper
bound foralisES. Itcan beshownthatthe
axiom of choice is equivalent to the following assertion.
Zorn's lemma. If every chain in a non-empty partially ordered set P has
an upper bound, then P has at least one maximal element. 0
The fact that Theorem 4 holds for any subspace Y of X is the cele-
brated Hahn—Banach extension theorem.
Theorem 5. Let Y be a subspace of a real vector space X and let
fo E Y'. Let p be a convex functional on X. If fo is dominated by p on
Y, i.e. fo(y) p(y) for every y E Y, then Jo can be extended to a linear
functional f E IC dominated by p.
If X is a real normed space and Jo E r then fo has a norm-
preserving extension to the whole of X: there is a functional f E X*
such that fo C f and 11111 = Ilfoll.
Proof. Consider the set = {f,,: y E 1) of all extensions of fo dom-
inated by p: for each y there is a subspace V,, and a linear functional
E such that Y C Y,,, fo C and f., is dominated by p. Clearly
the relation 'C' is a partial order on is 'less than or equal to' fo if
C fe). If = if,,: y E is a non-empty chain (i.e. - a totally
ordered set) then it has an upper bound, namely f E Y', where
= Y,, and f(y) = f,,(y) if y E Y, (y E Fe). Therefore, by
Zorn's lemma, there is a maximal extension. But by Lemma 3 every
maximal extension is defined on the whole of X.
The second part follows as before. 0
With a little work one can show that norm-preserving extensions can
be guaranteed in complex normed spaces as well. A complex normed
space X can be considered as a real normed space; as such, we denote it
by XR. We write for the dual of Xft. It is easily checked that the
mapping r: r defined by r(f) = Ref (i.e. r(J)(x) = Ref(x) for
Proof. As usual, we may and shall assume that X and Y are non-trivial
spaces: X {0} and V {0}. We know that fi r liii. Given 0,
there is an x0 S(X) such that if Tx011 11111 — e. Let g C S(VS) be a
support functional at Tx0: g(Txo) = iITxoll. Then
(Tg)(x0) = g(Tx0) = IlTxoII 11711
Given a vector space V with dual V' and second dual V" = (Vt)',
there is a natural embedding V V" defined by v v", where v" is
defined by v"(f) = f(v) for f C V. Rather trivially, this embedding is
an isomorphism if V is finite dimensional. If X is a normed space with
dual r, second dual Xt. and x C X, then we write i for the restriction
of x" to X*: I is the linear functional on given by 1(f) = f(x) for
fC In other words, with the bracket notation,
(I,f) = (f,x)
for all f C X*. Since Ii(f)I = If(x)I IlfIllIxIl, we have I C (not
just I E (X*)I), and moreover Dxli. The Hahn—Banach theorem
implies that, in fact, we have equality here.
Theorem 10. The natural map x I is a norm-preserving isomorphism
(embedding) of a normed space X into its second dual X**.
Proof. For x C X (x 0), let f be a support functional at x: lifil = 1
and f(x) = ilxII. Then ii(f)i = If(x)i = iixli and 11(1)1 IIIIiiifiI =
so that iIxli hID. 0
In view of Theorem 10 it is natural to consider X as a subspace of
X the whole of X**, i.e.
X= then X is said to be reflexive. We know that X* * is complete
even when X is not, so a reflexive space is necessarily complete. How-
ever, a Banach space need not be reflexive. For example, 1, is reflexive
for 1 <p and 11 and are not reflexive. Also, as we shall see,
every finite-dimensional normed space is reflexive.
Writing C(L) for the Banach space of bounded continuous functions
on a topological space L with the uniform norm, it is easily seen that
every Banach space X is a closed subspace of C(L) for some metric
space L. Indeed, put L = B(X*), and for x C X define = IlL.
Then, by Theorem 10, the map X —' C(L), given by x is a linear
isometry onto a closed subspace of C(L). We shall see in chapter 8 that
considerably more is true: instead of C(L) we may take C(K), the space
of all continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff space K with the
uniform norm.
To conclude this chapter, let us present a strengthening of the
Hahn—Banach theorem. This time we wish to impose not only an upper
bound but also a lower bound on our linear functional to be found, the
upper bound being a convex functional, as before, and the lower bound
a concave functional.
Chapter 3: Linear fwzc:ionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem 53
Exercises
What is X*?
7. Let X be a Banach space. Show that if X*** = X* then X is
reflexive, i.e. = X.
8. A linear functional f E 1,. is positive if f(x) 0 when every
x= E 1,. with x, 0 for all n. Show that every positive
linear functional on ic,. is bounded.
9. Show that p0(x) = = lim is a convex functional
Ofl icc. and deduce the existence of a linear functional f:
such that
f(x)
for every x = E
10. Let X be a complex normed space and let Y be a subspace of XR.
(Thus if Yi Y2 E Y and r1 , r2 C R then r1y1 + r2y2 C Y.) Let
Jo C (i.e. let Jo be a bounded real linear functional on Y) such
Chapter 3: Linear funcrionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem 57
A(a)f0(a) A(a)a
aEF a€F
for every finite subset F of A and for every function A: F R.
16. Let V be a subspace of a normed space X and let x X. Show
that
d(x, Y) = inf{IJx—yII: y E Y} 1
17. Let T = Fl/i be the circle group, i.e. the additive group of reals
modulo the integers. Let X = be the vector space of
bounded real-valued functions on T. For
58 Chapter 3: Linear functionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem
set
and define
p(f) = n = 1,2,...;
a convex functional and deduce that there is a gen-
eralized 'integral' 1(f) such that for f, g E and
A,p.,t9 E R we have
= limsup!
and define
p(f) = n = 1,2,...;
a convex functional, and deduce that there is a gen-
eralized 'limit' LIM,...,. f(t) on X such that
(I) + }= A LIM f(t) + g(t);
(iv) LIM1 = 1.
Chapter 3: Linear functionals and the Hahn—Banach theorem 59
LIM LIM
Notes
The Hahn—Banach theorem for real normed spaces was proved by H.
Hahn, Uber lineare Gleichungen in linearen Räumen, J. für die reine
und angewandte Mathematik, 157 (1927), 214—29; and by S. Banach,
Sur les fonctionnelles linéaires II, Studia Math., 1 (1929), 22 3—39. The
complex version, namely Theorem 6, was proved by H. F. Bohnenblust
and A. Sobczyk, Extensions of funclionals on complex linear spaces,
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 44 (1938), 91—3.
Many dual spaces were first identified by F. Riesz, in Sur les
operations fonctionnelles Iinéaires, Comptes Rendus, 149 (1909), 974—7,
and in Uiuersuchungen über Systeme integrierbarer Funk:ionen,
Mathematische Annalen, 69 (1910), 449—97.
4. FINITE-DIMENSIONAL NORMED SPACES
= A1 I.
lim =0
and so x E B.
60
Chapter 4: Finite-dimensional normed spaces 61
=
i=I i=1
1=1
lx1—y11
= (max Iieali)Ux—yiii
I
K(f) = lin(x1,.. .
with vertices 0, u1 ,.. , Let x1 ,... , x,, E S be such that v(x1,... , x,,)
.
is maximal.
We claim that these vectors will do. What are the functionals (x
Clearly xr has to be defined by = I and x7(x1) = 0 for j i. But
does x7 have norm 1? Indeed it does, since 11x711 > 1 implies that
x7(y1) > I for some y, E S and so
D
x= A1x1 set
Let X1 and X,. be the normed spaces defined by these norms. Then
Theorem 13 claims precisely that x1,. .. ,x,,, can be chosen in such a way
that
B(X1) C B(X) C B(X,0).
Clearly 8(X1) is the convex hull of the 2n vectors ±x1, ±x2,..., ±x,
and is the n-dimensional parallelepiped whose vertices are
(€, E {—1,1}).
Let us return to the opening statement of this chapter: the isomorphic
classification of finite-dimensional normed spaces is trivial, with two
spaces being isomorphic if and only if they have the same dimension.
Based on this, one could come to the hasty verdict that there is nothing
to finite-dimensional normed spaces: they are not worth studying. As it
66 Chapter 4: Finite-dimensional normed spaces
happens, this would not only be a hasty verdict but it would also be
utterly incorrect. There are a great many important and interesting
questions, only the isomorphic classification is not one of them. All
these questions, many of which are still open, concern the metric pro-
perties of the finite-dimensional normed spaces.
Perhaps the most fundamental question is the following: given two n-
dimensional normed spaces, how close are they to being isometric? Let
us formulate this question precisely.
Let X and Y be isomorphic normed spaces, i.e. let X and Y be such
that there is a bounded linear operator T C Y) which has a
bounded inverse. The Banach—Mazur distance between X and Y is
d(X, Y) = inf{1171111T'JI: T C Y), T' C
If X and Y are not isomorphic then one defines their Banach—Mazur
distance to be
Note that d(X, Y) 1, d(Y, X) = d(X, Y) = d(X*, for any two
spaces, and
d(X,Z) d(X,Y)d(Y,Z)
for any three spaces. Thus in some sense it would be more natural to
measure the 'distance' between X and Y by log d(X, Y).
What does d(X, Y) <d mean in geometric terms? It means precisely
that there is an invertible linear operator T E Y) such that
jA1 I.
=
Then X1 = (V, lii) is isometric to 1k"; so we have to show that
d(X,X1) n.
We claim that the formal identity J: X3 X is such that 11111 1 and
n. Indeed, forx = Ax1 we have
f(x) AJ = IIxIh,
and so
implying 11J' II
The alert reader may have noticed that the formal proof above is, in
fact, unnecessary, because the result is a trivial consequence of (1), the
relation equivalent to Theorem 13. Indeed, B(X,,,) C nB(X1) and so
B(X1) C B(X) C nB(X1). Thus d(X,X1) n. But X1 is isometric to
so that d(X, n.
An immediate consequence of Corollary 14 is that d(X, Y) n2 for
any two n-dimensional spaces, but this trivial estimate is far from being
best possible. In 1948 Fritz John proved an essentially best-possible
upper bound for d(X, Y) by first bounding the distance of an
n-dimensional space from rather than from Before giving this
result, let us think a little about the Banach—Mazur distance from a
Euclidean space.
Chapter 4: Finite-dimensional normed spaces
and
1=1 1=1
E= E
Then
BC DflD' CE
and
(volE)2 — 2 — 2a2 — 2a
1
(vol D)2 1
BC P = E lxii
Ea,b E W': + b2
are satisfied for some choice of 0 < b <a. This is a trivial matter
which, unfortunately, looks a little untidy.
Put 0< e < a = and b = 1—e. Then ab"1 > 1.
Also,
2_ ++
2 2
C C \ C
= <1
if e > 0 is sufficiently small. 0
Theorem 15 can be reformulated in terms of inscribed ellipsoids: there
is a unique ellipsoid D of maximal volume contained in B and
D C B C n 112D. if B is not a unit ball but only a
Furthermore,
bounded convex body in P'1 then some translate B' of B satisfies
D C B' C nD for the ellipsoid D of maximal volume contained in B'
(see Exercise 18).
Corollary 16. Let X and Y be n-dimensional normed spaces. Then
d(X,Y)
n "2n"2 = n. 0
Although the estimate in Corollary 16 does seem somewhat crude,
since the Banach- Mazur distance between X and Y is estimated by
going through it is, in fact, close to being best possible: in 1981 the
Russian mathematician E. D. Gluskin proved that there is a constant
c > 0 such that for every a there are n-dimensional normed spaces X
and Y with d(X, Y) cn. At the time this result was extremely surpris-
ing; the proof was based on a probabilistic argument which has become
an important tool in the so-called local theory of Banach spaces, the
theory concerning finite-dimensional spaces.
Exercises
DAlI0
= max{H±
: €, C {—1, 1} (i =
Chapter 4: Finite-dimensional normed spaces 71
p ooandx = E V = set
=
Show that is a norm on V. Show also that any two of these
1=1
for all A,. .. , E R. Show that for k2 n there are unit vectors
u = p.1x1 (i = 1,... ,k)
jE U,
1=1
B C U (x1 + B) = Li B(x1,
AkxkH AkxkD
Notes
Fritz John's theorem was proved in the paper Extremum problems with
inequalities as subsidiary conditions, in Courant Anniversary Volume,
Interscience, New York, 1948, pp. 187—204. The original paper of
E. D. Gluskin, The diameter of the Minkowski compactum is roughly
equal to n, Funct. Anal. AppI., 15 (1981), 72—3, is an all-too-concise
account of his celebrated results.
Excellent accounts of much of the excitement concerning finite-
dimensional spaces can be found in the following volumes: V. D. Mi!-
man and 0. Schechtman, Asymptotic Theory of Finite Dimensional
74 Chapter 4: Finite-dimensional normed spaces
75
76 Chapter 5: The Baire category theorem
flf'([—n,n]).
I
Then as the intersection of a family of closed sets, is closed. By our
assumption,
n1
so by the definition of a set of the second category, mt 0 for some
n.
The second assertion is immediate from Theorem 1". 0
The next result is only a little more than a reformulation of Theorem
2 in the setting of linear maps.
Theorem 3. (Banach—Steinhaus theorem) Let X and Y be normed
spaces, let U be a set of the second category in X and let C Y)
be a family of bounded linear operators such that
sup{IITulJ: T <
for all u E U. Then JITII N for some N and all T E In particular,
the conclusion holds if X is complete and T
TE x
by is a ball E X; r > 0) such
that IITxII n for some n and all T E and x E B,.(x0). As in the
proof of Theorem 2.2, this implies that E N = fir for all T E
Indeed, let T E and x E B(X). Then 10 + rx and x0 — rx are in
Br(XO) and so
IITxO = =N
Proof. For a fixed n, let V,, C X be the set of vectors v such that
Then, by Theorem 3, V,, is of the first category.
Hence so is V = U..1 and thus by Theorem 1" the set U = X\V is
of the second category in X. 0
The next major result, the open-mapping theorem, is a consequence
of the Baire category theorem and the important lemma below. Recall
that for a normed space X we write D(X) for the open unit ball and
B(X) for the closed unit ball; furthermore, we use the notation
D,(X) = rD(X) and = rB(X).
Lemma 5. Suppose X and Y are normed spaces, X is complete,
T Y) and T(Dr(X)) 3 D3(Y). Then T(D,(X)) 3
Proof. We may and shall assume that r = s = 1. Let A =
D(Y) fl T(D(X)); then A = B(Y). Given z E D(Y), choose S such that
IIzII < 1—S < 1 and set y = z/(1 —8). We shall show that
y E T(D(X))/(1 —8) and so z E T(D(X)).
Let us define a sequence (y,) C Y. Set Yo = 0 and then choose suc-
cessively Yi Y such that y,, Yn—i E S"'A and fly,, —ylI <8".
Having chosen Yo'••• we can find a suitable y,, since
yE and the set S"'A is dense in
By the definition of A, there exists a sequence C X such that
Tx,, = y,, and Putting
x= x,,
we have
that —' Tx0. Now if X and Y are Banach spaces, the closed-graph
theorem tells us that in order to prove the continuity of a linear opera-
tor T: X —, Y, it suffices to show that if x,, —. and Tx,, then
Tx0, i.e. Tx0 = Yo — a considerable gain!
Exercises
j dx c
c,,q,,,(x)
n=1
(x,y) = x•y,.
i=1
Let I <p,q < be conjugate indices and let = E
(n = 1,2,...). Show that 0 for every y if
is norm bounded (i.e. K for some K and all n) and
0 for every i. (This is a characterization of sequences in
tending weakly to 0; cf. Exercise 6.)
12. Let = E (n = 1,2,...). Show that — 0 for
A,xaO
if <1+1,
( 0 otherwise.
The sequence is called the Haar system. Prove that the
Haar system is a basis in 1) for I p
20. Define a sequence of continuous functions ç,1: [0, 1] [0, 1] as
follows. Set 1 and for n 2 put
du,
= L
where X* is the k th Haar function, defined in the previous exer-
cise. The sequence is called the Schauder system. Prove
that the Schauder system is a basis in 1) with the uniform
norm. Show also that the basis constant is 1.
Chapter 5: The Baire category theorem
n=1
for everyf E X.
22. Use the Baire category theorem to deduce the result in Exercise
4.15: the linear span (not the closed linear span!) of an infinite
sequence of linearly independent vectors in a normed space cannot
be complete.
23k. Construct a set SC [0, 1] of measure I that is of the first category in
[0. 1].
Notes
Most of the results in this chapter can be found in Stefan Banach's clas-
sic, cited in Chapter 2. The original paper of R. Baire is Sur Ia conver-
gence de variables réelles, Annali Mat. Pura e AppI., 3 (1899), 1—122;
Osgood's theorem is in W. F. Osgood, Non-uniform convergence and
the integration of series term by term, Amer. J. Math., 19 (1897),
155—90. The Banach—Steinhaus result was proved in S. Banach and H.
Steinhaus, Sur le principe de Ia condensation de singularites, Fundamenta
Math., 9 (1927), 51—7.
6. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS ON COMPACT
SPACES AND THE
STONE-WEIERSTRASS THEOREM
Then U(a) and V(a) are disjoint open sets, U(a) is a neighbourhood of a
and V(a) contains B.
Now note that U0 A
U(a) is an open cover of A and so, as A is
— Jmin{d(x,A)/d(x,B),1} B
i xEB
will do. The next important result tells us that such an f exists not only
on metric spaces but also on normal spaces.
Theorem 2. (Urysohn's lemma) Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets
of a normal space X. Then there is a continuous function f: X —' [0, 1]
such that A C and B C f'(l).
Chapter 6: Continuous functions on compact spaces 87
define
= {x E C: and = {x E C:
By Urysohn's lemma there is a continuous function
r I 2n 12
such that
= and
= i(2)n.
Set
IF(x)I 4 =1
ii=0
Chapter 6: Continuous functions on compact spaces 89
=
<(4)fl+1
- k=O
andsof(x)=F(x). 0
1 i m}
is an c-net in R.
We claim that the functions ft,... 'fm form a 3€-net in S. Indeed,
given f E S, there is an i (1 I m) such that f(x1) —f,(x1)l < c for
all j (I n). Let now xE K be an arbitrary point. Then xE
for some 1(1 j n). Consequently,
1(x) —f,(x)h If(x) —f(x1)I + 1(x1) —f1(x1)I + lf,.(x1) —f1(x)I <3€. 0
Chapter 6: Continuous functions on compact spaces 91
Note that if L is compact then C(L) is just the set of all continuous
functions; similarly. is the set of all continuous functions with
compact support and C0(L) is the set of all continuous function f on L
for which {x E L: If(x)l e} is compact for every e > 0.
If f and g are functions on the same space, define Af. f+g and fg by
pointwise operations. With these operations, C(L) is a commutative
algebra. This algebra has a unit, the identically I function. By
definition, C C0(L) C C(L) and CC(L) and C0(L) are subalgebras
of C(L). We know that the vector space C(L) is a Banach space with
the uniform (supremum) norm:
K
so that, as K is compact, K = for some
x1, • . ,X,.•,E K. Let =L1vL2v" be the maximum of the
corresponding functions. By assumption, E A, and
f(x)—€<f((x)<f(x)+e forallxEK.
As there is such an fE for every 0, f E A. 0
Lemma 8. A uniformly closed subalgebra A of gb(S), the space of
bounded real-valued functions on a set S is also closed under the lattice
operations.
Proof. Since (fvg)(x) = max{f(x),g(x)} =
andfAg = f+g—fvg, it suffices to show that A iff E A. Furth-
ermore, as for n 1 we have nfl = nlfl, andf A holds if nf E A,
it suffices to show that if f A and 11111 = supx€s If(x) I < 1 then
flEA. 3)k be the Tay-
Let then f E flffl < 1 and e > 0. Let
A, Ck(t—
lor series for about z = 3. As this series converges uniformly
on [0, 1], there is a polynomial
P(:) 3)k
Ck(t—
k=O
such that
for all 0 t 1.
Hence
IP(s2) —(s2+€2)"2J < for all —1 s 1
Chapter 6: Continuous functions on compact spaces 95
and so
I
P(s2) — Is II < 2E for alt —1 s 1.
IQ(s)—lsII IP(s2)—IsII+IP(O)I
Hence
IIQ(f) —fill
showing that IfI can be approximated by the function Q(f) E A within
4€. Since A is uniformly closed, Ill E A. 0
We are ready to prove the first form of the main result of this section.
We say that a set A of functions on a set S separates the points of S if
for all x,y E S (x y) there is a function f E A with f(x) f(y).
Theorem 9. (Stone—Weierstrass theorem) Let K be a compact space
and let A be an algebra of real-valued continuous functions on K that
separates the points of K. Then A, the uniform closure of A, is either
CR(K) or the algebra of all continuous real-valued functions vanishing at
a single point x. E K.
Proof. (a) Suppose first that there is no point E K such that
f E A. It is easily checked that then for all x y
(x,y E K) there is a function f C A such that f(x) f(y), f(x) 0 and
f(y) 0. Then any function on K, say g E fiX, can be approximated at
x and y by elements of A. In fact, we can do rather better than only
approximate: since (J(x), f(y)) and (f2(x) , f2(y)) are linearly indepen-
dent vectors in fl2, some linear combination of them is (g(x),g(y)). So
for some linear combination h = sf+ jf2 of f and f2 we have h(x) = g(x)
and h(y) = g(y). By Theorem 7 and Lemma 8 we have A =
(b) Suppose now that = 0 for some C K and all f C A. We
have to show that if g E CR(K) and g
the constant functions to A, i.e. let B C CR(K) be the
algebra of functions of the form f+ c where f C A and c fl Given
>0, by part (a) there exists a function h = f+c C B, with! E A and
96 Chapter 6: Continuous fwzc:ions on compact spaces
Exercises
metric space K?
9. Prove the following complex version of the Tietze—Urysohn exten-
sion theorem. Let A be a closed subset of a normal topological
space X and let f: A —* C be a continuous function such that
IlfilA = SUPXEA 1(x) I = 1. Show that there is a continuous func-
tion F: C such that flFflx = = 1.
10. Let L be a locally compact Hausdorff space. Show that a set
SC is totally bounded if it is bounded, equicontinuous and
for every 0 there is a compact set K C L such that jf(x) I <€
for all x E L\K and f E S.
11. Let B, = {zE C Izl : D = {zE C : < 1) and let F be a
set of functions analytic on D such that If(z)l M, if IzI = r < 1.
f
Show that for r < 1 the set FIB, {IIB,: E F} is a relatively
compact subset of C(B,). Deduce that every sequence CF
contains a subsequence which is uniformly convergent on
every B, (r < 1) to a function f analytic on D.
12. Let U be an open subset of C and let '12,...: U —i C be uni-
formly bounded analytic functions. Prove that there is a subse-
quence which is uniformly convergent on every compact
subset of U.
13. Show that all three conditions are needed in Dini's theorem, i.e.
that the conclusion —foil 0 in Theorem 5 need not hold if
Chapter 6: Continuous functions on compact spaces 99
Notes
The relevant results of Urysohn and Tietze are in P. Urysohn, (..Yber die
Mdchtigkeit der zusammenhangenden Mengen, Math. Ann., 94 (1925),
262—95 and H. Tietze, Uber Funkrionen, die auf einer abgeschlossenen
Menge stetig sind, J. für die reine und angewandte Mathematik, 145
(1915), 9—14. Heinrich Tietze proved a special case of the extension
theorem, while Paul Urysohn (who was Russian but tended to publish in
German) proved Theorems 2 and 3 in the generality we stated them.
Various special cases of the extension theorem were proved by a good
many people, including Lebesgue, Brouwer, de Ia Vallée Poussin, Bohr
and Hausdorif. For the Arzelà—Ascoli theorem see C. Arzelã, Sulk
serie di funzioni (paiie prima), Memorie Accad. Sci. Bologna, 8 (1900),
131—86. Of course, there are several excellent books on general topol-
ogy; J. L. Kelley, General Topology, Van Nostrand, Princeton, New
Jersey, 1963, xiv and 298 pp., is particularly recommended.
The original version of Theorem 9 is in K. T. Weierstrass, Uber die
analytische Darsteilbarkeit sogenannier willkürlicher Funktionen reeler
Argumente, S.-B. Deutsch Akad. Wiss. Berlin, KI. Math. Phys. Tech.,
1885, 633—39 and 789—805. The Stone—Weierstrass theorem itself is in
M. H. Stone, Applications of the theory of Boolean rings to general
topology, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 41(1937), 375—81; an exposition of
the field can be found in M. H. Stone, The generalized Weierstrass
approximation theorem, Math. Mag., 21 (1948), 167—84.
7. THE CONTRACTION-MAPPING THEOREM
for some k < 1 and all x,y E X. One also calls f a contraction with
constant k. It is immediate from the definition that every contraction
101
102 Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem
Proof. Suppose that k < 1 and f satisfies (1) for all x,y E X. Pick a
point x0 E X and set x1 = f(x0), x2 = f(x1), and so on: for n 1 set
= f(x,, Writing d for d(x0 , xi), we find that
k"d. (2)
rn—n—i
i=O
1—k
Hence is a Cauchy sequence and so it converges to some point
x C X. Since f is continuous, the sequence converges to f(x).
But = converges to x and so f(x) = x. The uniqueness
of the fixed point is even simpler: if f(x) = x and f(y) = y then
d(x,y) = d(J(x),f(y)) kd(x,y), and so d(x,y) = 0, i.e. x = y. 0
When looking for a fixed point of a contraction map f, it is often use-
ful to remember that the fixed point is the limit of every sequence (i,
consisting of the iterates of a point x0, i.e. defined by picking a point x0
and setting = for n 1. Let us note the following slight
extension of Theorem 1.
Theorem 2. Let X be a complete metric space and let f: X X be such
that f" is a contraction map for some n 1. Then f has a unique fixed
The very simple results above and their proofs have a large number of
applications. In the rest of this chapter we shall be concerned with two
Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem
directions: first we shall study maps between Banach spaces and then we
shall present some applications to integral equations.
The proof of Theorem 1, sometimes called the method of successive
approximations, is very important in the study of maps between Banach
spaces. Here is a standard example concerning functions of two van-
ables which are Lipschitz in their second variable. Recall that for a
normed space X we write Dr(X) = {x E X: lixil <r} for the open ball
of centre 0 and radius r.
Theorem 3. Let X and Y be Banach spaces and let
F: Dr(X))<Ds(Y) Y
be a continuous map such that
(3)
and
<s(1—k) (4)
for all x E Dr(X) and Yi 'Y2 E !)3(Y), where r,s > 0 and 0 < k < 1.
Then there is a unique map y: DS(Y) such that
y(x) = F(x,y(x)) (5)
ILvo(x)II Uy1+i(x)—y1(x)II
+ i—O
< 5,
i.e.
x = g(x) + €(g(x)) = f(g(x))
whenever h E D and lihil <8. Thus 'a(h) tends to 0 faster than h'.
Let U be an open subset of X and let f: U Y. We call f differenti-
able at x0 E U if there is a linear operator T E Y) such that
f(x0+h) = f(x0)+Th+o(h).
The operator T is the derivative of f at x0: in notation, f'(x0) = T.
Thus f is differentiable at x0 with derivative T E Y) 1ff for every
0 there is a 8 > 0 such that
Ilf(xo+h)—f(xo)--ThH eIIhII
Ilf'(x)II k
for all x E U. Then
flf(x)—f(y)II
for all x,y E U.
Proof. If the assertion is false then one can find two sequences
C U such that x0 Yo' and for a 0 either = and
+ = + or + = + y,,) and + = and
as the segments [x,, , y4,,] are nested and lix,, + + iii = lix,, —
Hence
—f(zo)lI + Ilf(zo)
—zo)li +o(x,, —z0)
+ ilf'(zo)(zo—y,,)II +O(Zoy,,)
kflx,, —zoli +klizo—y,,Ii +o(x,, —y,,)
=
which is a contradiction, as 0 and lix,, —y,,Ii 0. 0
Like Theorem 4, the following theorem ensures that, under suitable
circumstances, a function f is a homeomorphism in some neighbour-
hood.
Theorem 6. Let X and Y be Banach spaces, let U be an open neigh-
bourhood of a point x0 E X and let f: U Y be such that f'(x) exists
and is continuous in U. Suppose
(f_1)'(y) =
fory E V0.
Proof. We may assume that x0 = 0 and f(xo) = 0. Furthermore, setting
T0 = f'(O) and replacing f by X X, we may assume that
Y = X and f'(O) is the identity operator I.
Set E(x) = f(x) —x. Then e: U —+ Y is continuously differentiable and
= 0. Hence there is an open ball D5(X) C U such that
Ik'(x)II 4
h=
Consequently,
f'(y0+k) = f'(f(xo+h)) = x0+h =
proving that = T' = The continuity of
follows from the fact that the map T T1 is continuous. 0
The contraction-mapping theorem has numerous applications to dif-
ferential and integral equations. Here we shall confine ourselves to
three rather simple examples.
Theorem 7. Let K(s, t) be a continuous real function on the unit square
[0, 1]2, and let v(s) be a continuous real function on [0, 1]. Then there
is a unique continuous real function y(s) on [0, 1] such that
Cs
y(s) = v(s) + I K(s, t)y(t) dz.
JO
is called the Volterra integral operator with kernel K(s, t). In fact, we
could assume that K(s, t) is defined only on the closed triangle
0 t s 1, since for s < t we do not use K(s, t). Write K1(s, t) =
K(s,t) and for n 1 set
=
t) K(s, u)Kju,t)du.
f(u) du
+ 1x) (s)
f K(s, u) t)x(t) dt du
=
dtdu
= f00
J
Cu jS
dux(t) dt
=J
'-U
0t J
dt.
= J0
The function K(s, t) is continuous on the closed unit square and so it is
bounded, say
IK(s,t)I M
(n—i)!
for all n 1. Indeed, if this holds for n then
du
(n—i)!
Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem 109
=J lxii dt
and so
IILII
In particular, L" is a contraction.
It is time to return to our equation. Define a continuous (affine)
operator T: CEO, 1] CEO,!] by Tx = v + Lx. The theorem claims
that T has precisely one fixed point. But
fn—I \
r'x = ( L')v+L"x
\i..o /
and so T" is a contraction. Hence, by Theorem 2, T has a unique fixed
point. 0
The next application concerns a non-linear variant of the Volterra
integral operator.
Theorem 8. Let K(s, t) and w(s, t) be continuous real functions on the
unit square {0, 1]2, and let v(s) be a continuous real function on [0, 1].
Suppose that
Iw(s,t1)—w(s,t2)I
for all 0 t1, r2, s 1. Then there is a unique continuous real function
y(s) on [0, 1] such that
= f
Jo
ds.
Then 1L is indeed a norm on C{0, 1], and it is equivalent to the L1 norm. Set
= (C[O, lJ, 11L) and let X0 be the completion of XQ. Clearly, X0 is the
vector space L1(O, 1) with the norm a map E: X0 -+
given by the formula for L. Furthermore, with M = max{IK(s,t)I: 0 s, t 1)
we have, for = (L1(0, 1),
i-I
hEx — EyhL K(s, t){w(t, x(t)) — w(t, y(t))} cit ds
= J0 J0
i_i i_s
MN —y(t) I dt ds
J 00J
i.1 i_I
= MN e —y(r) cit dt
J OtJ
= MNJ dt
MN
J 0
Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem 111
(Lx — Ly)(s)
= 1 {K(s, t,x(t)) — K(s, t,y(t))}
kflx—yfl.
Exercises
Show also that this need not be true if we assume only that A and
B are closed.
3. Show that if f is a map of a complete metric space X into itself
such that d(f(x),f(y)) <d(x,y) for all x,y X (x y) then f
Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem
i—I
a an an
open set C Y. Suppose that f is differentiable at x0 E U and
(J'(x0))' E Show that f1: V—p U is differentiable at
Chapter 7: The contraction-mapping theorem 113
Yo = f(x0) and
= (f'(xo))'.
12. Let U C X and V C Y be open sets, and f: U -+ Y and g: V Z
continuous maps with f(U) C V. Suppose that f is differentiable
at a point x0 E U and g is differentiable at Yo = f(x0) E V. Show
that the map gof: U —' Z is differentiable at x0 and
(g°f)'(xo) = g'(y0)of'(x0).
13. Let U be a connected open subset of X and, for n = 1,2,..., let
U — Y be differentiable at every point of U. Suppose that
every x0 U has a neighbourhood N(x0) on which Hfh(x) II is
uniformly convergent. Show that if is convergent for
some x E U then it is convergent for all x U, the map
f(x) =
n—i
f'(x) = fh(x).
n—i
Notes
= U (1 5: C (1)
J
114
Chapter 8: Weak topologies and duality 115
The topology i defined in this way is called the weak topology generated
by and is denoted by o(X, where = y E I).
A map! from a topological space (X',T') into (X,o(X, is continu-
ous 1ff f,.of: (X',r') —' is continuous for every y E I'. l'his so-
called universal property characterizes the weak topology.
The product topology is one of the prime examples of a weak topol-
ogy. Let be a topological space for each y F and let
X= X1, be the Cartesian product of the sets X., (y E F). Thus
X is the collection of all the functions x: F UYEr X,, such that
x(y) E X.1,. One usually writes x7 for x(y) and sets x = also,
x,, is the 'y-component of x. Let p.,,: X —' X,, be the projection onto
X,,; thus p,,(x) = x,,. The product topology on X is the weak topology
generated by the projections p.,. (y F). To spell it out: a set U C X is
open in the product topology if for every point x = (X,,),,EF there are
indices y,,. . . , y,, and open sets U,,,..., U,. E such that
(i = 1,... ,n) and
fl fl A,
we may assume that our set system is itself is maximal for the finite-
intersection property.
The maximality of implies that the intersection of any two sets in .s4
belongs to as does the intersection of finitely many sets in .si2. Conse-
quently, if B C X meets every set in .sii then B E In particular, if
A and A C B C X then BE
So far we have made no use of the fact that X is a product space, let
alone a product of compact spaces. Let us do so now. For each y E I',
the system {p,,(A): A of subsets of X,, has the finite-intersection
property. As X,, is compact, for some point x,, E we have
x,,E fl p,,(A).
This means precisely that for every neighbourhood U,, of x,,, the set
meets every element of Hence and so
fl E
ri C U.
118 Chapter 8: Weak topologies and duality
HfxII = sup{lfx(x*)I: K}
= :fC = lixil,
and so the map X C(K) is a linear isometry. 0
It is customary to write w-topology for the weak topology and w-
topology for the weak-star topology. Similarly, one may speak of w-
open sets, w-neighbourhoods, and so on, all taken in the
appropriate spaces. Thus a w-open subset of X is a o(X, X *)..open
subset, and the of a subset of X* is the closure of the set in
the As before, we consider X as a subspace of
the isometric embedding being given by x i, where (1,x*) =
(x,x) for all f C X*.
In order to avoid some inessential complications, for the rest of the
section we shall consider only real spaces.
The weak topology is weaker than the norm topology, so every
w-closed set is also norm closed. The following result claims that for
convex sets the converse is also true.
120 Chapter 8: Weak topologies and duality
U = {x E X: (x*,x) > s}
The next result can also be deduced from the Hahn—Banach theorem;
now we are well equipped to give a very straightforward proof.
Corollary 8. A closed subspace of a reflexive space is reflexive.
Proof. Let Y be a closed subspace of a reflexive space X. Since
B(Y) = B(X) fl Y, the norm-closed convex set B(Y) C X is cr(X,
compact. But, as we remarked in (2), the restriction of o(X, to Y is
precisely o-(Y, Hence B(Y) is w-compact and so, by Theorem 7, Y
is reflexive. 0
Theorem 9. Let X be a Banach space. The following assertions are
equivalent:
(1) X is reflexive;
(ii) o(r,X) = o(r,X**), i.e. on X* the w-topology and the w-
topology coincide;
(iii) X* is reflexive.
Proof. The implication (i) (ii) is trivial (and so is (1) (iii)). Sup-
pose that (ii) holds. Since is it is also w-compact.
Hence, by Theorem 7, is reflexive. Thus (ii) (iii).
Finally, suppose that (iii) holds. As X is a Banach space, the ball
B(X) is norm closed in Therefore, by Theorem 5, B(X) is w-
closed, i.e. Since = 1*, this means that
B(X) is in But, by Theorem 6, the of B(X)
is B(X**), so B(X) = B(X**). Hence (iii) (i). 0
If X if reflexive and f E X* then the function If being
continuous on B(X), attains its supremum there: for some x0 = B(X)
we have
Our next aim is to show that every Banach space comes rather close
to having this property: the functionals which attain their suprema on
the unit ball are dense in the dual space. (This property used to be
called subreflexivity. As the result claims that every Banach space is
subreflexive, the term has gone out of use.) In fact, we shall prove
somewhat more.
(liven a Banach space X, define
11(X) = {(x,f): x E S(X), f S(Xi, f(x) = 1}.
where 0 as 6 —* 0.
The proof of this theorem is based on the following lemma, whose
proof is left to the reader (see Exercise 13).
Lemma 10. Let X be a real normed space and let f,g E be such
that
Proof. In the notation introduced before Lemma 10, the theorem claims
that for every (xo,fo) E 118(X) there is an (x1 , E 11(X) such that
IIfofiII and I)xo—xiII <€; in particular, (5) holds with =
say
As linear functionals are determined by their real parts and the map
f '- Ref is an isometry, we may assume that Xis a real space.
Let
IIxo—xiII kfo(xi—xo) kô
=
C=
Furthermore,
124 Chapter 8: Weak topologies and duality
y1—x1 = (l—s)y1—(t—s)z1,
and so
< (7)
Pset
some y E I', and the smallest element of r n 5,, in (5,,, E,,) is also a
smallest element of 1' in (5, E').
Since every chain has an upper bound, by Zorn's lemma from
Chapter 3, (P, has a maximal element (Se, To complete the
proof, all we have to show is that S0 = S. Suppose that this is not so,
say s1 S\S0. Extend the order to an order E1 on = S0U{s1} by
setting s s1 for all s E S0. Then (Si, is a well ordered set and
(Se, <(S1, contradicting the maximality of (S0, 0
Let K be a convex subset of a vector space. A point in K is said to
be an extreme point of K if it is not in the interior of any line segment
entirely in K. Thus a E K is an extreme point of K if whenever
b,c K, 0< t < 1 and a = tb+(1—t)c, we have a = b = c. The set
of extreme points of K is denoted by Ext K.
Recall from chapter 3 that the convex hull of a subset S of a vector
space Vis
COFS= fl {xEV:f(x)Esupf(y)}.
IEF
For the rest of the chapter, we say that S is F-convex if = S. By
126 and duality
Chapter 8: Weak topologies
s7=max{f.,(x):xCK,f8(x)=s8for6<y}. (8)
This is immediate from the fact that F (i.e. F) is well ordered and if s5
is determined for all 6 E F preceding y F then
Kfl fl
8<7
is a non-empty compact set on which the continuous function 1., attains
its supremum, 57•
The existence of the function s implies that there is a point a G K
such that f7(a) = s,, for all y f. This point a is an extreme point of
K. Indeed, if a = ib + (1 — t) c for some 0 < t < 1 and b, c C K, then
(8) implies that f7(a) = f7(b) = f7(c) for all y F. As F separates the
points of V. we have a = b = c. Thus ExtK / 0.
Set K' = COFEXt K. Then K' C K since K is F-convex. To complete
the proof, we have to show that, in fact, K' K. Suppose that this is
not so. Then there is a functional Jo C F such that
maxf0(x) <maxf0(x). (9)
x€K xEK
Choosing a well ordering of F in which to is the first element, the point
a produced by the procedure above is such that h(a) =
But a K', contradicting (9). 0
Corollary 14. Let K be a compact convex subset of a Banach space.
0
Corollary 15. Let X be a normed space. Then =
Proof. By Alaoglu's theorem, is Furthermore, it is
X-convex since if C X and Jo then f0(x0) > 1 for some
x0 C B(X) and f(x0) 1 for all x B(X). 0
Chapter 8: Weak topologies and duality 127
Exercises
d(x,y) =
Notes
Having studied general normed spaces and Banach spaces, in the next
two chapters we shall look at the 'nicest' examples of these spaces,
namely Euclidean spaces and Hilbert spaces. These spaces are the
natural generalizations of the n-dimensional Euclidean space
A hermitian form on a complex vector space V is a map f: Vx V C
such that for all x,y,z V and C we have
(I) =
130
Chapter 9: Euclidean spaces and Hubert spaces 131
and
f(x+y,x+y)"2 f(x,x)"2+f(y,y)'12. (2)
f(x,x) +2[f(x,x)f(y,y)]112+f(y,y)
xl =
Furthermore, if x,y E then
IIx+y112+ = 211x112+211y112.
Proof. Both (5), the Pythagorean theorem, and (6), the parallelogram
law, are immediate upon expanding the sides as sums of products. To
spell it out,
, 2
/,, a \ a
= x.) = (x1 ,x1) + (x1 , x,)
\i=1 I 1=1 i#j
= (x1,x,) 11x1112
=
and
(f,g) f(t)g(t) dt
= Ja
is an inner product on the vector space C([a, b]); the norm defined is
the 12-norm
/ \1/2
11f112 = (j If(t)12d1
and not the uniform norm. This is an incomplete Euclidean space (see
Exercise 14).
(v) Also,
(f,g)
= Ja
is the inner product on
f(x,y) = a,1x191.
1,1 = 1
Since
i(Xn,Yn)(Xm,Ym)i i(Xnm,Yn)l+l(Xm,Ynym)I
+ flXmil —ymIl,
the limit exists. It is easily seen to depend only on I and j and not on
the particular representatives (y,,). Furthermore, (, •)is an inner
product on E, extending E and defining precisely the norm on the com-
pletion E. 0
Let E be a Euclidean space. For x E E, write x' for the set of vec-
tors orthogonal to x:
x' ={yEE:xJ..y}={yEE:(x,y)=O}.
Clearly x' is a closed subspace of E and therefore so is
S' ={y€E:x±yforallxES}= fl x'
xES
for every subset S of E. If F is the closed linear span of S. i.e.
F=iiiS,thenS' = F' and(S')' JF.
Call two subspaces F1 and F2 orthogonal if x1 I x2 for all x1 E F, and
x2 F2. If F is a subspace of E then F and F' are orthogonal sub-
spaces and Ffl F' = {O} since if x E Ffl F' then x I x and so x =0. If
x F and y E F' then lix +yii2 = lIxii2+ iiyl12, so the projections
x+y x and x+y '-+ y are both bounded. Thus F+ F' is the orthogo-
nal direct swn of F and F'. In general, F+ F' need not be the entire
space, not even when F is closed (see Exercise 6). However, when F is
complete, this is the case.
Theorem 6. Let F be a complete subspace of a Euclidean space E.
Then E is the orthogonal direct sum of F and every x E E has a
unique representation in the form
x=x,+x2 (x1€F,x2EF').
Furthermore, if y E F and y x1 then
ilx—yil > lix—xili = ilx2il.
Proof. Let x E E and set d = d(x,F). What characterizes x,? By (7),
it has to be the unique vector in F nearest to x, precisely at distance d.
136 Chapter 9: Euclidean spaces and Hubert spaces
< d2+!
By identity (6), the parallelogram law,
0
Corollary 10. Let H be a Hilbert space. For y E H let E be
defined by = (x,y)(x E H). Then the map H H* defined by
y is an isometric anti-isomorphism between H and H, i.e. if
y f and z g then Ay+pg Af+1g. If H is a real Hubert space
then the map is an isometric isomorphism between H and H. 0
138 Chapter 9: Euclidean spaces and Hubert spaces
The last result enables us to identify a Hilbert space with its dual; this
identification is always taken for granted. It is important to remember
that the identification is an anti-isomorphism since this will make the
adjoint of a Hubert-space operator seem a little different from the
adjoint of a Banach-space operator.
Exercises
4. Let E be a Euclidean space. Show that for x1,.. . ,x,, E Ewe have
=
11 i1
where the summation is over all sequences (e,)7 (e, = 1 or —1).
5.
F= {x = = = Oifkislargeenough}C12.
Show that
F' = lin{u} = {Au: A is a scalar}.
6. Construct a Euclidean space F and a closed subspace F C E
(F E) such that F' = (0). [Note that then, in particular,
E F+F'.J
7. Let E be a Euclidean space and let P E be a norm-i projec-
tion: = p and II P11 = 1. Show that P is the orthogonal projec-
tion onto F = ImP, i.e. KerP = F1 and E = F+F'.
8. Let A be a non-empty closed convex subset of a Hilbert space H.
Show that the distance from A is always attained: for every b E H
Chapter 9: Euclidean spaces and Hi/bert spaces 139
yEr
Show that
/ \112
111(7)112
IIfIl = I
f(t)g(t) dt.
= L
Show that this space is incomplete.
140 Chapter 9: Euclidean and Hubert spaces
15. f: [0,1] Ft such thatf' E L2(0,1) and f(0) = 0. Prove that Vis
a real Hubert space with inner product
f'(t)g'(:) dr.
= L
16. A real matrix A is called orthogonal if (Ax,Ay) = (x,y) for
all x,y E Prove that A is orthogonal 1ff it maps orthogonal
vectors into orthogonal vectors and has norm 1.
17. Let P be a bounded linear projection in a Euclidean space E (i.e.
P E B(E) and P2 = P). Show that IIP1I = 1 if P 0 and
ImP±KerP.
18. Let A be a non-empty subset of a Hubert space H and let
T be such that TH C A and (x— Tx)IA for every XE H.
Show that T is a bounded linear operator, A is a closed linear sub-
space and T is the orthogonal projection onto A: T =
19. Show that the unit ball of '2 contains an infinite set A such that
IIx—yII > for all x,y E A (x y). Show also that A must con-
sist of norm-i vectors.
Notes
= and =
where isthe orthogonal projection onto so that (x — I M,,
for every x E E. Then 0 since M, and E
Also, Set = Then the sequence
has the required properties. Indeed, by the construction, M,, =
lin{y1,. . ,yj and so the y are linearly independent. Furthermore,
and 0
In fact, it is easy to define explicitly the orthogonal projection
appearing in the proof of Theorem 2; namely, set = 0 and for n 1
define
PMX
=
The Gram—Schmidt orthogonahzation process enables us to show that
every separable space (i.e. every space containing a countable dense set)
contains a fundamental orthonormal sequence. Also, by Zorn's lemma
every Eucidean space contains a complete orthonormal system.
Theorem 3.
(a) Every separable Euclidean space contains a fundamental orthonor-
mal sequence.
(b) In a Euclidean space, every orthonormal system is contained in a
complete orthonormal system. In a Hilbert space, every orthonor-
mal system is contained in an orthonormal basis.
Proof. (a) Let be a dense sequence in a Euclidean space E. Dis-
card if it is in Lin{x1,. . . and apply Theorem 2 to the sequence
obtained.
(b) Let S0 be an orthonormal system in a Euclidean space E. Set
= {S: S is an orthonormal system in E}.
&.
=
The functions 1,:, t2,... are linearly independent in E and, by the
Stone—Weierstrass theorem, form a fundamental system in E. Let
be the sequence obtained from 1,:,t2,... by the Gram—
Schmidt orthogonalization process. Then Q,,(t) is a multiple of the nth
Legendre polynomial
— 1 if is even
— —1 if is odd.
144 Chapter 10: Orthonormai systems
dt <
and dkpk,
= = k=1
then
lIXn_Xm112
k=n+1
Hence is convergent if lCk 2 is convergent. Relation (1)
holds since, again by the Pythagorean theorem,
ICkH
k=1
k=1
is the Fourier series of x with respect to
146 Chapter 10: Orthononnal systems
= PM(x);
k1
Rx,ck)12 = IIPM(x)112
k=1
Proof. Set
= k=1
= (x,ck)—(x,ck) = 0,
x—x' is orthogonal to M and so x' = PMX. This proves (i); further-
more, (ii) follows from (i) and (1).
Chapter 10: Orthonormal systems 147
=
Then = lim and so
= tim
Ic=1
The proof of the second part is equally easy. By Theorem 5, the series
is convergent to some vector u M. Then
= c1ço1, Qk) = Ck
fri
for every k, and so u does have Fourier coefficients c1 , c2 Also, if
u = PMV then
(V,ck) = (v,PMpk) = (PMV,ck) = (u,ck)
and so u and v have the same Fourier coefficients. Finally, if v E H
and = Ck for every k then = 0 for every k and so
v—u is orthogonal to = M. Therefore u = PMV, as claimed. 0
k=1
11111 = ( lf(y)12
is a norm on '2(i) and with this norm 12(F) is a Hilbert space. Thus
is precisely '2 and 12({I , 2,.. . , n}) is
Theorem 10. Every Hubert space is isometrically isomorphic to a space
12(fl.
Proof. Let H be a Hubert space. Then H contains a complete ortho-
normal system, say {q.,: y E f'}. Then, by Bessel's inequality, for every
x E H and for every countable subset of F, we have
Ck = dt
and
Sn! cket4ldt
k_n
is the nth partial sum. Then, by Theorem 8,
urn =0 (2)
for every f E with denoting the Hubert space norm, i.e. the
norm in L2(T). Thus the partial sums converge in mean square to f.
For f E C(T) relation (2) is an immediate consequence of the
Stone—Weierstrass theorem, which tell us that f can be uniformly
approximated by a trigonometric polynomial. (Of course, we used pre-
cisely the Stone—Weierstrass theorem to show that {eml: =
0,±1,±2,...} is a complete system.) In particular, for every >0
there is a trigonometric polynomial p such that 11(t) —p(t)I < for all t.
But if p has degree n (i.e. p(t) = then = p. Since
the projection operator has norm 1, we have
IISnffII = <2€.
The very easy relation (2) leaves open the question whether the
Fourier series of f E L2(T) tends to f pointwise in some sense. For
example, it may not be unreasonable to expect that if f is continuous
then tends to f(t) for every t. Sadly, this is not true, as was
150 Chapter 10: Orthonormai systems
Sd,
n+1 k=O
Exercises
—(2n— = 0
for all n 2.
4. Show that D((:2— 1)Ph(t)) is orthogonal to for k <n, and
deduce that
= 0
for every n 1.
Chapter 10: Orthonormal systems
where
— (tPn—i,Pn—i) — IIPn—i112
2 and
IIPn _iIl lIP,, —211
=
Show that 1, with equality only if y =
9. For a, = E (i = 1,... ,n) let A = A(a1,...,a,,) =
be the nxn complex matrix whose ith row is a,. Prove
Hadwnard's inequality, stating that
IdetAl II
with equality if and only if either some a, is 0 or the a are orthog-
onal.
10. Let x1,. . be linearly independent vectors in a Euclidean
.
dependent.
Show also that if {x1 ,. . . , x,,} is a linearly independent set span-
fling a subspace then
=
\ G(x1,x2,. . .
dt 0 —*
.1:
13. The aim of this exercise is to prove Fe/Er's theorem. For f E L2(T)
set
= (Skf)(t).
t) f(x) — x)
rs
Ku(s)
=
(ii) Prove that if 0 <s < 2ir then
I
Ku(s) = —I
fl+1\ sInks
and
= = n+1.
Chapter 10: Orthonormal systems 153
(iii) Deduce from (i) and (ii) that Ku(s) 0 for all s E T,
Ku(s) 0 uniformly for 0 < s 2ir—S < 2ir and
1
—
2ir I
Notes
(Note the absence of conjugates: (,) is a bilinear form and no: a her-
initian form. This is why it is not confusing to have (x,f) = (f,x).)
Recall that I(x,f)I lIxIlIlfIl for all x E X andf E r. Furthermore,
155
156 Chapter 11: Adjoint operators
= (Q,Pg)
for all q E X* * and g E Y*.
Let us summarise the basic properties of taking adjoints.
Theorem 1. Let X and Y be normed spaces and let T, T1, T2 E Y).
Then
(a) P E and IIP1I = 11711;
(b) for scalars A1 and A2, we have (A1 T1+A2T2)* = A17? +A21r;
(c) with the natural inclusions X C *
and YCr* we have
T,i.e. P*x Txforallx€X;
(d) if Z is a normed space and S E then (ST)* = PS*;
(e) if T is invertible, i.e. T' E then P is also invertible and
(T*)1 =
Proof. Part (a) is Theorem 3.9, part (b) is immediate from the definition
of the adjoint, and (c) follows from Theorem 3.10, giving the natural
embeddings X—* X** and Y—* To see (d), note that for x E X
and h we have
(x,PS*h) = (Tx,S*h) = (STx,h).
Finally, (e) follows since T' T = 1x. where is the identity operator
on X and so 'r = = Similarly, Iy• =
Hence (Pr' = 0
Let now H and K be Hubert spaces, with their inner products written
as (, ). We know from the Riesz representation theorem in Chapter 8
that a Hilbert space is naturally isometric with its dual but the isometry
is an anti-isomorphism. Thus x E H can be considered as a functional
on H: it acts on H as multiplication on the right: (,x). Then for
TE we have P E
Equivalently, P is defined by
(x,Py) = (Tx,y) (2)
we have
and
r*T (5)
Furthermore, if K = H then
111112 = IITTII = IIrTIi = IIT'112. (6)
(x,(A1T1+A2T2)*y) = ((A1T1+A2T2)x,y)
= A1(T1x,y)+A2(T2x,y)
= A1(x, 7j'y) +A2(x, T2y)
=
Of course, this is also clear from Theorem 1(b) and the fact that the
natural isometry between a Hubert space and its dual is an anti-
isomorphism.
Finally, let T E Then
117112 = sup IITxlI2 = sup (Tx, Tx)1
1x01 IjxH=1
= sup i(rTx,x)I
IIrlll IlrlIlIllI = 0
158 Chapter 11: Adjoint operators
II = II
7'' lii = 117112, II = II = II
etc. Therefore IIT2kII = IITII2*. Also, if 1 n 2" then
11T2k1I = IITnT2*_hhII IITfhlIIl112k_,1
and so T"II =
T is__self-adjoint then (Tx,x) is real for every x H since
(Tx,x) = (x, Tx). We call a self-adjoint operator T positive if (Tx,x)
O for every x E H.
Note that, for T E the operator rr is a positive self-adjoint
operator. Indeed,
(rT)' = = rT and (rTx,x) = (Tx, Tx) = IITxlI2 0.
Then
and IIT,Il = I 1}.
Im T=
T is hermitian,
= lirlir = Ij(rT)iI,
and so
= tI(TT)"Ii
implying = 0
Our last aim in this chapter is to show that the converse of Theorem
1(v) also holds if X is a Banach space, i.e. 7" is invertible if T is. First
we note a simple condition for invertibility. Call T C 24(X, Y) bounded
below if iiTxIl for all x C X and some 0.
Exercises
and
a,, = a(ljfl L) = a(lin L) = °(lin L).
2. Give examples showing that for a Banach space X and a subspace
L C r, the sets °L and L° need not be equal under the natural
inclusion X C
X and Y be normed spaces and T E Y). Show that
°(Ker is the closure of Im T.
4. A subspace U of a normed space V is said to be an invariant sub-
space of an operator S E if SU C U, i.e. Su E U for all
u U. Let X be a normed space and T E Show that a
closed subspace Y of X is an invariant subspace of T 1ff Y° is an
invariant subspace of r.
5. Let X and Y be Banach spaces and T E Y). Prove that Im T
is closed iff Im T* is closed.
6. Let X be a Banach space. Show that for T E the series
T"/n! converges in norm to an element of denoted by
exp T. Show also that (exp T) * = exp r and if S com-
mutes with T then
(exp S)(exp T) = (exp T)(expS)exp(S+ T).
IRexpR*)Sexp(_r)II IlSil.
exp(AR*)S = Sexp(Ar).
Notes
crA(a) =
Although the spectrum of an operator T E depends only on
how T fits into the algebraic structure of is of considerable
it
interest to see how the action of T on X affects invertibility. In particu-
lar, we may distinguish the points of cr(T) according to the reasons why
A!— T is not invertible.
What are the obstruction to the invertibility of an operator S E
By the inverse-mapping theorem, S is invertible 1ff KerS = (0) and
ImS = X. Thus if S is not invertible then either KerS (0) or
ImS X (or both, of course). Of these, the former is, perhaps, the
more basic obstruction.
Accordingly, let us define the point spectrum of T E as
= {A E C: Ker(AI— T) (0)}.
Sometimes the points of the spectrum are classified further: the resi-
dual spectrum is 7r(T) (Tcom(T)\C7p(T) and the continuous spectrum is
= (7(T)\(Ucom(T)U(Tp(fl). Thus
o(T) = 0p(T)U0c(T)UUr(T),
with the sets on the right being pairwise disjoint.
It is immediate from the definition that the approximate point spec-
trum is a closed set; the point spectrum need not be
closed.
We shall show that is a non-empty closed subset of the disc
{A E C: IA I The latter assertion is an immediate consequence
of the following simple but important result.
Theorem 1. Let TE satisfy 1111 <1. Then I o(T) and
(I—Ty' = Tk,
k =0
11T9 HT1I' =
k=O
and, similarly,
T")(I_T) = I.
170 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
[l—T1(T—S)F' =
n=o —
and so
Si = [T—(T—S)]1 = {T[I—T'(T—S)J}1
=
(1)
and
11S1—T'jI
R(A) = (Al—Tv' = =
n0
(2)
=
n0
for some a0,a1,... E Xand all z E D(z0,r), with the series in (4) being
absolutely convergent. Thus (2) shows that the resolvent R : p(T)
is an analytic function, with values in the Banach space
The standard results concerning analytic functions remain valid in this
more general setting. For example, as we noted in Exercise 10 of
Chapter 11, the analogue of Liouville's theorem holds: a norm-bounded
entire function in constant. To spell it out: if F: C X is analytic and
M for some M < and all z C then F(z) is constant.
Indeed, for f E Xt the function
g(z) = f(F(z))
is a (complex-valued) analytic function and so it is constant: g(z) = g(0)
for all z. Hence f E X and so, by the
Hahn—Banach theorem, = F(0) for all z.
Also, the radius of convergence of (4) is just as in
the classical case. Equivalently, the Laurent series
G(z) = (5)
Indeed, if IzI >s then < IzI for some e >0 and every
sufficiently large n. Hence <(1 if n is sufficiently large,
implying that (5) is absolutely convergent.
172 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
then
d(A,o'(T)) = : E r(T)} = d
the fact that every nXn complex matrix has an eigenvalue. Note also
that the analogue of Theorem 5 fails for real spaces, as shown, for
example, by the rotation (e1 , e2) '—i (e2, —e1) in R2. The spectrum is
very useful precisely because it allows techniques of complex analysis to
be brought into operator theory.
Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators 173
II(AI— I
0.
p(:)—A0 (t—/.Lk).
=
Then
174 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
p(T) —A0!
= k=1
r(fl =sup{IAI:AE0.(T)}=max{IAI:AEor(T)}.
The spectral radius is a simple function of the sequence
shown by the following result, Gelfand's spectral-radius formula.
Hence r(T)
On the other hand, as p(T) 3 {A E C: IAI > r(T)}, relation (3) tells
us that the Laurent series
L
n=0
is convergent for IA > r(T). Hence, recalling the formula for the
radius of convergence, we find that r(T) 0
It is easily seen that the spectral radius is an upper semicontinuous
function of the operator in the norm topology; in fact,
r(S+7') r(S)+ lfl
for all S, T E (see Exercise 8).
It is worth recalling that all the results above are true for the spectra of
elements of Banach algebras, not only of elements of In the sim-
plest of all Banach algebras, C, every non-zero element is invertible. In
fact, C is the only Banach algebra which is a division algebra.
Theorem 10 (Gelfand—Mazur theorem) Let A be a complex unital
Banach algebra in which every non-zero element is invertible. Then
A=C.
Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators 175
V(T) C C V(T),
where V(T) is the closure of V(T).
Proof. The first inclusion is easily seen since if x E S(X), f E
and (x,f) = 1 then i E S(X**), (f,i) = I and = (x, T'f) =
where, as earlier, i denotes x considered as an element of
To see the second inclusion, let C so that there are f C
and C S(X**) such that (f,p) = 1 and = Let 0 < e < 1.
Since B(X) is in B(r*), there is an x C B(X) such that
< and <
Then, by Theorem 8.11, there exist g C S(X*) and y S(X) such that
(y,g) = 1, ix—yli <€ and Of—gil €. Hence
KT(x—y),f)i < and ikTy,f—g>Ii
But this implies that V(T) has a point close to namely the point
(Ty,g) C V(T):
lii +
Ii(A1— T)xii
for all x C X.
Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators 177
II(AI— r)fII
f E r. Thus both A!— T and (Al— T)* are bounded below. But
then, by Theorem 11.12, Al— T is invertible. 0
Another aspect of the connection between the spectrum and the
numerical range given in Theorem 13 is that coo(T), the convex hull of
spectrum, is precisely fl ëö V(T), where the intersection is taken over all
numerical ranges V(T) with respect to norms on X equivalent to the
given norm. But we shall not give a proof of this result.
The rest of the chapter is about a striking application of the spectral-
radius formula to obtain a remarkable theorem related to material
beyond the main body of this book. The theorem is Johnson's
uniqueness-of-norm theorem, but the beautiful and unexpectedly simple
proof we present is due to Ransford.
Let us start with a classical inequality concerning complex functions,
namely Hadamard's three-circles theorem, stating that if f is analytic in
the annulus R1 < Izi < R2 then M, = is a convex func-
tion of logr for R1 <r < Thus if f(z) is analytic in the open disc
I
<R0, where R0> 1, then
maxlf(z)I max jf(z)I (7)
jzI=R IzI=1/R
= =
178 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
Set
g(z) = p(J(z)) =
n =0
Then, by (7)
IIf(1)112 = Ig(l)12 maxlg(z)I max Ig(z)l
IzI'=R IzI=1/R
= maxlq'(f(z))I max
IzkrR
Ic(f(z))I
proving (8).
In fact, if we have an analytic function with values in a Banach alge-
bra then in inequality (8) we may replace the norm by the spectral
radius.
Lemma 13. Let f(z) be an analytic function in the open disc jz I <R0,
with values in a Banach algebra A. Then
r(f(l))2 maxr(f(z)) max r(J(z)).
IzI=R
Proof. From the spectral-radius formula, we know that is
monotone decreasing to r(J(z)), and r(f(z)) is a continuous function of
z for zl = R and fz I = hR. Consequently, by Dini's theorem
(Theorem 6.5), for every e > 0 there is an n such that
max max max{r(J(z))+e} max {r(J(z))i-e}.
IzI=R Izkl/R zl=R
Applying Theorem 9 and inequality (8), we find that
r(f(l))2
max max
IzIR zI=1/R
max{r(f(z))+e} max {r(f(z))+€}.
zI=R IzI=1/R
As this holds for every e > 0, the result follows. 0
The radical Rad B of a complex (unital) Banach algebra B is the inter-
section of all the maximal left ideals of B. The following lemma relates
the radical to the spectral radius.
Lemma 15. If b E B is such that r(b'b) = 0 for all b' E B then
bE RadB.
Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators 179
IIcII(R'IIdII)
and so, letting R —, we see that r(d) = r(b'b) = 0, as desired.
Exercises
11110
= n0
is a norm on X, equivalent to the original norm
10. Prove that
r(T) = inf{II TU': II II'is a norm on X, equivalent to IlL
11. Check that the resolvent R(A) of T satisfies the resolvent identity
= (p—A)R(A)R(p) =
for all A,p. p(T).
12. Check that if S, T E A E p(ST) and A 0, then A E p(TS)
and
= A'+A1T(A—ST)'S.
Deduce that a(ST) U{0} = o(TS) U{0}. Show also that o(ST) =
o(TS) need not hold.
13. Let K be a non-empty compact subset of C. Show that K is the
spectrum of a Hubert space operator: there is an operator
SE where H is a Hilbert space, such that u(S) = K.
14. Show that if T is a normal operator on a Hilbert space then
r(T) = 11711.
15. For w = E define 12 by =
Show that = = SUpkIWkI. Show also that eigenvalues
of Tare w1,w2,... and o-(T) = What is
16. For w = (Wk)° define '2 l2by
= (0,w1x1,w-,x2,...).
Express and the spectral radius in terms of the
sequence w.
17. Let 4 = {z E C: lz 1} and H = L2(4). Let T E
I
be the
operator of multiplication by Show that o-(T) = 4 and T has no
eigenvalue.
182 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
x,j
=
with convolution product xy = z, where
184 Chapter 12: The algebra of bounded linear operators
Zn =
z(x) =
f(t) = 0
x,j
= where
Notes
For the sake of simplicity we shall assume that all the spaces appearing
in this chapter are complex Banach spaces. Our aim is to study a class
of operators closely resembling the operators on finite-dimensional
spaces; we shall show that these operators are somewhat similar to the
nXn complex matrices.
Vaguely speaking, the operators we shall look at are 'small' in the
sense that they map the unit ball into a 'small' set. To be precise, an
operator T E Y) is compact if the image of the unit ball Bx
under T, is a relatively compact (i.e. totally bounded) subset of Y.
Thus T is compact if and only if T is
compact if and only if for every bounded sequence C X the
sequence has a convergent subsequence.
We shall write Y) for the set of compact operators from X into
Y. Analogously to we write for X).
186
Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces 187
f IK(x1,y)—K(x2,y)l dy <e.
Thus TBx is indeed equicontinuous and so T is compact, as claimed.
(iv) Let H be a Hilbert space with orthonormal bases and
For every operator T we have
IITeaO2=
1=1 1=1 1=1 1=1 j=1
and so
= I(Tf1,e1)12 = lIre,I12 =
1=1 1=1 j=1 j=1 1=1
xiei) = aiixi)ei.
Then
\1/2
tI11IHS = 01112 =
j=1
a
=
we have a E H for every i,
\1/2
II11IHS = (
and Tx = (x,a1)e1.
\i=1 / 1=1
In particular,
V
I (x, a.) 2 lIxII2IIaiIl2 = 11x11211
=
and so 11111 II11IHS.
It is easily seen that every Hubert—Schmidt operator is compact.
Indeed, with the notation as above, put
Theorem 2.
(a) Y) is a closed subspace of Y).
(b) If TE SE and RE then
STE and TR E
Proof. (a) Let us show first that Y) is a subspace of Y), i.e.
if 5, T E Y) and E C then E Y). Let be
Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces 189
1 i m} is a 3€-net in TB1.
(b) Note that a bounded linear operator maps a bounded sequence
into a bounded sequence and a convergent sequence into a convergent
sequence. 0
Since finite rank operators are compact, by Theorem 2(a) every limit
of finite rank operators is compact. The problem of whether every com-
pact operator can be obtained in this way was, for many years, one of
the best-known problems in functional analysis. After about 40 years
the approximation problem was solved in the negative by Per Enflo in
1973, who constructed a separable reflexive Banach space X for which
is not the closure of Since is the closure of
whenever X has a (Schauder) basis (see Exercise 7), Enflo's
example also showed that not every separable reflexive Banach space
has a basis, solving another long-standing question. As so often in
mathematics, the counterexample turned out to be the Start of the story:
it opened up whole new fields of research on approximation and basis
problems. But we cannot go into that in this book.
The operator ideal of compact operators is closed under taking
adjoints as well.
Theorem 3. An operator T C Y) is compact if and only if
rE is compact.
Proof. (i) Suppose first that T C Y) is compact, i.e. the set
K = TBx is compact. For a functional f C r let Rf be the restriction
of f to K. Clearly Rf E C(K) and, in fact, the map R: Y' —, C(K) is a
bounded linear map, where, as usual, C(K) is taken with the supremum
norm. Let P = RBr. Note that forf C r we have
190 Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces
= sup{(Tx,f): x E
= sup{(y,f): y E TBx}
= sup{(y,f):yEK} = IIRfII.
This shows that rBr is isometric to 'P C C(K), with the isometry
given by Rf.
Consequently rBr is totally bounded if and only if 'P is. By the
Arzelá—Ascoli theorem, 'P is totally bounded if and only if it is uniformly
bounded and equicontinuous. Both conditions are easily checked.
If f E Br then DrfIl iirii = flTfl, and so 'P is uniformly
bounded. Also, if f E Br and y,y' E K then
I(Rf)(y)—(Rf)(y')I = If(y—y')I IIy—y'lI,
and so J) is equicontinuous.
(ii) Now suppose that r E is compact. By part (I), the
map T E is compact, i.e. is relatively compact.
But under the natural embeddings X C r* and Y C rs we have
TBx = T*BX C rBr., and so TBx is also relatively compact. 0
= xn_1.
IITZnTZrnII = = 1.
1—1 map of the Banach space X onto itself and so, by the inverse-
mapping theorem, S is invertible. 0
Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces 193
With some more work, we can gel more detailed information about
the structure of compact operators. If T is compact and S = 1— T then
Im S is a finite-codimensional closed subspace of X; even more, for a
suitable n 1, X is the direct sum of KerS" and ImS". We prove this,
and a little more, in the following theorem.
Theorem 9. Let X be a Banach space, T E and S = I— T. Set
Nk = KerSk and Mk = ImS" (k = 0,1,...), where = Then
is an increasing nested sequence of finite-dimensional subspaces and
(Mk is a decreasing nested sequence of finite-codimensional subspaces.
There is a smallest n 0 such that N,, = Nm for all m n. Further-
more, M,, = Mm for all m n, Xis the direct sum of M,, and N,,, and
M,, is an automorphism of M,,.
(1— T)", we see that
Proof. By expanding 5" = = I— where Tk is
compact. Hence, by Lemma 5, Mk is a closed subspace of X. Clearly
N0 C N1 C ... and M0 J J ...; furthermore, we know that each
Nk is finite-dimensional.
As in the proof of Theorem 7, Lemma 6 implies that there is a smal-
lest n such that N,, = N,, + and there is also a smallest m such that
Mm = Mm+i. Then N,, = N,,. for all a' a and Mm = Mm' for all
Let us turn to the main assertions of the theorem. We prove first that
N,, fl M,, = {0}. Let y N,, fl M,,. As y E M,,, we have y = S"x for
some x E X. But as y N,,, S"y = 0 and so = 0. Hence
x E N2,, = N,,, implying S"x = 0. Thus y = S"x = 0, showing that
N,,flM,, = {0}.
We claim that for p = max{n, m} we have X = N,, Indeed,
given x E X, we have But = and so there is a
vector y such that = Sex. Hence x—y N,, and so
x = y + (x — y) shows that X = N,, + Could we have p > a?
Clearly not, since then M,, would strictly contain and so we would
194 Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces
NA = Ker(AI— Ker(Al—
Exercises
1.
dimensional,
d(a,M) <€
for every a A, and
IIPN(X)II cd(x,M)
for some c > 0 and every x E X, where PN is the canonical projec-
tion onto N. Show that is the norm closure of i.e.
196 Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces
Ilixill
=
Let T
E T
E for every n.
12. Let X be a Banach space, (1, C and let 7, —' T in the
operator-norm topology. Show that is relatively com-
pact, where B = B(X) is the unit ball of X. Show also that if
A then A C o(T).
13. Let E be the space C[0, 1], endowed with the Euclidean norm
= 1
If(x)12 dx)
11f112
(j
and let T be as in Example 1 (iii). Show that T C i.e. T
maps the unit ball of the Euclidean space E into a relatively com-
pact set.
14. Let H be a Hilbert space and T C Show that T C
0 whenever x,, converges weakly to 0, i.e.
whenever (x,, , x) —' 0 for every x C H.
15. Construct a compact operator T on 1,, (1 p co) such that
cr(T) = {0} and 0 is not an eigenvalue of T.
Chapter 13: Compact operators on Banach spaces 197
Notes
198
Chapter 14: Compact normal operators 199
(In fact, (c) and (d) are equivalent: if S E for a complex Banach
space X then r(S) = IISII if IlShI = for every n 1.)
(e) If Tx = Ax and Ty = then ry = jiy because by (b) we have
yE T) = Ker(jiI— Therefore
A(x,y) = (Tx,y) = (x,ry) = (x,1y) =
and so if A then (x,y) = 0.
(f) As Al— T commutes with T and r, Ker(AI— T) is invariant under
both Tand r.
Also, let (x,y) = 0 for all yE Ker(AI—T). Then, since Ker(Al—T) is
Invariant under T, for y E Ker(Ai— T) we have
(Tx,y) = (x,ry) = 0.
Hence Tx E (Ker(A1— T))'. Similarly,
200 Chapter 14: Compact normal operators
and
= max{11T0112, 11T1112}11xlI2.
(1)
k
H1 and and
S, = SIH1 (i = 1,2), we have T0 = S0 and S1 = 0. Therefore, by
Chapter 14: Compact normal operators 201
Lemma 1(g),
lIT—SO = max{JIT0—Soll, llT1—S111} = IITill.
{(Tx,x): x E S(H)}
and the numerical radius v(T) is
= I)y112} = v.
and
—, b,
we have
—*0.
Therefore
Let us now see how Theorem 6 may be used to deduce Theorem 2 for
compact hermitian operators. For the sake of variety, we restate
Theorem 2 in the following form.
Theorem 7. Let H be a Hubert space and let U be a compact
hermitian operator. Then there is a (possibly finite) sequence (Ak) of
real numbers and a sequence (Bk) of linear subspaces of H such that
(a) Ak .—' 0;
(b) dimHk
(c)
(d) if x = Xk+X, where Xk Hk and i E H,' for every k, then
Ux =
k
Proof. Let A,., (y E I') be the non-zero elgenvalues of U and let II,, be
the eigenspace belonging to A7: H,, = Ker(U—A,,I). We know that
H,..1H8 if y 8.
Let us show first that dim H,, and, for every 0, there are only
finitely many A,, with IA,. I e. Suppose not. Then, by taking an
orthonormal basis in each H,, with IA., I e, we find that there is an
infinite orthonormal sequence such that Ux,, = where
I I
€. But then does not contain- a convergent subsequence,
contradicting the compactness of U.
204 Chapter 14: Compact normal operators
Xk + I and AkXk.
= k=I = k=1
Then = and —. x. As
AkXk H,
= k=1
the continuity of U implies that Ux = y, proving (d). 0
Before we recover from Theorem 7 the full force of Theorem 2, let us
show that compact hermitian operators are rather like real numbers.
An operator T E is said to be positive if it is hermitian and
V(T) C i.e. (Tx,x) 0 for every x E H. Note that if T is any
(bounded linear) operator on a Hilbert space then rr and are
positive (hermitian) operators:
(rTx,x) = (Tx, Tx) IITxII2 and (Trx,x) = I$Tx112.
cise 4).
Let us see then how the spectral theorem for compact normal opera-
tors can be recovered from Theorems 7 and 8. To be precise, we shall
deduce the version given in Corollary 4 from these theorems.
Given a compact normal operator T, how can we get an orthonormal
basis consisting of eigenvectors of 1'?
Let H1 , H2, ... be the eigenspaces belonging to the non-zero eigen-
vectors of the compact positive operator U = = and let
H0 = KerU = fl = (lin{H1,H2,..
= ('1
(f,g) f(t)g(t) dt
= Ja
and norm 111112 = Thus the completion of E is L2(0, 1).
Chapter 14: Compact normal operators 207
IK(s,t)I2dsdt.
a Ja
2 jb
ds.
=
Therefore
m m rb rb
dx IK(s,t)12 dsdt. 0
= ja Ja j a
IanI2)(
( n€F nEF /
byLemmall. 0
We are now ready to answer our question about the Fredholm
integral equation.
Theorem 14. If A o(U) and g E C(I) then the Fredholm integral
equation
Uf—Af = g
with a hermitian kernel K(s, t) = K(:, s) has a unique solution f given by
1
f(t) = +
absolutely and uniformly convergent in [0, 1] and the (as) are the
Fourier coefficients of g with respect to ('pa), i.e.
CI,
a, dt.
= Ja
Proof. The unique solution in L2(0, 1) is! = (U—AY'g. Clearly, f has
Fourier coefficients By Lemma 13, g+Af = Uf C(1) and
g+Af =
Exercises
K(s,t) Akck(s)pk(t)
Notes
There are many good accounts of applications of the spectral theorem for
compact hermitian opertors to differential and integral equations. We
followed i. Dieudonné, Foundations of Modern Analysts, Academic
Press, New York and London, 1960, xiv + 361 pp. Here are some of the
212 Chapter 14: Compact normal operators
F A,x1: x. E S, A= 1, n =
=
Let x0 , x1 ,. . be points in a vector space. We say that these points
are in general position if the minimal flat containing them is k-
dimensional, i.e. if the vectors x1 — x0, x3 — x0,. , X,, — x0 span a k-
. .
213
214 Chapter 15: Fixed-point theorems
k k
p., = 1, p.,> 0 for all i
1=0
tices, and a is the interior of this convex hull in the k-flat spanned by
the vertices.
A finite set K of disjoint simplices in is called a simplicial complex
if every face of every simplex of K is also a simplex of K. We also call
K a simplicial decomposition of the set 1K I = U {u: E K}, the body
of K. If K is a simplicial complex and a, r E K then the closed sim-
plices 5 and are either disjoint or meet in a closed face of both.
We are ready to prove the combinatorial basis of Brouwer's theorem.
Lemma 1. (Sperner's lemma) Let K be a simplicial decomposition of a
closed n-simplex 5 = [x0, x1,. .. , Let S be the set of vertices of K
and let y: S — {0, 1,... ,n} be an (n+ 1)-colouring of S such that the
colours of the vertices contained in a face [x¼, x.R,. . , x•] of a- belong to.
marked face or two marked faces. Therefore the theorem claims that
m(K) = (1)
(1"EK
is odd.
Now let us look at the sum in (1) in another way. What is the contri-
bution of an (n— 1)-simplex E K to m(K)? Jf is not marked,
the contribution is 0. In particular, if a-" is in a closed (n — 1)-face of
a other than = [x0,x1,... then the contribution of is 0.
tf E K is in and is marked then the contribution of
o" is a face of exactly one n-simplex of K. Furthermore, if
u"—1 is in a, i.e. in the interior of the original n-simplex, then
contributes 1 to m(u") if a"1 is a face of a": as there are two such
n-simplices cr", the total contribution of to m(K) is 2. Hence,
modulo 2, m(K) is congruent to the number of marked (n— 1)-simplices
in ö0. By the induction hypothesis, this number is odd. Therefore so is
m(K), completing the proof. 0
Given points XO,Xi,.. , of R" in general position, for every point x
of the k-dimensional affine plane through x0,x1,. .. there are
unique reals , A2,. , A, such that
. .
Ac
x=x0+ A.(x1—x0).
i=1
k
1
c,. = Lxi;
thus is the barycentre of a-. The complex sd K consists of all sim-
plices ce,,. . ,
. such that a proper face of a-i +1
(i=0,l,...,k—1).
216 Chapter 15: Fixed-point theorems
= = (x0, x1,. . ,
. and r = , then the diameter of
. .
=
= 1=0
to
(IL; = i).
= 1=0
sets containing all the points x — 1,... , xk. This convex hull is, in fact,
compact, since it is the continuous image of a closed (k — 1)-simplex in
R" Indeed, if is the standard basis of = say, then the
II -
closed simplex 5 =
it is compact.
k
Furthermore, ç:
k
.
Chapter 15: Fixed-point theorems
and so
is a continuous map.
Lemma 6. The Schauder projection is a continuous map from
N(S,E) to co{x1,. .. ,x,,} and
IS,E(x)—xII < E
for all x E N(S,e).
Proof. Only (2) needs any justification. If x E N(S, e) then
k
A,(x) A,(x)
= =
i=I
But if A.(x) >0 then 11x1—xll <.e and so
A,(x)
k's.f(x)xlI <E.
A,(xi >0
= {xi,..,x*) C K
such that
KC D(xaJ) =
< (3)
S(lr) = = C IIxIIi I
1].
= =
The continuous map a given by x Ax/IIAxII1 has a fixed point
x (x1)?. Clearly, Ax = Ax for some A > 0 and x1 > 0 for all i. 0
From Theorem 7 it is a short step to a version of the Markov—
Kakutani fixed-point theorem. An affine map of a vector space V into
itself is a map of the form where S: V—f V is a linear
map. Equivalently, T: V V is an affine map if
Aix1) A1T(x1)
=
whenever x V. A 0 and A = 1.
K5nfl Kz #0.
This implies that the family of sets {KT: T E has the finite-
intersection property. As each is compact, there is a point x0 which
belongs to every Kr, i.e. Tx0 = x0 for every T E 0
T(x0)—x0=
Exercises
10. Prove that every continuous map of the Hilbert cube into itself
has a fixed point. (Check that the map f: B(12) —' B(12) given by
f(x) = S is the right shift
and e1 = (1,0,0,...).)
11. Show that a continuous map of B(12) into itself need not have a
fixed point.
12. Let C be a closed subset of a compact metric space K, and let f be
a continuous map of C into a normed space X. Use Schauder pro-
jections and the Tietze—Urysohn extension theorem (Theorem 6.3)
to prove that f has a continuous extension F: K X.
The aim of the next three exercises is to make it easy for the reader
to prove another beautiful fixed-point theorem.
check that
and
hlxi—cil lIxi—alH-€.
Deduce from the result in the previous exercise that
hla—f(a)!l
Notes
226
Chapter 16: Invariant subspaces 227
Y(x)
se-net, say {x1 ,. .. ,x,,}. Thus {x1 ,. . ,x,j C A and for every x E A
.
there is an x1 such that IIx—x111 < The set P = co{x1 ,. .. ,x,j is also
compact, and so it contains a finite {Yi . .
Furthermore,
the set
= {x E X: d(x,P) <
is convex and contains A, and therefore contains coA. But then with
M = {x E X: flx—y111 < for some i}
we have coA C C M and so {y1 ,..., Ym} is an c-net in K =
and
A(y) A1(y).
=
Relation (2) implies that A(y) > 0 for every y E Therefore
may define
Set
A(Tz0)
Proof. Suppose TI'0 = T0T for some To E9130(X) (T0 0). Proceed as
in the proof of Theorem 2 but consider T0130 instead of TB0 and so put
K=eoljfl0. Then we obtain a fixed point z0CKofiftoT0:K—+K,
i.e.
Sz0 = z0
for
s=
Therefore
Y Ker(I—S) {O}
p(z) akz", 0.
= k=0
If p(T) 0 then, as Tp(T) = p(T) T, the assertion follows from
Theorem 2.
Chapter 16: Invariant subspaces 231
Exercises
Notes
Mazur's theorem is from S. Mazur, Uber die kleinste konvexe Menge, die
eine gegebene kompakie Menge enthäl:, Studia Math., 2 (1930), 7—9.
Theorems 2 and 3 are from V. I. Lomonosov, On invariant subspaces of
families of operators, commuting with a compact operator (in Russian),
Funk. Analiz i ego Prilozh, 7 (1973), 55—6; to be precise, Theorem 3 is
given as a remark added in proof. Corollary 5 is from N. Aronszajn
and K. Smith, Invariant subspaces of completely continuous operators,
Ann. Math., 60 (1954), 345—50.
The invariant-subspace problem for Banach spaces was solved in P.
Enflo, On the invariant subspace problem in Banach spaces, Acta Math.,
158 (1987), 213—313, and C. J. Read, A solution to the invariant Sub.
space Problem, Bull. London Math. Soc., 16 (1984), 337—401.
A simplified and stronger version of Enflo's solution can be found in
B. Beauzamy, Un opérazeur sans sous-espace invariant non-trivial:
simplification de l'example de P. Enflo, Integral Equations and Operator
Theory, 8 (1985), 314—84.
Read's result concerning is in A solution to the Invariant Subspace
Problem on the space Bull. London Math. Soc., 17 (1985), 305—17.
An interesting account of the results concerning the invariant-
subspace problem can be found in B. Beauzamy, Introduction to Opera-
tor Theory and In variant Subspaces, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1988,
xiv + 358 pp.
INDEX OF NOTATION
233
234 Index of notation
235
236 Index of terms
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
ISBN 0-521-65577-3
MIII
9 780521 655774