7.

Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time,

and learners should practise examples of each one before
going on to another.

Language learning is not linear. As learners are incorporating new

information about the language into their own system of rules about
the language, they may temporarily forget something they knew and
then recover it at a later date.

8. Teachers should teach simple language structures before

complex ones.

Research shows that certain language structures are acquired before

others no matter the order in which it was presented to the learner.
This suggests a teacher does not need to limit a learners’ exposure to
certain linguistic structures that are thought of as being ‘simple.’

Research also shows that teachers intuitively increase the complexity

of their language as the learner’s proficiency increases and it is
important that the teacher us

adapted from “How Languages are Learned” Lightbown and Spada, Oxford
University Press, 1993.e the language they are teaching.

http://www.retsd-conted.com/how_we_do_things_here/%27Introduction/IV-i-How
%20Do%20Adults%20Learn%20a%20Second%20Language.htm

Second Language Acquisition

Teaching is an art, not a science.

Before taking the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) course at UTSA, I believed that
there were specific things to learn about language acquisition, and once learned, I'd be
able to make all the right pedagogical decisions to lead my students to success. After
taking the SLA course, I believe that teaching language is an art not a science. There is
no one, correct answer that will be applicable to any given situation. There is no one
theory that explains acquisition. In fact there's so much more research to be done!

As an art, one must try different approaches or combination of approaches in order to

achieve one's goals. Each student presents a unique personality with a variety of skills.
The teacher who is open-minded and well-informed will be able to teach that student far
more than the teacher who is limited in approach or energy.

Following are some explanations of folk beliefs about SLA.

This summary is based on Lightbown and Spada (1999).
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
Imitation is used in language to learn pronunciation and intonation. It is used while one is
learning new words or structures. Then the knowledge is applied creatively in non-
imitated ways.

2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
Most parents correct on meaning rather than grammar (form). Children tend to pick-up
form without explicit correction or feedback. However, without feedback, certain errors
will be repeated.

3. People with high IQ's are good language learners.

People with high IQs tend to do well on grammar and vocabulary tests. However, a wide
variety of individuals can be successful with acquisition through interactive language use.

4. The most important factor in second language acquisition success is motivation.

Motivation is important, but equally important is the difference in learning aptitudes and
how instruction interacts with individual learner styles and preferences for learning.

5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the
likelihood of success in learning.
For native pronunciation, yes. However, beware of subtractive bilingualism. A strong L1
is very important to overall confidence and academic achievement. Students who are
speaking two languages need sensitive instructors. Foreign language is better to start at
age 10.

6. Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to
interference from their first language.
Yes, errors in transfer of patterns from the native language is a source of errors. Also, an
overgeneralizing the rules of the target language is more often a cause of errors. Learners
from different languages tend to overgeneralize the same target language rules
(backsliding). Some L1 to L2 rules are hard to overcome and are reinforced by learners
who make the same errors.

7. Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time, and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another.
Language learning is not linear in its development. It's a process of integrating new rules
into an existing system of rules, readjusting, and restructuring until all the pieces fit. One
must allow students to compare and contrast different aspects of the language in order to
learn.

8. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.

Certain language structures will be learned before others regardless of presentation.
However, modified speech, with the exclusion of complex forms, does assist students'
learning. Don't omit completely any aspect of language based on complexity or you'll
have a gap in the learning.
9. Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent
the formation of bad habits.
Making errors while learning language is natural. Errors reveal learners' developing
interlanguage (overgeneralization of L2 rule or transfer of L1 rule/aspect to L2). There's
an art to correction taking into consideration the level of students (analyzing rules vs.
acquisition), expression opportunity, etc. Don't correct while people are communicating.
(Good to correct errors that never go away, however.) A good technique is
"conversational recast." (This means repeating back what you heard but in the correct
grammar or pronunciation, etc.).

10. Teachers should use materials that expose students only to language structures
which they have already been taught.
Use real and authentic materials to maintain motivation. These will deal with aspects
which are beyond the student's current level. That's okay. Also okay to focus on one
lesson during the lesson and using such focused materials. Krashen says Level +1.

11. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example in group or pair
activities), they learn each other's mistakes.
Group practice is far better for acquisition than teacher-centered class. Learners don't
make any more errors than normal speaking with similar level learners and don't make
much progress in error correction either. Access to the correct language forms while
working in similar level groups is essential.

12. Student learn what they are taught.

Students do not necessarily acquire what is taught. They learn in stages. That being said,
they also learn through self-discovery that which was never officially "taught."

Conclusion:
1. Focus on experiences in teaching. Learn from your own experiences.
2. Focus on the personal characteristics of the learners.
3. Be aware of the L1 and L2 structures.
4. Learners need opportunities to interact with L2 speakers.
5. Learners need access to correction and form-focused instruction.

Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned (Revised Ed.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

SURVEY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING BELIEFS

Purpose of this activity: To think about our own beliefs and experiences regarding language learning
because they influence how we interact with international students in libraries. Becoming aware of them
can lead to better communication exchanges.
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation. Imitation plays a role but it is not the only factor
because people come up with all kinds of new utterances that they make up themselves rather than repeat
from others.

2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical mistakes. Parents tend to correct
for meaning, and generally only correct a particular form if it interferes with communication.

3. People with high IQs are good language learners. This is true mainly in classroom settings where
students learn about a language. In real settings, people of all abilities can be successful language learners.

4. The most important factor in second language acquisition is motivation. Not necessarily. Motivated
students can learn more, but motivation may be influenced both negatively and positively by aptitude,
whether or not a student feels successful, and through interactions with others.

5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in
learning. Yes, if the goal is native-like proficiency. If the goal is effective communication with native
speakers, another language may be learned successfully at any age.

6. Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to interference from their first
language. This is a possible factor, but not the only one. Often the same mistakes are made in English by
speakers of many different first languages.

7. Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time, and learners should practice examples of each
one before going on to another. Language learning is not linear. Language learners need to fit new rules
into the existing system of rules by constantly readjusting and restructuring what they already know.

8. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones. No matter in what order
language structures are presented, certain structures are acquired before others.

9. Learners’ errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad
habits. Errors are a necessary part of language learning. A correction may only be useful if the learner is
developmentally ready to understand it at a particular point in time.

10. Teachers should use materials that expose students only to language structures which they have already
been taught. Students need to be challenged at a level appropriate to their development (too little and they
get bored, too much and they get frustrated). Exposure to authentic material helps students more
successfully learn English.

11. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair activities), they learn each
others’ mistakes. Second language learners do not make any more mistakes when talking to other students
at or below their own proficiency level than they do when talking with native speakers.

12. Students learn what they are taught. No. Students do not learn everything they are taught and often
learn much that they are not taught.

Adapted from Lightbrown, P.M. & Spada, N. (1998). How languages are learned. New York: Oxford
University Press, pp. 111-116.