Writing Guide: Case Studies

This guide examines case studies, a form of qualitative descriptive research that
is used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole.
Researchers collect data about participants using participant and direct
observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examinations of records, and
collections of writing samples. Starting with a definition of the case study, the
guide moves to a brief history of this research method. Using several well
documented case studies, the guide then looks at applications and methods
including data collection and analysis. A discussion of ways to handle validity,
reliability, and generalizability follows, with special attention to case studies as
they are applied to composition studies. Finally, this guide examines the
strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

• Introduction to Case Studies

Case Study: Introduction and Definition

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about
a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of
subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study
looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions
only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers
do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they
typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on
exploration and description.

To read more about case study, click on the items below, or select from the table
of contents to the left:

• Overview of Case Studies

Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as
complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of
comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick
description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated,
the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people
involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick
description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and
descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained
attitudes, and motives.

Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the
questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis,
which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case
studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked.
Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control
over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life
context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies
require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in
question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.

In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of
qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to
interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The
underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of
qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a
classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic
interpretation of the event or situation under study.

Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the
goal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research.
F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical
methods to the case study "on the basis that the former are concerned with the
distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population,
whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found
in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).

• History of Case Studies

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary
research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of
sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept
as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of
other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique
being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and
anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative
researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of
newspaper reporters and novelists.

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in
developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s.
As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting:
the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park
viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific
reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed
that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in
regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind
sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of
becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get
out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant
experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the
luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast
settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star
and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants
dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the
method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-
qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when
compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the
1930s on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods
in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The
sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They
criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter
subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of
cases studied and that the understandardized character of their descriptions
made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form
of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case
study had become a minority practice.

• Educational Applications of Case Studies

The 1950s marked the dawning of a new era in case study research, namely that
of the utilization of the case study as a teaching method. "Instituted at Harvard
Business School in the 1950s as a primary method of teaching, cases have since
been used in classrooms and lecture halls alike, either as part of a course of
study or as the main focus of the course to which other teaching material is
added" (Armisted 1984). The basic purpose of instituting the case method as a
teaching strategy was "to transfer much of the responsibility for learning from the
teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive
absorption toward active construction" (Boehrer 1990). Through careful
examination and discussion of various cases, "students learn to identify actual
problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of
those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem" (Merseth 1991). In
addition, students are encouraged to "generate their own analysis of the
problems under consideration, to develop their own solutions, and to practically
apply their own knowledge of theory to these problems" (Boyce 1993). Along the
way, students also develop "the power to analyze and to master a tangled
circumstance by identifying and delineating important factors; the ability to utilize
ideas, to test them against facts, and to throw them into fresh combinations…"
(Merseth 1991).

In addition to the practical application and testing of scholarly knowledge, case

discussions can also help students prepare for real-world problems, situations
and crises by providing an approximation of various professional environments
(i.e. classroom, board room, courtroom, or hospital). Thus, through the
examination of specific cases, students are given the opportunity to work out
their own professional issues through the trials, tribulations, experiences, and
research findings of others. An obvious advantage to this mode of instruction is
that it allows students the exposure to settings and contexts that they might not
otherwise experience. For example, a student interested in studying the effects of
poverty on minority secondary student's grade point averages and S.A.T. scores
could access and analyze information from schools as geographically diverse as
Los Angeles, New York City, Miami, and New Mexico without ever having to
leave the classroom.

The case study method also incorporates the idea that students can learn from
one another "by engaging with each other and with each other's ideas, by
asserting something and then having it questioned, challenged and thrown back
at them so that they can reflect on what they hear, and then refine what they say"
(Boehrer 1990). In summary, students can direct their own learning by
formulating questions and taking responsibility for the study.

• Types and Design

Researchers use multiple methods and approaches to conduct case studies. To

read about types of case studies and the design concerns associated with them,
click on the items below:

• Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions,
each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or
objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:

Illustrative Case Studies

These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances
of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve
primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language
about the topic in question.

Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies

These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale
investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of
measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of
study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released
prematurely as conclusions.

Cumulative Case Studies

These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different
times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for
greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new,
possibly repetitive studies.
Critical Instance Case Studies
These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation
of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into
question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is
useful for answering cause and effect questions.

• Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Much of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers,

depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies,
researchers are typically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In
contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative
perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the
questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will
approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:

Individual Theories
These focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior,
personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular
subject.

Organizational Theories
These focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and
functions, or excellence in organizational performance.

Social Theories
These focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or
marketplace functions.

To see more detailed examples of how theoretical perspectives impact actual

studies, click here.

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The
first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a
first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The
study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to
assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the
pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the
particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling
academic writers collectively.

For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told
that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first
paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community
and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and
production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must
negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted
knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy
acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community
membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the
requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in
which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject,
Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an
initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit
linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors
make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on
which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of
the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even
before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to
examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's
production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty
members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to
explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that
this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a
group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what
happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing.
The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded
interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight
twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

1. Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and

extensive.
2. These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having
the writers compose aloud their composition process.
3. A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
4. For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-
sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of
composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

1. The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
2. The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.

Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the
opening pages of her Review of Literature, preceding the report.
 • Designing a Case Study

After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a
theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research
design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the
conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research
designs deal with at least four problems:

• What questions to study

• What data are relevant
• What data to collect
• How to analyze that data

In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the
beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be
answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.

Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon

Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually
impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the
case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a
research design:

1. A study's questions.
2. A study's propositions (if any).
3. A study's units of analysis.
4. The logic linking of the data to the propositions.
5. The criteria for interpreting the findings.

In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of
clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the
study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting
data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.

• Discussion of Primary Examples used Throughout this Unit

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The
first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a
first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The
study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to
assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the
pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the
particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling
academic writers collectively.
For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told
that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first
paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community
and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and
production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must
negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted
knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy
acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community
membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the
requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in
which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject,
Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an
initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit
linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors
make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on
which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of
the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even
before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to
examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's
production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty
members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to
explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that
this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a
group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what
happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing.
The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded
interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight
twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

1. Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and

extensive.
2. These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having
the writers compose aloud their composition process.
3. A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
4. For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-
sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of
composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

1. The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
2. The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.
Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the
opening pages of her Review of Literature, preceding the report.

• Conducting Case Studies

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study

researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These
approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.

• Single or Multi-modal approach

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study

researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include
interviews, protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig
(1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included
conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of
actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records
(Lauer and Asher 1988).

Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing

classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports
from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.

A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower
and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use
different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol
analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their
decision to use only one method, and it was, at least according to some
researchers, an unreliable method at that.

• Participant Selection

Case studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However,
it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants
can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.

For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at
just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the
composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected
representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an
all-white upper-middle-class suburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a
racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed
school, and a university school.

Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to
provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as
some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of
the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school
records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the
remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that
three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners.
These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are
being analyzed and conclusions drawn.

• Data Collection

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

1. Documents.
2. Archival records.
3. Interviews.
4. Direct observation.
5. Participant observation.
6. Artifacts.

In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:

1. A writer's drafts.
2. School records of student writers.
3. Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
4. Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
5. Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
6. Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal

approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any
combination of these sources.

Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are
doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies.
For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different
sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to
compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the
investigator.

In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example,
the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing
depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of
evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.
Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are
based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating
mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For
example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive
writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect
observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of
processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should
be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her
data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes,
audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the
students in the process of composing.

It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help
provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting.
Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and
confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a
funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study
along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."

It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive

research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions
driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking
for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging
during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features
which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing
directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the
basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the
possibility of further research.

• Data Analysis

As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data.

Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or
through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into
parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and
Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their
students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for
isolatable characteristics.

However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that

is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific
observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the
key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic
frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:

1. The role of participants.

 2. The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
3. Historical.
4. Thematical.
5. Resources.
6. Ritual and symbolism.
7. Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices,
and values.

There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data
and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.

As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to
look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to
emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers
include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific
linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning,
drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988)
study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of
connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register
words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to
indefinite articles.

Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed.
In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three
rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register
phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before
concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate
program progressed.

• Composing the Report

In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the
concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot,
exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990).
Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most
problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right
combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each
step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as
possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions
drawn.

This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers'

theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding
research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data
collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong
attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.
Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case
study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the
researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end
with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant
variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these,
or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study
generated.

For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to
the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several
means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as
questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to
address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a
certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between
ego strength and persistence in revising)?

Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching,

which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers
currently involved in high school writing programs.

Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative

presentations of data:

1. Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.

2. Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended
questions.
3. Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
4. Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
5. Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
6. Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.

• Issues of Validity and Reliability

Once key variables have been identified, they can be analyzed. Reliability
becomes a key concern at this stage, and many case study researchers go to
great lengths to ensure that their interpretations of the data will be both reliable
and valid. Because issues of validity and reliability are an important part of any
study in the social sciences, it is important to identify some ways of dealing with
results.

Multi-modal case study researchers often balance the results of their coding with
data from interviews or writer's reflections upon their own work. Consequently,
the researchers' conclusions become highly contextualized. For example, in a
case study which looked at the time spent in different stages of the writing
process, Berkenkotter concluded that her participant, Donald Murray, spent more
time planning his essays than in other writing stages. The report of this case
study is followed by Murray's reply, wherein he agrees with some of
Berkenkotter's conclusions and disagrees with others.

As is the case with other research methodologies, issues of external validity,

construct validity, and reliability need to be carefully considered. For a fuller
explanation, you can view a reference guide on reliability and validity or proceed
to the Commentary section available through the overview page of this guide.

• Commentary on Case Studies

Researchers often debate the relative merits of particular methods, among them
case study. In this section, we comment on two key issues. To read the
commentaries, choose any of the items below:

• Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Most case study advocates point out that case studies produce much more
detailed information than what is available through a statistical analysis.
Advocates will also hold that while statistical methods might be able to deal with
situations where behavior is homogeneous and routine, case studies are needed
to deal with creativity, innovation, and context. Detractors argue that case studies
are difficult to generalize because of inherent subjectivity and because they are
based on qualitative subjective data, generalizable only to a particular context.

For further explanations of strengths and weaknesses of the case study, follow
these links.

Flexibility

The case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific

research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than
prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and
address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of
case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their
focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every
possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.

Emphasis on Context

By seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small

group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--
information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more
human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research
and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand
observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of
research.

Inherent Subjectivity

"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social
science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even
pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often
regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their
investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity
and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the
implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The
approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may
not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-
solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for
cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be
circumstance.

High Investment

Case studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than
most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional
background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes,
dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is
out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool
in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects
sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.

Ethical Considerations

Researchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For
example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have,
either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those
conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the
credibility of the study.

The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the
investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can
creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used,
and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.

A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change

direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research
design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave
unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report
preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.
 • Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Although little can be done to combat challenges concerning the

generalizability of case studies, "most writers suggest that qualitative
research should be judged as credible and confirmable as opposed to valid
and reliable" (Merriam 1985). Likewise, it has been argued that "rather than
transplanting statistical, quantitative notions of generalizability and thus
finding qualitative research inadequate, it makes more sense to develop an
understanding of generalization that is congruent with the basic
characteristics of qualitative inquiry" (1985). After all, criticizing the case study
method for being ungeneralizable is comparable to criticizing a washing
machine for not being able to tell the correct time. In other words, it is unjust
to criticize a method for not being able to do something which it was never
originally designed to do in the first place.

• Key Terms

Accuracy

A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target
population and the sample.

ANCOVA (Analysis of Co-Variance)

Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences between dependent

variables.

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

A method of statistical analysis broadly applicable to a number of research

designs, used to determine differences among the means of two or more groups
on a variable. The independent variables are usually nominal, and the dependent
variable is usual an interval.

Apparency

Clear, understandable representation of the data

Bell curve

A frequency distribution statistics. Normal distribution is shaped like a bell.

Case Study
The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular
participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects
themselves.

Causal Model

A model which represents a causal relationship between two variables.

Causal Relationship

The relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and

nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. Establishes, also, how
much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.

Causality

The relation between cause and effect.

Central Tendency These measures indicate the middle or center of a

distribution. Confirmability

Objectivity; the findings of the study could be confirmed by another person

conducting the same study

Confidence Interval

The range around a numeric statistical value obtained from a sample, within
which the actual, corresponding value for the population is likely to fall, at a given
level of probability (Alreck, 444).

Confidence Level

The specific probability of obtaining some result from a sample if it did not exist in
the population as a whole, at or below which the relationship will be regarded as
statistically significant (Alreck, 444).

Confidence Limits

(Same as confidence interval, but is terminology used by Lauer and Asher.) "The
range of scores or percentages within which a population percentage is likely to
be found on variables that describe that population" (Lauer and Asher, 58).
Confidence limits are expressed in a "plus or minus" fashion according to sample
size, then corrected according to formulas based on variables connected to
population size in relation to sample size and the relationship of the variable to
the population size--the larger the sample, the smaller the variability or
confidence limits.
Confounding Variable

An unforeseen, and unaccounted-for variable that jeopardizes reliability and

validity of an experiment's outcome.

Construct Validity

Seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring

device, such as observation.

Content Validity

The extent to which a measurement reflects the specific intended domain of

content (Carmines & Zeller, 1991, p.20).

Context sensitivity

Awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and beliefs that

influence cultural behaviors

Continuous Variable A variable that may have fractional values, e.g., height,
weight and time. Control Group

A group in an experiment that receives not treatment in order to compare the

treated group against a norm.

Convergent Validity

The general agreement among ratings, gathered independently of one another,

where measures should be theoretically related.

Correlation

1) A common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the

degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range
of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. 2) A non-cause and effect
relationship between two variables.

Covariate

A product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard

deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment
between them.

Credibility
A researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately
identified and described, based on the way in which the study was conducted

Criterion Related Validity

Used to demonstrate the accuracy of a measuring procedure by comparing it

with another procedure which has been demonstrated to be valid; also referred to
as instrumental validity.

Data Recorded observations, usually in numeric or textual form Deductive

A form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from

general or universal premises

Dependability

Being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing
conditions surrounding what was studied.

Dependent Variable

A variable that receives stimulus and measured for the effect the treatment has
had upon it.

Design flexibility

A quality of an observational study that allows researchers to pursue inquiries on

new topics or questions that emerge from initial research

Deviation The distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given
distribution. Discourse Community A community of scholars and researchers in
a given field who respond to and communicate to each other through published
articles in the community's journals and presentations at conventions. All
members of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions for the
presentation of their theories and research. Discrete Variable A variable that is
measured solely in whole units, e.g., gender and siblings Discriminate Validity

The lack of a relationship among measures which theoretically should not be

related.

Distribution The range of values of a particular variable. Dynamic systems

Qualitative observational research is not concerned with having straight-forward,

right or wrong answers. Change in a study is common because the researcher is
not concerned with finding only one answer.
Electronic Text

A "paper" or linear text that has been essentially "copied" into an electronic
medium.

Empathic neutrality

A quality of qualitative researchers who strive to be non-judgmental when

compiling findings

Empirical Research

"…the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations

that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena
under study" (Lauer and Asher, 1988, p. 7)

Equivalency Reliability

The extent to which two items measure identical concepts at an identical level of
difficulty.

Ethnography

Ethnographies study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of
this type of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through
observer immersion into the culture or group. Research is completed through
various methods, which are similar to those of case studies, but since the
researcher is immersed within the group for an extended period of time more
detailed information is usually collected during the research.

Ethnomethodology

A form of ethnography that studies activities of group members to see how they
make sense of their surroundings

Existence or Frequency

This is a key question in the coding process. The researcher must decide if
he/she is going to count a concept only once, for existence, no matter how many
times it appears, or if he/she will count it each time it occurs. For example,
"damn" could be counted once, even though it appears 50 times, or it could be
counted all 50 times. The latter measurement may be interested in how many
times it occurs and what that indicates, whereas the former may simply looking
for existence, period.

Experiment
Experimental Research A researcher working within this methodology creates an
environment in which to observe and interpret the results of a research question.
A key element in experimental research is that participants in a study are
randomly assigned to groups. In an attempt to create a causal model (i.e., to
discover the causal origin of a particular phenomenon), groups are treated
differently and measurements are conducted to determine if different treatments
appear to lead to different effects.

External Validity

The extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable. See
also validity

Face Validity

How a measure or procedure appears.

Factor Analysis

A statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which
variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed
survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of
responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies may then be
interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific
questions.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings and conclusions from a study conducted
on a sample population can be applied to the population at large.

Grounded theory

Practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a group.

Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences, but researchers
add their own insight into why those experiences exist.

Holistic perspective

Taking almost every action or communication of the whole phenomenon of a

certain community or culture into account in research

Hypertext

A nonsequential text composed of links and nodes

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between

variables.

Independent Variable

A variable that is part of the situation that exist from which originates the stimulus
given to a dependent variable. Includes treatment, state of variable, such as age,
size, weight, etc.

Inductive

A form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from

particular instances

Inductive analysis

A form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive

analysis starts with answers, but forms questions throughout the research
process.

Internal Consistency

The extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or
quality.

Internal Validity

(1) The rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the study's design, the
care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and
wasn't measured) and (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have taken
into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore
(Huitt, 1998). In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of
these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity. See also
validity.

Interrater Reliability

The extent to which two or more individuals agree. It addresses the consistency
of the implementation of a rating system.

Interval Variable A variable in which both order of data points and distance
between data points can be determined, e.g., percentage scores and distances
Interviews
A research tool in which a researcher asks questions of participants; interviews
are often audio- or video-taped for later transcription and analysis.

Irrelevant Information

One must decide what to do with the information in the text that is not coded.
One's options include either deleting or skipping over unwanted material, or
viewing all information as relevant and important and using it to reexamine,
reassess and perhaps even alter the one's coding scheme.

Kinesics

Kinesic analysis examines what is communicated through body movement

Level of Analysis

Chosen by determining which word, set of words, or phrases will constitute a

concept. According to Carley, 100-500 concepts is generally sufficient when
coding for a specific topic, but this number of course varies on a case by case
basis.

Level of Generalization

A researcher must decide whether concepts are to be coded exactly as they

appear, or if they can be recorded in some altered or collapsed form. Using
Horton as an example again, she could code profanity individually and code
"damn" and "dammit" as two separate concepts. Or, by generalizing their
meaning, i.e. they both express the same idea, she could group them together as
one item, i.e. "damn words."

Level of Implication

One must determine whether to code simply for explicit appearances of

concepts, or for implied concepts, as well. For example, consider a hypothetical
piece of text about skiing, written by an expert. The expert might refer several
times to "???," as well as various other kinds of turns. One must decide whether
to code "???" as an entity in and of itself, or, if coding for "turn" references in
general, to code "???" as implicitly meaning "turn." Thus, by determining that the
meaning "turn" is implicit in the words "???," anytime the words "???" or "turn"
appear in the text, they will be coded under the same category of "turn."

Link

In hypertext, a pointer from one node to another

Matched T-Test
A statistical test used to compare two sets of scores for the same subject. A
matched pairs T-test can be used to determine if the scores of the same
participants in a study differ under different conditions. For instance, this sort of t-
test could be used to determine if people write better essays after taking a writing
class than they did before taking the writing class.

Matching

Process of corresponding variables in experimental groups equally feature for

feature.

Mean The average score within a distribution. Mean Deviation A measure of

variation that indicates the average deviation of scores in a distribution from
themean: It is determined by averaging the absolute values of the deviations.
Median The center score in a distribution. Mental Models

A group or network of interrelated concepts that reflect conscious or

subconscious perceptions of reality. These internal mental networks of meaning
are constructed as people draw inferences and gather information about the
world.

Mode The most frequent score in a distribution. Multi-Modal Methods

A research approach that employs a variety of methods; see also triangulation

Narrative Inquiry

A qualitative research approach based on a researcher's narrative account of the

investigation, not to be confused with a narrative examined by the researcher as
data

Naturalistic Inquiry

Observational research of a group in its natural setting

Node

In hypertext, each unit of information, connected by links

Nominal Variable A variable determined by categories which cannot be ordered,

e.g., gender and color Normal distribution

A normal frequency distribution representing the probability that a majority of

randomly selected members of a population will fall within the middle of the
distribution. Represented by the bell curve.
Ordinal Variable A variable in which the order of data points can be determined
but not the distance between data points, e.g., letter grades Parameter A
coefficient or value for the population that corresponds to a particular statistic
from a sample and is often inferred from the sample. Phenomenology

A qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group

behaviors from that group's point of view

Population

The target group under investigation, as in all students enrolled in first-year

composition courses taught in traditional classrooms. The population is the entire
set under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.

Precision

In survey research, the tightness of the confidence limits.

Pre-defined or Interactive Concept Choice

One must determine whether to code only from a pre-defined set of concepts and
categories, or if one will develop some or all of these during the coding process.
For example, using a predefined set, Horton would code only for profane
language. But, if Horton coded interactively, she may have decided to half-way
through the process that the text warranted coding for profane gestures, as well.

Probability

The chance that a phenomenon has a of occurring randomly. As a statistical

measure, it shown as p (the "p" factor).

Qualitative Research

Empirical research in which the researcher explores relationships using textual,

rather than quantitative data. Case study, observation, and ethnography are
considered forms of qualitative research. Results are not usually considered
generalizable, but are often transferable.

Quantitative Research

Empirical research in which the researcher explores relationships using numeric

data. Survey is generally considered a form of quantitative research. Results can
often be generalized, though this is not always the case.

Quasi-experiment
Similar to true experiments. Have subjects, treatment, etc., but uses
nonrandomized groups. Incorporates interpretation and transferability in order to
compensate for lack of control of variables.

Quixotic Reliability

Refers to the situation where a single manner of observation consistently, yet

erroneously, yields the same result.

Random sampling

Process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance,

yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be
accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample
according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer
generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or
discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the
assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a
distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn.

Randomization

Used to allocate subjects to experimental and control groups. The subjects are
initially considered not unequal because they were randomly selected.

Range The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Reliability

The extent to which a measure, procedure or instrument yields the same result
on repeated trials.

Response Rate

In survey research, the actual percentage of questionnaires completed and

returned.

Rhetorical Inquiry

"entails…1) identifying a motivational concern, 2) posing questions, 3) engaging

in a heuristic search (which in composition studies has often occurred by probing
other fields), 4) creating a new theory or hypotheses, and 5) justifying the theory"
(Lauer and Asher, 1988, p. 5)

Rigor
Degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out
in order to recognize important influences occurring in a experiment.

Sampling Error

The degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would
be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection
of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability (Alreck, 454).

Sampling Frame

A listing that should include all those in the population to be sampled and exclude
all those who are not in the population (Alreck, 454).

Sample

The population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to

select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of
people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use
inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable,
sample size is critical--generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher
the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.

Selective Reduction

The central idea of content analysis. Text is reduced to categories consisting of a

word, set of words or phrases, on which the researcher can focus. Specific words
or patterns are indicative of the research question and determine levels of
analysis and generalization.

Serial Effect

In survey research, a situation where questions may "lead" participant responses

through establishing a certain tone early in the questionnaire. The serial effect
may accrue as several questions establish a pattern of response in the
participant, biasing results.

Short-term observation

Studies that list or present findings of short-term qualitative study based on

recorded observation

Skewed Distribution Any distribution which is not normal, that is not

symmetrical along the x-axis Stability Reliability

The agreement of measuring instruments over time.

Standard Deviation

A term used in statistical analysis. A measure of variation that indicates the

typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is
determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in
a given distribution.It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain
ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal
curve.

Standard Error (S.E.) of the Mean

A term used in statistical analysis. A computed value based on the size of the
sample and the standard deviation of the distribution, indicating the range within
which the mean of the population is likely to be from the mean of the sample at a
given level of probability (Alreck, 456).

Survey

A research tool that includes at least one question which is either open-ended or
close-ended and employs an oral or written method for asking these questions.
The goal of a survey is to gain specific information about either a specific group
or a representative sample of a particular group. Results are typically used to
understand the attitudes, beliefs, or knowledge of a particular group.

Synchronic Reliability

The similarity of observations within the same time frame; it is not about the
similarity of things observed.

T-Test

A statistical test. A t-test is used to determine if the scores of two groups differ on
a single variable. For instance, to determine whether writing ability differs among
students in two classrooms, a t-test could be used.

Thick Description

A rich and extensive set of details concerning methodology and context provided
in a research report.

Transferability

The ability to apply the results of research in one context to another similar
context. Also, the extent to which a study invites readers to make connections
between elements of the study and their own experiences.
Translation Rules

If one decides to generalize concepts during coding, then one must develop a set
of rules by which less general concepts will be translated into more general ones.
This doesn't involve simple generalization, for example, as with "damn" and
"dammit," but requires one to determine, from a given set of concepts, what
concepts are missing. When dealing with the idea of profanity, one must decide
what to do with the concept "dang it," which is generally thought to imply "damn
it." The researcher must make this distinction, i.e. make this implicit concept
explicit, and then code for the frequency of its occurrence. This decision results
in the construction of a translation rule, which instructs the researcher to code for
the concept "dang it" in a certain way.

Treatment

The stimulus given to a dependent variable.

Triangulation

The use of a combination of research methods in a study. An example of

triangulation would be a study that incorporated surveys, interviews, and
observations. See also multi-modal methods

Unique case orientation

A perspective adopted by many researchers conducting qualitative observational

studies; researchers adopting this orientation remember every study is special
and deserves in-depth attention. This is especially necessary for doing cultural
comparisons.

Validity

The degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept
that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable,
consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid. See also internal validity
and external validity

Variable Observable characteristics that vary among individuals. See also

ordinal variable, nominal variable, interval variable, continuous variable, discrete
variable, dependent variable, independent variable. Variance A measure of
variation within a distribution, determined by averaging the squared deviations
from the mean of a distribution. Variation The dispersion of data points around
the mean of a distribution. Verisimilitude

Having the semblance of truth; in research, it refers to the probability that the
research findings are consistent with occurrences in the "real world."
 • Annotated Bibliography on Case Studies

Armisted, C. (1984). How Useful are Case Studies. Training and

Development Journal, 38 (2), 75-77.

This article looks at eight types of case studies, offers pros and cons of using
case studies in the classroom, and gives suggestions for successfully writing and
using case studies.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1997). Beyond Methods: Components of Second

Language Teacher Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

A compilation of various research essays which address issues of

language teacher education. Essays included are: "Non-native reading
research and theory" by Lee, "The case for Psycholinguistics" by
VanPatten, and "Assessment and Second Language Teaching" by
Gradman and Reed.

Bartlett, L. (1989). A Question of Good Judgment; Interpretation Theory and

Qualitative Enquiry Address. 70th Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association. San Francisco.

Bartlett selected "quasi-historical" methodology, which focuses on the "truth"

found in case records, as one that will provide "good judgments" in educational
inquiry. He argues that although the method is not comprehensive, it can try to
connect theory with practice.

Baydere, S. et. al. (1993). Multimedia conferencing as a tool for

collaborative writing: a case study in Computer Supported Collaborative
Writing. New York: Springer-Verlag.

The case study by Baydere et. al. is just one of the many essays in this
book found in the series "Computer Supported Cooperative Work."
Denley, Witefield and May explore similar issues in their essay, "A case
study in task analysis for the design of a collaborative document
production system."

Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., N., & Ackerman J. (1988). Conventions,

Conversations, and the Writer: Case Study of a Student in a Rhetoric Ph.D.
Program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 9-44.

The authors focused on how the writing of their subject, Nate or Ackerman,
changed as he became more acquainted or familiar with his field's discourse
community.
Berninger, V., W., and Gans, B., M. (1986). Language Profiles in
Nonspeaking Individuals of Normal Intelligence with Severe Cerebral Palsy.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2, 45-50.

Argues that generalizations about language abilities in patients with severe

cerebral palsy (CP) should be avoided. Standardized tests of different levels of
processing oral language, of processing written language, and of producing
written language were administered to 3 male participants (aged 9, 16, and 40
yrs).

Bockman, J., R., and Couture, B. (1984). The Case Method in Technical
Communication: Theory and Models. Texas: Association of Teachers of
Technical Writing.

Examines the study and teaching of technical writing, communication of technical

information, and the case method in terms of those applications.

Boehrer, J. (1990). Teaching With Cases: Learning to Question. New

Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 41-57.

This article discusses the origins of the case method, looks at the question of
what is a case, gives ideas about learning in case teaching, the purposes it can
serve in the classroom, the ground rules for the case discussion, including the
role of the question, and new directions for case teaching.

Bowman, W. R. (1993). Evaluating JTPA Programs for Economically

Disadvantaged Adults: A Case Study of Utah and General Findings.
Washington: National Commission for Employment Policy.

"To encourage state-level evaluations of JTPA, the Commission and the State of
Utah co-sponsored this report on the effectiveness of JTPA Title II programs for
adults in Utah. The technique used is non-experimental and the comparison
group was selected from registrants with Utah's Employment Security. In a step-
by-step approach, the report documents how non-experimental techniques can
be applied and several specific technical issues can be addressed."

Boyce, A. (1993) The Case Study Approach for Pedagogists. Annual

Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance. (Address). Washington DC.

This paper addresses how case studies 1) bridge the gap between teaching
theory and application, 2) enable students to analyze problems and develop
solutions for situations that will be encountered in the real world of teaching, and
3) helps students to evaluate the feasibility of alternatives and to understand the
ramifications of a particular course of action.
Carson, J. (1993)The Case Study: Ideal Home of WAC Quantitative and
Qualitative Data. Annual Meeting of the Conference on College
Composition and Communication. (Address). San Diego.

"Increasingly, one of the most pressing questions for WAC advocates is how to
keep [WAC] programs going in the face of numerous difficulties. Case histories
offer the best chance for fashioning rhetorical arguments to keep WAC programs
going because they offer the opportunity to provide a coherent narrative that
contextualizes all documents and data, including what is generally considered
scientific data. A case study of the WAC program, . . . at Robert Morris College in
Pittsburgh demonstrates the advantages of this research method. Such studies
are ideal homes for both naturalistic and positivistic data as well as both
quantitative and qualitative information."

---. (1991). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition and

Communication. 32. 365-87.

No abstract available.

Cromer, R. (1994) A Case Study of Dissociations Between Language and

Cognition. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical
Children. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 141-153.

No abstract available.

Crossley, M. (1983) Case Study in Comparative and International

Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap. Proceedings
of the 11th Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and
International Education Society. Hamilton, NZ.

Case study research, as presented here, helps bridge the theory-practice gap in
comparative and international research studies of education because it focuses
on the practical, day-to-day context rather than on the national arena. The paper
asserts that the case study method can be valuable at all levels of research,
formation, and verification of theories in education.

Daillak, R., H., and Alkin, M., C. (1982). Qualitative Studies in Context:
Reflections on the CSE Studies of Evaluation Use. California: EDRS

The report shows how the Center of the Study of Evaluation (CSE) applied
qualitative techniques to a study of evaluation information use in local, Los
Angeles schools. It critiques the effectiveness and the limitations of using case
study, evaluation, field study, and user interview survey methodologies.

Davey, L. (1991). The Application of Case Study Evaluations. ERIC/TM

Digest.
This article examines six types of case studies, the type of evaluation questions
that can be answered, the functions served, some design features, and some
pitfalls of the method.

Deutch, C. E. (1996). A course in research ethics for graduate students.

College Teaching, 44, 2, 56-60.

This article describes a one-credit discussion course in research ethics for

graduate students in biology. Case studies are focused on within the four parts of
the course: 1) major issues, 2 )practical issues in scholarly work, 3) ownership of
research results, and 4) training and personal decisions.

DeVoss, G. (1981). Ethics in Fieldwork Research. RIE 27p. (ERIC)

This article examines four of the ethical problems that can happen when
conducting case study research: acquiring permission to do research, knowing
when to stop digging, the pitfalls of doing collaborative research, and preserving
the integrity of the participants.

Driscoll, A. (1985). Case Study of a Research Intervention: the University of

Utah’s Collaborative Approach. San Francisco: Far West Library for
Educational Research Development.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of

Colleges of Teacher Education, Denver, CO, March 1985. Offers
information of in-service training, specifically case studies application.

Ellram, L. M. (1996). The Use of the Case Study Method in Logistics

Research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17, 2, 93.

This article discusses the increased use of case study in business research, and
the lack of understanding of when and how to use case study methodology in
business.

Emig, J. (1971) The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders. Urbana:

NTCE.

This case study uses observation, tape recordings, writing samples, and school
records to show that writing in reflexive and extensive situations caused different
lengths of discourse and different clusterings of the components of the writing
process.

Feagin, J. R. (1991). A Case For the Case Study. Chapel Hill: The University
of North Carolina Press.
This book discusses the nature, characteristics, and basic methodological issues
of the case study as a research method.

Feldman, H., Holland, A., & Keefe, K. (1989) Language Abilities after Left
Hemisphere Brain Injury: A Case Study of Twins. Topics in Early Childhood
Special Education, 9, 32-47.

"Describes the language abilities of 2 twin pairs in which 1 twin (the

experimental) suffered brain injury to the left cerebral hemisphere around the
time of birth and1 twin (the control) did not. One pair of twins was initially
assessed at age 23 mo. and the other at about 30 mo.; they were subsequently
evaluated in their homes 3 times at about 6-mo intervals."

Fidel, R. (1984). The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and
Information Science Research, 6.

The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically

develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible,
subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt
to the study's progressive change.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, Plans and Prose: The
Representation of Meaning in Writing. Written Communication, 1, 120-160.

Explores the ways in which writers actually use different forms of knowing to
create prose.

Frey, L. R. (1992).Interpreting Communication Research: A Case Study

Approach Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

The book discusses research methodologies in the Communication field. It

focuses on how case studies bridge the gap between communication research,
theory, and practice.

Gilbert, V. K. (1981). The Case Study as a Research Methodology:

Difficulties and Advantages of Integrating the Positivistic,
Phenomenological and Grounded Theory Approaches. The Annual Meeting
of the Canadian Association for the Study of Educational Administration.
(Address) Halifax, NS, Can.

This study on an innovative secondary school in England shows how a "low-

profile" participant-observer case study was crucial to the initial observation, the
testing of hypotheses, the interpretive approach, and the grounded theory.

Gilgun, J. F. (1994). A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research.

Social Work, 39, 4, 371-381.
This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluation of
case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. It
also looks at issues such as evaluation and interpretations of case studies.

Glennan, S. L., Sharp-Bittner, M. A. & Tullos, D. C. (1991). Augmentative

and Alternative Communication Training with a Nonspeaking Adult:
Lessons from MH. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7, 240-7.

"A response-guided case study documented changes in a nonspeaking 36-yr-old

man's ability to communicate using 3 trained augmentative communication
modes. . . . Data were collected in videotaped interaction sessions between the
nonspeaking adult and a series of adult speaking."

Graves, D. (1981). An Examination of the Writing Processes of Seven Year

Old Children. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 113-134.

No abstract available.

Hamel, J. (1993). Case Study Methods. Newbury Park: Sage..

"In a most economical fashion, Hamel provides a practical guide for producing
theoretically sharp and empirically sound sociological case studies. A central
idea put forth by Hamel is that case studies must "locate the global in the local"
thus making the careful selection of the research site the most critical decision in
the analytic process."

Karthigesu, R. (1986, July). Television as a Tool for Nation-Building in the

Third World: A Post-Colonial Pattern, Using Malaysia as a Case-Study.
International Television Studies Conference. (Address). London, 10-12.

"The extent to which Television Malaysia, as a national mass media organization,

has been able to play a role in nation building in the post-colonial period is . . .
studied in two parts: how the choice of a model of nation building determines the
character of the organization; and how the character of the organization
influences the output of the organization."

Kenny, R. (1984). Making the Case for the Case Study. Journal of
Curriculum Studies, 16, (1), 37-51.

The article looks at how and why the case study is justified as a viable and
valuable approach to educational research and program evaluation.

Knirk, F. (1991). Case Materials: Research and Practice. Performance

Improvement Quarterly, 4 (1 ), 73-81.
The article addresses the effectiveness of case studies, subject areas where
case studies are commonly used, recent examples of their use, and case study
design considerations.

Klos, D. (1976). Students as Case Writers. Teaching of Psychology, 3.2, 63-

66.

This article reviews a course in which students gather data for an original case
study of another person. The task requires the students to design the study,
collect the data, write the narrative, and interpret the findings.

Leftwich, A. (1981). The Politics of Case Study: Problems of Innovation in

University Education. Higher Education Review, 13.2, 38-64.

The article discusses the use of case studies as a teaching method. Emphasis is
on the instructional materials, interdisciplinarity, and the complex relationships
within the university that help or hinder the method.

Mabrito, M. (1991, Oct.). Electronic Mail as a Vehicle for Peer Response:

Conversations of High and Low Apprehensive Writers. Written
Communication, 509-32.

No abstract available.

McCarthy, S., J. (1955). The Influence of Classroom Discourse on Student

Texts: The Case of Ella. East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

A look at how students of color become marginalized within traditional

classroom discourse. The essay follows the struggles of one black
student: Ella.

Matsuhashi, A., ed. (1987). Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production

Processes Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Investigates how writers plan to produce discourse for different purposes to

report, to generalize, and to persuade, as well as how writers plan for sentence
level units of language. To learn about planning, an observational measure of
pause time was used" (ERIC).

Merriam, S. B. (1985). The Case Study in Educational Research: A Review

of Selected Literature. Journal of Educational Thought, 19.3, 204-17.

The article examines the characteristics of, philosophical assumptions underlying

the case study, the mechanics of conducting a case study, and the concerns
about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the method.
---. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach San
Francisco: Jossey Bass.

No abstract available.

Merry, S. E., & Milner, N. eds. (1993). The Possibility of Popular Justice: A
Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States. Ann Arbor: U of
Michigan.

". . . this volume presents a case study of one experiment in popular justice, the
San Francisco Community Boards. This program has made an explicit claim to
create an alternative justice, or new justice, in the midst of a society ordered by
state law. The contributors to this volume explore the history and experience of
the program and compare it to other versions of popular justice in the United
States, Europe, and the Third World."

Merseth, K. K. (1991). The Case for Cases in Teacher Education. RIE. 42p.
(ERIC).

This monograph argues that the case method of instruction offers unique
potential for revitalizing the field of teacher education.

Michaels, S. (1987). Text and Context: A New Approach to the Study of

Classroom Writing. Discourse Processes, 10, 321-346.

"This paper argues for and illustrates an approach to the study of writing that
integrates ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction with linguistic analysis
of written texts and teacher/student conversational exchanges. The approach is
illustrated through a case study of writing in a single sixth grade classroom during
a single writing assignment."

Milburn, G. (1995). Deciphering a Code or Unraveling a Riddle: A Case

Study in the Application of a Humanistic Metaphor to the Reporting of
Social Studies Teaching. Theory and Research in Education, 13.

This citation serves as an example of how case studies document learning

procedures in a senior-level economics course.

Milley, J. E. (1979). An Investigation of Case Study as an Approach to

Program Evaluation. 19th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional
Research. (Address). San Diego.

The case study method merged a narrative report focusing on the evaluator as
participant-observer with document review, interview, content analysis, attitude
questionnaire survey, and sociogram analysis. Milley argues that case study
program evaluation has great potential for widespread use.
Minnis, J. R. (1985, Sept.). Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory,
and Distance Education Research. Distance Education, 6.2.

This article describes and defines the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography,
case study, and grounded theory.

Nunan, D. (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Included in this series of essays is Peter Sturman’s "Team Teaching: a

case study from Japan" and David Nunan’s own "Toward a collaborative
approach to curriculum development: a case study."

Nystrand, M., ed. (1982). What Writers Know: The Language, Process, and
Structure of Written Discourse. New York: Academic Press.

No abstract available.

Owenby, P. H. (1992). Making Case Studies Come Alive. Training, 29, (1),
43-46. (ERIC)

This article provides tips for writing more effective case studies.

---. (1981). Pausing and Planning: The Tempo of Writer Discourse

Production. Research in the Teaching of English, 15 (2),113-34.

No abstract available.

Perl, S. (1979). The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers.

Research in the Teaching of English, 13, 317-336.

"Summarizes a study of five unskilled college writers, focusing especially on one

of the five, and discusses the findings in light of current pedagogical practice and
research design."

Pilcher J. and A. Coffey. eds. (1996). Gender and Qualitative Research.

Brookfield: Aldershot, Hants, England.

This book provides a series of essays which look at gender identity

research, qualitative research and applications of case study to questions
of gendered pedagogy.

Pirie, B. S. (1993). The Case of Morty: A Four Year Study. Gifted Education
International, 9 (2), 105-109.
This case study describes a boy from kindergarten through third grade with
above average intelligence but difficulty in learning to read, write, and spell.

Popkewitz, T. (1993). Changing Patterns of Power: Social Regulation and

Teacher Education Reform. Albany: SUNY Press.

Popkewitz edits this series of essays that address case studies on

educational change and the training of teachers. The essays vary in
terms of discipline and scope. Also, several authors include case
studies of educational practices in countries other than the United
States.

---. (1984). The Predrafting Processes of Four High- and Four Low
Apprehensive Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, (1), 45-64.

Rasmussen, P. (1985, March) A Case Study on the Evaluation of Research

at the Technical University of Denmark. International Journal of
Institutional Management in Higher Education, 9 (1).

This is an example of a case study methodology used to evaluate the chemistry

and chemical engineering departments at the University of Denmark.

Roth, K. J. (1986). Curriculum Materials, Teacher Talk, and Student

Learning: Case Studies in Fifth-Grade Science Teaching. East Lansing:
Institute for Research on Teaching.

Roth offers case studies on elementary teachers, elementary school teaching,

science studies and teaching, and verbal learning.

Selfe, C. L. (1985). An Apprehensive Writer Composes. When a Writer Can't

Write: Studies in Writer's Block and Other Composing-Process Problems.
(pp. 83-95). Ed. Mike Rose. NMY: Guilford.

Smith-Lewis, M., R. and Ford, A. (1987). A User's Perspective on

Augmentative Communication. Augmentative and Alternative
Communication, 3, 12-7.

"During a series of in-depth interviews, a 25-yr-old woman with cerebral palsy

who utilized augmentative communication reflected on the effectiveness of the
devices designed for her during her school career."

St. Pierre, R., G. (1980, April). Follow Through: A Case Study in

Metaevaluation Research. 64th Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association. (Address).
The three approaches to metaevaluation are evaluation of primary evaluations,
integrative meta-analysis with combined primary evaluation results, and re-
analysis of the raw data from a primary evaluation.

Stahler, T., M. (1996, Feb.) Early Field Experiences: A Model That Worked.
ERIC.

"This case study of a field and theory class examines a model designed to
provide meaningful field experiences for preservice teachers while remaining
consistent with the instructor's beliefs about the role of teacher education in
preparing teachers for the classroom."

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.

This book examines case study research in education and case study
methodology.

Stiegelbauer, S. (1984) Community, Context, and Co-curriculum: Situational

Factors Influencing School Improvements in a Study of High Schools.
Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New Orleans, LA.

Discussion of several case studies: one looking at high school

environments, another examining educational innovations.

Stolovitch, H. (1990). Case Study Method. Performance And Instruction, 29,

(9), 35-37.

This article describes the case study method as a form of simulation and
presents guidelines for their use in professional training situations.

Thaller, E. (1994). Bibliography for the Case Method: Using Case Studies in
Teacher Education. RIE. 37 p.

This bibliography presents approximately 450 citations on the use of case studies
in teacher education from 1921-1993.

Thrane, T. (1986). On Delimiting the Senses of Near-Synonyms in Historical

Semantics: A Case Study of Adjectives of 'Moral Sufficiency' in the Old
English Andreas. Linguistics Across Historical and Geographical
Boundaries: In Honor of Jacek Fisiak on the Occasion of his Fiftieth
Birthday. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

No abstract available.
United Nations. (1975). Food and Agriculture Organization. Report on the
FAO/UNFPA Seminar on Methodology, Research and Country: Case
Studies on Population, Employment and Productivity. Rome: United
Nations.

This example case study shows how the methodology can be used in a
demographic and psychographic evaluation. At the same time, it discusses the
formation and instigation of the case study methodology itself.

Van Vugt, J. P., ed. (1994). Aids Prevention and Services: Community
Based Research. Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

"This volume has been five years in the making. In the process, some of the
policy applications called for have met with limited success, such as free needle
exchange programs in a limited number of American cities, providing condoms to
prison inmates, and advertisements that depict same-sex couples. Rather than
dating our chapters that deal with such subjects, such policy applications are
verifications of the type of research demonstrated here. Furthermore, they
indicate the critical need to continue community based research in the various
communities threatened by acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . . "

Welch, W., ed. (1981, May). Case Study Methodology in Educational

Evaluation. Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference.
Minnesota. (Address).

The four papers in these proceedings provide a comprehensive picture of the

rationale, methodology, strengths, and limitations of case studies.

Williams, G. (1987). The Case Method: An Approach to Teaching and

Learning in Educational Administration. RIE, 31p.

This paper examines the viability of the case method as a teaching and learning
strategy in instructional systems geared toward the training of personnel of the
administration of various aspects of educational systems.

Yin, R. K. (1993). Advancing Rigorous Methodologies: A Review of

'Towards Rigor in Reviews of Multivocal Literatures.' Review of
Educational Research, 61, (3).

"R. T. Ogawa and B. Malen's article does not meet its own recommended
standards for rigorous testing and presentation of its own conclusions. Use of the
exploratory case study to analyze multivocal literatures is not supported, and the
claim of grounded theory to analyze multivocal literatures may be stronger."

---. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage
Publications Inc.
This book discusses in great detail, the entire design process of the case study,
including entire chapters on collecting evidence, analyzing evidence, composing
the case study report, and designing single and multiple case studies.

• Related Web Links

Consider the following list of related Web sites for more information on the topic
of case study research. Note: although many of the links cover the general
category of qualitative research, all have sections that address issues of case
studies.

1. Sage Publications on Qualitative Methodology: Search here for a

comprehensive list of new books being published about "Qualitative
Methodology" http://www.sagepub.co.uk/
2. The International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education: An on-
line journal "to enhance the theory and practice of qualitative research in
education." On-line submissions are welcome.
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/tf/09518398.html
3. A List of References on Case Study Research: The list covers many
disciplines, specifically information technology.
http://www.auckland.ac.nz/msis/isworld/case.htm target
4. The Sin of Omission-Punishable by Death to Internal Validity: Kathryn
Bower argues for the integration of qualitative/quantitative methods to
strengthen internal validity. This also links to more sites like "Designs and
Methodology Links."
http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/gallery/bowen/hss691.htm
5. Qualitative Research Resources on the Internet: From syllabi to home
pages to bibliographies. All links relate somehow to qualitative research.
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/qualres.html