G MANIKANDAN et al.

/ (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

Effect of Maximum Thickness Location of

an Aerofoil on Aerodynamic
Characteristics

G MANIKANDAN M ANANDA RAO*

Professor Professor and Principal
SS Institute of Technology SS Institute of Technology
Dundigal, Hyderabad Dundigal, Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh, India Andhra Pradesh, India
manii731@yahoo.co.in profanandarao @yahoo.com

T
+91 9618190732 +91 9966049083

ES
A
IJ

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 122

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

Abstract – Shape optimization of aerofoil User specified minimum limits on

th
for aerodynamic analysis by changing the i gene.
the location of the maximum thickness Subscripts
has been carried out by Genetic i = Gene Index
Algorithm Optimization technique. j = Chromosome Index
NACA 0012 Symmetrical aerofoil was Superscripts
chosen as baseline aerofoil. Composite n = Population Index
Wing models have been fabricated from t = Temporary chromosome and gene
the optimized aerofoils. Microcontroller values obtained after initial selection and
has been designed and fabricated to before modification operator.
change the angle of attack. Effect of
aerofoil profile on the co-efficient of I Introduction
Lift, Drag, Moment, and Pressure at
subsonic Mach number and low angle of The aerofoil profile variation has
attack have been investigated by Panel deterministic effect on the aerodynamic

method using Mat Lab Program and
validated by experimental analysis.
Pressure and velocity distribution over
aerofoils have been simulated by
Computational Fluid Dynamic tool.
T
coefficients. New designs can be gleaned
with enhanced aerodynamic characteristics
from the standard aerofoil profile (NACA)
by Genetic Algorithm (GA). There is an
overabundance of aerofoil designs and

Keyword: Genetic
ES
Algorithm;
Symmetrical Aerofoil; Composite Wing;
families claimed right from the past till
today, and their effects have been used for
various purposes that suit the requirements
Microcontroller; Wind Tunnel; of flight. The ideal shape of an aerofoil
depends profoundly on the angle of attack,
Nomenclature Reynolds number, Mach number, surface
roughness, and air turbulence [1].
D = Drag Increasing the angle of attack increases the
L = Lift lift and drag also. High lift wings
L/D = Lift/Drag ratio
A
generally have a large convex curvature on
Cp = Co-efficient of Pressure the upper surface and a concave lower
CL = Co-efficient of Lift. curvature [2]. In this paper subsonic Mach
CD = Co-efficient of Drag. number and low angle of attack effects on
CM = Co-efficient of Moment. symmetrical aerofoils are considered.
F – Set of Scalar Objective Function.
IJ

= Set of Generations. Many research works have been

M= User specified vector with two undertaken with various constraints, such
elements that controls modification as on the aerofoil thickness, pitching
operators. moment, off-design performance and other
jth chromosome from nth GA unusual constraints [3-7]. The airfoil
generation. design method is threefold: first, for the
ith gene from the jth chromosome design of airfoils that fall outside the range
from the nth GA generation. of applicability of existing catalogs;
( ) Random number generator second, for the design of airfoils that more
which returns a random value between 0 exactly match the requirements of the
and 1. intended application; and third, for the
mpt = Pass through operator economic exploration of many airfoil
mrc = Random average cross over operator. concepts [8].
User specified maximum limits
th
on the i gene.

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 123

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Thicker aerofoil sections are good
at lower speeds of flight and weight
carrying applications. Thinner aerofoils
are suitable for higher speeds of flight.
The thickness of the aerofoil is one of the
geometric parameters of the aerofoil that
strongly affects the aerodynamic
characteristics. The thickness distribution
for an aerofoil affects the pressure
distribution and the character of the
boundary layer [9]. As the position of
maximum thickness moves aft of the
aerofoil, the velocity gradient decreases,
keeping the boundary layer flow to be
laminar for a longer time. Design
optimization of aerofoils has been carried
out by various methods and computational
techniques. [10-16]. The main feature of
this paper was to reveal the effect of
location of the maximum thickness from
aerodynamic characteristics.
ES
the leading edge of the aerofoil on the
II Genetic Algorithm for Airfoil Shape
Optimization
The genetic algorithm optimization
procedure adapted for airfoil shape
optimization is discretely described by the
design space using 35 decision variables
A
(control points), Gi. Each set of genes that
leads to the complete specification of an
individual airfoil profile is indicated by
( )… (1)
IJ
Real number encoding is used to represent
all genes. The population size considered
is 8. Each gene with each chromosome is
assigned with an initial real number value
by random number generation between
fixed upper and lower limits. The ith gene
in an arbitrary chromosome is computed
using
( )( ) …
(2)
The fitness function is denoted by
ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved.
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133
( ) …. (3)
The highest fitness function
chromosome is passed through the next
generation. In this paper two modification
operators-pass through, random average
cross over are used. The number of
chromosomes modified with each operator
is controlled by M vector. The vector
consists of 2 parameters
The value of each M vector element
ranges from 0 to 1. The first 50% of
chromosomes are modified using pass
through operator. The next 50% are
modified using random average cross
T
over. The chromosome with the highest
individual fitness value is passed to the
next generation. Thereby guaranteeing that
none of the maximum fitness valued
chromosomes will get dropped during GA
iteration. The random average cross over
operator is applied on randomly selected
two chromosomes from the population.
The gene by gene basis combination of the
two selected chromosomes is achieved by:
( )
….. (4)
The GA optimized aerofoil profiles are
shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: GA Optimized Aerofoil
profiles
Page 124
G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

III Wind Tunnel Model preparation,

Testing and Analysis

Using the eight optimized aerofoils

generated by GA, scaled wing models
having a chord of 15 cm and span of 21
cm have been fabricated with Balsa wood
reinforced by S fiber glass and epoxy
resins. The wing is a single spar multi rib
type having one spar and 4 ribs (one in the
root and tip chord and one at the mid Figure 5: Dimensions of Various Spars.
chord). Various cross section of spars
The skin is made of two layers.
used (I, C and Z) are shown in figure 2 to
5. First layer is 2mm balsa sheet and the
second layer is 1 mm fiber glass reinforced

T
with epoxy resins as shown in figure 6.

ES
Figure 2: C Section Spar Wing
Figure 6: Wing model with S Glass
Fiber and Epoxy Resin.
A
Pressure tapings are provided in
the mid chord for the investigation of the
pressure distribution over the wing model
as shown in figure 7. Load cells are used
to find the aerodynamic characteristics.
IJ

Figure 3: I Section Spar Wing

Figure 7: Wing model with Pressure

Figure 4: Z Section Spar Wing Tapping.

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 125

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

The cross section of wing model with I IV Results and Discussions

section spar is shown in figure 8.
The NACA 0012 aerofoil has been
optimized using GA by first considering
9999 chromosome as initial seed generated
by random number generator. Out of
which eight chromosomes have been
selected for first generation based on best
ranked fitness function. For next
generations two modification operators are
applied and a total of 19998 chromosomes
have been generated out of which best
eight chromosomes are selected based on
fitness function. The shape converged at
the end of 128th generation. From the

T
optimized last generation, eight aerofoils
Figure 8: Cross Section of Wing model have been chosen for the development of
with I Spar. composite material wing for the
experimental investigation.
The wing model coupled to the
ES
stepper motor drive shaft is held firmly to
the base plate of the test section of the low
speed wind tunnel. The angle of attack of
Effect of Aerofoil Shape on the Co-
efficient of Lift:

the model is controlled by microcontroller Table 1 presents the effect of aerofoil

with keypad and LED display board as shape on the Co-efficient of Lift for the
shown in figure 9. The angle of attack can Mach number ranges from 0.2 to 0.7 at an
be varied from 0 to 200 deg when the wind angle of attack of 3 deg.
tunnel is in operation.
Table 1: Co-efficient of Lift of
A
Optimized eight aerofoils at 3 deg angle
of Attack.
IJ

Figure 9: Microcontroller for changing It has been investigated that the CL

angle of attack dynamically. varies from 0.2992 to 0.383. It has been
observed that the CL increases as the Mach
number increases. For a particular
subsonic Mach number, CL varies with the
location of maximum thickness. Design 6

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 126

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
aerofoil generated an average of 1 % hike
of CL than the NACA 0012 for the Mach
number considered.
Effect of Aerofoil Shape on the Co-
efficient of Drag:
The effect of aerofoil shape on the Co-
efficient of Drag is presented in the table 2
for the Mach number from 0.2 to 0.7 at an
angle of attack of 3 deg.
Table 2: Co-efficient of Drag of
Optimized eight aerofoils at 3 deg. angle
of Attack.
ES
It has been investigated that the CD
increases as the Mach number increases.
For a particular subsonic Mach number,
A
CD varies with the location of maximum
thickness. It has been observed that the
Design 6 aerofoil developed 26%
reduction in drag than NACA 0012
aerofoil at 0.7 Mach number due to the
shifting of transition point towards the
IJ
trailing edge. Graph 1 presents CL vs.CD
of eight aerofoils at 3 deg angle of attack.
Graph 1: Cl vs. Cd of eight aerofoils at
3 deg angle of attack.
ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved.
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133
Effect of Aerofoil Shape on Lift/Drag
ratio:
Table 3 presents the effect of aerofoil
shape on the L/D ratio for the Mach
number from 0.2 to 0.7 at an angle of
attack of 3 deg.
Table 3: Lift/Drag of Optimized eight
Aerofoils at 3 deg. angle of Attack
T
It has been investigated that the L/D
ratio varies from 7.66 to 30.32. It has been
observed that the L/D ratio decreases as
the Mach number increases. For a
particular subsonic Mach number, L/D
ratio varies with the location of maximum
thickness. It has been observed that the
Design 6 aerofoil developed 28% hike of
L/D ratio than NACA 0012 at 0.4 Mach
number and 3 deg angle of attack.
Effect of Aerofoil Shape on Pitching
Moment:
Table 4 presents the Moment Co-
efficient of optimized aerofoils at 0.2
Mach number. It has been observed that
the moment coefficient varies severely as
the angle of attack increases. Even though
the Design 6 developed better lift and
drag, it fails to maintain stability due to
much variation in the moment as the angle
of attack increases. It has been observed
that the Design 2 aerofoil has better
stability than the NACA 0012 aerofoil at
0.2 Mach speed.
Page 127
G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

Table 4: Moment Co-efficient of eight

aerofoils at 0.2 Mach number.

Graph 3: Differentiate Pressure vs.

T
Mach number of eight aerofoils at 3 deg
angle of attack.

Graph 2 presents the variation of Cm It has been observed that the design
with respect to angle of attack at 0.2 6 aerofoil developed highest differential
Mach.
ES pressure than NACA 0012 up to 0.4 Mach.
Also it has been observed that the Design
6 has severe pressure fluctuation at higher
Mach number due to instability of
transition point caused by pitching
moments.

Pressure and Velocity Distribution over

Aerofoil:
A
The shape of the pressure
distribution graph is directly related to the
airfoil performance as indicated by some
of the features like the adverse pressure
gradients leading to flow transition,
separation and a minimum Cp. The Cp
IJ

Graph 2: Cm vs. Angle of Attack at 0.2

Mach number. variation along the chord of optimized
aerofoils is plotted in the graph 4 to 12.
Effect of Aerofoil Shape on Differential The pressure and velocity distribution over
Pressure: optimized aerofoils are shown in the figure
10 to 15.
Variation of differential pressure with
Mach number at 2 deg angle of attack is
shown in the graph 3.

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 128

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

Graph 4: Cp vs. x/c of NACA 0012 Graph 7: Cp vs. x/c of Design 3 Aerofoil
Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg angle of
angle of attack attack

T
ES
Graph 8: Cp vs. x/c of Design 4 Aerofoil
Graph 5: Cp vs. x/c of Design 1 Aerofoil
at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg angle of
at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg angle of
attack
attack
A
IJ

Graph 6: Cp vs. x/c of Design 2 Aerofoil Graph 9: Cp vs. x/c of Design 5 Aerofoil
at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg angle of at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg angle of
attack. attack

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 129

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

Figure 10: Pressure Distribution over

Graph 10: Cp vs. x/c of Design 6 Design 1 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2
Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg and 2 deg angle of attack.
angle of attack.

T
ES
Graph 11: Cp vs. x/c of Design 7 Figure 11: Velocity Distribution over
Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg Design 1 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2
angle of attack and 2 deg angle of attack.
A
IJ

Graph 12: Cp vs. x/c of Design 8

Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 and 2 deg
angle of attack Figure 12: Pressure Distribution over
Design 2 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2
and 2 deg angle of attack.

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 130

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

have been developed for wind tunnel

Figure 13: Velocity Distribution over
Design 2 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2
and 2 deg angle of attack.
testing using Composite material.
Microcontroller has been designed and
fabricated to vary the angle of attack of the
aerofoil. Mat Lab program has been
developed for finding the aerodynamic
characteristics of aerofoils. Pressure and
velocity distribution simulation over
aerofoil profiles have been achieved by
using Computational Fluid Dynamic Tool.
The following are the various
observations made in the experimental
investigation of optimized aerofoils.

T
 Design 6 aerofoil generated an
average of 1 % hike of CL than the
NACA 0012 for the Mach number
and angle of attack considered for
the investigation.
ES  Design 6 aerofoil developed 26%
reduction in drag than NACA 0012
aerofoil at 0.7 Mach number and 3
deg angle of attack due to the
Figure 14: Pressure Distribution over shifting of transition point towards
Design 3 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 the trailing edge.
and 2 deg angle of attack.  Design 6 aerofoil developed 28%
hike of L/D ratio than NACA 0012
at 0.4 Mach number and 3 deg
A
angle of attack.
 Even though the Design 6
developed better lift and drag, it
fails to maintain stability due to
much variation in the moment as
the angle of attack increases.
IJ

Design 2 aerofoil has better

stability than the NACA 0012
aerofoil at 0.2 Mach speed and 3
deg angle of attack.
Figure 15: Velocity Distribution over  Design 6 aerofoil developed
Design 3 Aerofoil at Mach number 0.2 highest differential pressure than
NACA 0012 up to 0.4 Mach. It has
and 2 deg angle of attack
severe pressure fluctuation at
higher Mach number due to
V Conclusion
instability of transition point
In this paper, eight aerofoils have caused by pitching moments.
been developed for experimental
investigation by Genetic Algorithm
Optimization technique. Wing models

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 131

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

References Airfoils as Tested in the Variable Density

Wind Tunnel”, T.R. No. 352, N.A.C.A.,
1930.
[1] P. B. S. Lissaman, “Low [11] M Drela and M B Giles, “Viscous
Reynolds Number Aerofoils ”, Inviscid Analysis of Transonic and
Annual review of Fluid Low Reynolds Number Airfoils”,
Mechanics, Vol 15, pages AIAA Journal, Vol.25, Issue 10,
223- 239, January 1983, Pages 1347-1355
AeroVironment Inc., [12] S. Goel, J.I.Cofer, and H.Singh,
California, “Turbine Airfoil Design
[2] The Pilot’s Handbook of Optimization”, In Proceedings of
Aeronautical Knowledge by The International Gas Turbine and
Paul E Illman, pages 220- Aero Engine Congress and
248, 2008 Exposition, Bermingham, UK,
[3] P.A. Henne, “Applied June 1996

T
Computational Aerodynamics”, [13] D.H.Huddleston and CW Mastin
Progress in AIAA series, pages “Optimization Methods Applied to
434-440, 1990, Douglas Aircraft Aerodynamic Design Problems in
Company. Computational Fluid Dynamics”,
[4] Higgins, George J.: The in Proceedings of the 7th
Prediction of
ES
Airfoil
Characteristics. T.R. No. 312,
N.A.C.A., 1929.
International Conference
Finite Element
Fluid Flow, Huntsville,
of
Methods in
Ala,
[5] Knight, Montgomery, and Harris, USA, 1989
Thomas A.: Experimental [14] A. Jameson, “Optimum
Determination of Jet Boundary Aerodynamic Design using Control
Corrections for Airfoil Tests in Theory”, Computational Fluid
Four Open Wind Tunnel Jets of Dynamics Review, Vol.3, Pages
Different Shapes. T.R. No. 361, 495-528, 1995
N.A.C.A., 1930. [15] C Sung and JH Kwon,
A
[6] Jacobs, Eastman N.: The “Aerodynamic Design
Aerodynamic Characteristics of Optimization Using the Navier-
Eight Very Thick Airfoils from Stokes and Adjoined
Tests in the Variable- Density Equations”, AIAA Paper
Wind Tunnel. T.R. No. 391, 2001-0266
IJ

N.A.C.A., 1931. [16] B Mialon, T Fol and C Bonnaud, “

[7] Theodorsen, Theodore: On the Optimization of High Subsonic
Theory of Wing Sections with Blended Wing Body
Particular Reference to the Lift Configurations”, AIAA Paper
Distribution. T.R. No. 383, 2002- 5666.
N.A.C.A., 1931.
[8] “Subsonic airfoil design – A G. Manikandan was born
historical background”, NACA on 12th January 1969 from
Report to Congress of US. the famous big temple city
[9] Aerodynamics for Engineers, 5th Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
edition, John J.Bertin, pages 120- He obtained his
147, 2008. Engineering Graduation
[10] Jacobs, Eastman N., and Anderson, (Mech) in the year 1994
Raymond F, “ Large Scale Aero- from Institution of Engineers (India),
dynamic Characteristics of Calcutta and M.Tech (CAD/CAM) in the

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 132

G MANIKANDAN et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Vol No. 3, Issue No. 2, 122 - 133

year 2002 from JNTU, Hyderabad. He put

up 16 years of colorful service in Indian
Air Force. In his credit, he overhauled 365
Rolls Royce Viper Turbojet Engine fitted
on Kiran Aircraft and Carried out
Structural Repairs and maintenance of
Cheetah and Chetak helicopters and Kiran
aircraft. He was team leader for several
Structural re-fabrications of Ardhra and
Rohini Gliders. He developed number of
Un-manned Aerial Vehicles (UAV).
Presently, his contributions are in the area
of aerofoil shape optimization and flutter
analysis. He was awarded best in trade
and all-rounder for Kiran Aircraft in the

T
year 2000.

M. Ananda Rao obtained

B.E (Mech) in 1968,
M.Tech (Machine Design)
in 1970 and M.Tech
ES
(Industrial Engg) in 1984.
He was awarded PhD from
IIT, Madras in the area of “Machine
Dynamics” in the year 1987. He worked
over 33 years in Andhra University at
various capacities. He worked in the Link
Interchange Program with UK Universities
for about 03 years sponsored by British
Council and Government of India. He
A
published more than 200 papers in
International Journals and more than 50
papers in International and National
Conferences. He was awarded three times
“The Best Researcher Award” in the year
IJ

1992, 1999 and 2001. He worked as a

technical adviser for Altair Company for
the development of software in the domain
of solvers. He is one of the renowned
researchers in the area of Vibration and
Condition Monitoring in the World. He
was the nucleus in the starting of
Condition Monitoring Society of India.

ISSN: 2230-7818 @ 2011 http://www.ijaest.iserp.org. All rights Reserved. Page 133