Will / Might

Expressing degrees of certainty

Present & Future Uncertainty

VERY CERTAIN UNCERTAIN UNCERTAIN NEGATIVE

Use will or (be) going + verb Use may, might or an

Use may, might, could
to express certainty about a expression of doubt to indicate
to express uncertainty, a
future activity or event: uncertainty about (likelihood
guess, about a future
make a predition, of) a future activity or event
activity, event.
calculation. occurring.

Polar bears will disappear. Polar bears may Polar bears may / might not
certainly disappear. possibly disappear. possibly not

Polar bears are going to Polar bears might It is doubtful that polar bears
disappear. certainly disappear. possibly will disappear. possibly not

Polar bears can / could It is unlikely that polar bears

disappear. potentially will disappear. possibly not

The speaker is 100 % certain that they The speaker is uncertain they will not
The speaker is uncertain they will
will disappear. disappear.
disappear.

guess (n.) – an attempt to answer a question or make a judgement when not sure whether it is correct
potentially (adv) – something that may become true in the future under the right (or wrong) conditions

Past Uncertainty

VERY CERTAIN - UNCERTAIN - UNCERTAIN NEGATIVE -

Reflection Speculation Speculation

Use past tense to Use may, might, could to Use may have, might have or an
comment with express uncertainty, a expression of doubt to express
certainty on a past guess, about the occurence uncertainty about the occurence
activity or event. of a past activity or event. of a past activity or event.

Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs may have died They may not have had
disappeared due to a
from disease resistance to disease.
meteor strike.

Dinosaurs died due to

Dinosaurs might have died They might not have had
a global weather
from starvation. enough to eat.
changes.

Dinosaurs could have died

They might not have had
from cosmic radiation.
shelter from radiation.

reflection (n.) – remembering the past

speculation (n.) – an educated guess
resistence (n.) – ability to fight off

Sentence Types
Word Order

TAG
SENT TYPE AUX VERB SUBJECT MODAL VERB BASE
CLAUSE

STATEMENT
Polar
possibility might disappear.
bears

Polar
possibility may disappear.
bears

Polar
possibility could disappear.
bears

QUESTION
Polar
potentially Could disappear?
bears

Polar
— *Might disappear?
bears

Polar
— *May disappear?
bears

Is it
Polar
possibility possible will disappear?
bears
that

TAG
QUESTION Polar might disappear, might they
 — bears not?

Polar *may they

— may disappear,
bears not?

possibility / Polar could n't

could disappear,
potential bears they?

possibility / It possible Polar

will disappear, isn't it?
potential that bears

NEGATIVE
Polar
possibly not might not disappear.
bears

Polar
possibly not may not disappear.
bears

Polar
potentially not could not disappear.
bears

It is doubtful
that Polar
possibly not will disappear.
It is unlikely bears
that

PAST
past possibility Scientists might have predicted this.

past possibility Scientists may have predicted this.

(but they didn't.)

lost opportunity Scientists could have predicted this.

NEG. PAST
might not
past possibility Scientists predicted this.
have

may not
past possibility Scientists predicted this.
have

could not
an impossibility Scientists predicted this.
have

W / ADVERB
possibility / might lose this
We
potential suddenly species.

possibility / may lose this

We
potential eventually species.

possibility / lose this

We could also
potential species.

possibility / It is we will soon lose this

potential possible species.
that
 Possibly,

*awkward sounding
A tag question can also occur with a negative main sentence and a postive final
question: Polar bears couldn't disappear, could they? And so / too (tag questions)

Will / Be going to
Expressing intent vs. prediction

Be going vs. Will

BE GOING – NEAR FUTURE (current time WILL – DISTANT FUTURE (future

frame) time frame)

Use the present tense [be] going before an
infinitive verb to+verb to talk about a future activity
or event that is within the speaker's present time
frame (current reality.) Be going is used informally
and mostly in conversation. It is especially
common when talking about near-future
intentions. "I can almost see it happening."
Use will to talk about what we think,
guess, calculate, know or predict will
happen at a later time from our
"current reality". Will is commonly
used for stating information,
predictions, calculations, or
schedules.

I am going to text Brad the news right now. in I'll call Brad tomorrow with the news
the near future, just after now tomorrow. scheduled in future

Brad won't believe what

Brad isn't going to believe what just
happened . a guess about Brad's
happened. near future, current time frame
future state of mind

Jason is going to break up with his girlfriend Jason will break up with his
after school today. near future, current time girlfirend next week. a prediction
frame about a future event

Jill is going to be so surprised. near future, Jill will be surprised. a prediction

current time frame about Jill's future state of mind

I wonder how he will say it to her. a

I wonder how he's going to say it to her.
guess about a future activity

She will find another boyfriend

She's going to be so upset. immediately after
quickly. a prediction about the future
he tells her, I can almost see it happening.

break up (v.) – end a romantic relationship

doubt (v.) – think that something may not be true or that it is unlikely
time frame (n.) – a period of time during which something takes place
 Within another clause

BE GOING + INFINITIVE I HOPE THAT – WILL

In informal writing and We switch to will if the clause is placed within

conversation, we state intent another clause stating opinion: I think..., We hope...,
using be going to+verb. They believe ..., and so on. Mental States

I hope that you are going to buy a new cell

I am going to buy a new cell
phone. not used after an opinion word
phone . cell / mobile
I hope that you will buy a new cell phone.

We are going to get a better I think that you will get a better service
service agreement. agreement.

We are going to stop paying

I doubt that you will avoid paying extra service
these extra service charges.
charges. avoid (v.) – stop

service provider (n.) – a company such as a telephone, Internet or television cable company that offers
you a service

Commonly Confused
Similar Sentence Structures

Intent vs. Purpose

BE GOING + INFINITIVE – INTENT VERB + INFINITIVE – PURPOSE

In contrast, these examples with be

Note that these examples with be going
going state an activity that the person is
to+verb state an activity that the person is
about to do, and they include a purpose or
about to do. (ready, near future) Each
reason for an activity (in order) to+verb.
sentence is similar, but slightly different
Using in order is optional before the reason
from the sentence to the right.
phrase.

What do you intend to do? Why are you going there?

I am going to buy a new cell phone I am going downtown (in order) to buy a
downtown. new mobile phone.

We are going to get a better service I am going there (in order) to get a better
agreement there. service agreement.

Common Mistakes
 ERROR FIX
We are going to go to the movies. / We We are going to the movies. Not incorrect, but
are going to come home soon. go / we don't often use going to with go or come.
come We are coming home soon.

I hope that you will get a better car. Not

I hope that you are going to get a incorrect, but we more commonly use will in a clause
better car. within another clause after that.

I'll let you know when we are going to I'll let you know when we get there. After
get there. with special adverbs when, we use the simple present tense. Adv of
Sequence

Sentence Structure
Word Order

AUXILIARY AUXILIARY VERB INFINITIVE TAG

SUBJECT
VERB VERB BASE PHRASE CLAUSE
STATEMENT
intent They will return.

scheduled They are returning.

intent /
They are going to return.
scheduled

QUESTION
intent Will they return.

scheduled Are they returning.

intent /
Are they going to return.
scheduled

TAG
QUESTION won't
They will return,
intent they?

aren't
scheduled They are returning,
they?

intent / aren't
They are going to return,
scheduled they?

NEGATIVE
 intent They won't return.

scheduled They aren't returning.

intent /
They aren't going to return.
scheduled

W / ADVERB
intent They will finally return.

scheduled They are also returning.

intent /
They are really going to return.
scheduled

A tag question can also occur with a negative main sentence and a postive final question: They won't
return, will they? Related page: And so / too

Will / Would
Expressing intent and refusal

Intent – Present versus Past

FUTURE INTENT - WILL PAST PERSPECTIVE – WOULD

We use will to express determination to do
something (volition).Using will for intent
indicates the person will take action to
cause something to happen. In the
negative form, intent becomes refusal.
When talking about intent in the past, we
use would in the clause and place it within a
past tense clause beginning with words
such as: I thought... We hoped... They
believed.. and other verbs of cognition.

I will win this singing contest! I am I would win that contest.

determined to do so. I thought that I would win that contest.

I will make judges want to vote for me. I I hoped that they would want to vote for
am determined to get them to vote for me. me, but they didn't.

We won't give up! We are determined not to

I knew that we wouldn't give up.
quit. (refusal)

I will impress the judges. I am determined to I expected that I would impress the
do so. judges.

I thought that I would do better than I

I will do the better! I am determined to do so.
did.

impress (v.) – make others think favorably about someone or something

 Refusal – Present versus Past

WILL NOT / WON'T WOULD NOT / WOULDN'T

We use will not or won't to express determination to do

We use wouldn't to state
something (volition). In the negative form, intent becomes
refusal in a past time frame.
refusal.

The judges wouldn't vote

The judges won't vote for me. They refuse.
for me. They refused.

They wouldn't let me sing

They won't let me sing another song. They refuse.
another song. They refused.

I wouldn't leave the stage.

I won't leave the stage. I refuse.
I refused.

Related pages: Would ( preference, request, habit, excuse) | Would vs Used to (habits) Would
(hypothetical)
Would
Stating preference, request, habit or excuse

Preference vs. Request

PREFERENCE - DESIRE REQUEST

Would you rather X than Y? or Would you Would you or Would you mind (if) is
rather X or Y? is used to state a preference. used to make a request.

I would rather have my breakfast outside Would you like having breakfast
than inside. outside? (Also: Would you like to have…)

Would you suggest some wine to go

We would rather eat fish tonight than meat.
with our fish dish?

I would rather smoke indoors than outdoors. Would you mind if I smoke inside?

Would you mind not smoking in

I would rather you smoke outdoors than
here? (expression followed by a
indoors.
gerund)

I would rather you not smoke here. Would you not do that please.

We would rather have our coffee before Would you please bring me some
than after our dessert. coffee.
 Past Activity vs. Habit

PAST ACTIVITY FORMER HABIT - WOULD (USE TO)

The past tense is used to talk about a Would or used to is used to talk about a
past activity or habit. discontinued habit.

I spent hours smoking. I would spend hours smoking.

I would hide my smoking habit whenever

I hid my smoking habit.
somebody asked.
I used to smoke. / I would smoke

See Past Habits (would vs. used to)

Should / Should have

Expressing expectation, convention or advice

Expectation

SHOULD WILL

Will can also be used for an expected,

Should is used for a logical assumption or
predicted or scheduled event (Also see
expectation.
intent, certain prediciton.)

The movie should be available next The movie will be available next week.
week. (This is what I expect.)

It's noon. The mailman should be here It's noon. The mailman will be here any
any minute. minute.

Movie fans should be excited to see the Movie fans will be excited to see the
James Bond movie. James Bond movie.

Convention

SHOULD (BE) SUPPOSED TO

 Should is used to indicate a cultural Supposed to is also used to indicate a
expectation or norm for behavior. cultural expectation or norm for behavior.

People are supposed to be honest and

People should be honest and not steal
not steal creative work.(ethical
creative work.(ethical convention)
convention)

People shouldn't talk on cell phones People aren't supposed to talk on cell
during movies. (convention) phones during movies. (convention)

Should we wear black pants to work? Are we supposed to wear black pants to
(convention) work?(convention)

Options or Advice

SHOULD OUGHT TO

Should is used for giving options (choices) Ought to is also used for giving options
or advice. (choices) or advice.

You should try ordering your movies You ought to try ordering your movies
online.(option) online.(option)

He should ask one of his professors for a He ought to ask one of his professors for
recommendation. (option) a recommendation. (option)

She shouldn't talk on her cell phone

She ought not to talk on her cell phone
when she's with you. (advice)
when she's with you. (advice)

Also see: Should/Could have | Should have / Must have

Past Tense – Should have

Expectation Not Met

Failure to Meet Expectation

SHOULD HAVE WOULD HAVE

Should have is used for an expectation that Would have is used for a failed
was not met. effort followed by an excuse.

The movie should have been available The movie would have been available
last week. (but it wasn't) last week, but the stores ran out of it.
The mailman should have been there an The mailman would have been there an
hour earlier. (but he wasn't) hour earlier, but he stopped for lunch.

Students should have been nervous Students would have been nervous
about taking their exams last week. (but about taking their exams, but they were
they weren't) well prepared.

Failure to Follow a Convention

SHOULD HAVE (WERE / WAS ) SUPPOSED TO

Should have indicates a failure to meet a Was supposed to indicates a failure to

cultural expectation on a specific meet a cultural expectation on a specific
occasion. occasion.

People should have been honest.(but People were supposed to be honest.(but

they weren't) they weren't)

People shouldn't have talked on cell People weren't supposed to talk on cell
phones during meetings. (but they did!) phones during meetings. (they did)

We should have worn black pants to Were we supposed to wear black pants
work. (but we did.) to work?(we didn't )

Advice that Comes Too Late

SHOULD HAVE OUGHT TO HAVE

Ought to have is also for advice given too

Should have is for advice given too late –
late – after a specific event has already
after a specific event has already occurred.
occurred.

You should have tried ordering your You ought to have tried ordering your
movies online. (but you didn't) movies online.(but you didn't)

He should have asked one of his He ought to have asked one of his
professors for a recommendation.(but he professors for a recommendation.(but he
didn't) didn't)

She shouldn't have talked on her cell She ought not to have talked on her cell
phone when she was with you. (but she phone when she was with you.(but she
did) did)

Could / Should
Offering options and advice
 Offering Help vs. Giving Advice

COULD SHOULD

Could states an option or a suggestion – Should states advice, a stronger suggestion

other options to try. - the best option to do.

"I lost my wallet. What am I going to

do?"
"Well, you could . . .
"I lost my wallet. What am I going to do?"
1. go back to the last place you saw
You should . . .
it.
1. cancel your credit cards.
2. check the lost and found.
2. notify the campus police.
3. remember where you went today.
4. search your house and car.

Advice That Comes Too Late

COULD HAVE SHOULD HAVE

Could have states past options, suggestions, Should have states advice about
or solutions that were not taken or done. The something in the past. The person
person states them too late to act upon. states them too late to act upon them.

"My computer froze and I lost the project I

"My computer froze and I lost the
was working on!"
project I was working on!"

"You could have . . .

"You should have . . .
1. used auto-save
1. used auto-save
2. tried the escape key
2. tried the escape key
3. used a back-up drive or site
3. used a back-up drive or site

Also see Late Advice (conditional section)

a.k.a = also known as

Should / Must
Expressing advisability and necessity
 Present - Should vs. Must

SHOULD MUST

We use should to suggest something. "It is We use must to express a stronger point of
advisable to..." The modal should view. "We need to..." "We have to..." The
expresses opinion, one person's point of modal must also expresses opinion, one
view. person's point of view.

We should protect our environment. It We must protect our environment, or our

makes good sense. resources will disappear.

We should select cars that are more The car industry must change engines that
fuel-efficient. burn fossil fuels.

We should use re-usable bags when

Stores must give out recyclable plastic bags.
shopping.

Other Expressions

OUGHT TO / IT'S A GOOD

HAVE TO
IDEA

Use ought to or It was a good Use had to or needed to or It was necessary that ... for
idea to ... for past advice. past necessity. Use had to for actual past events.

I ought to install solar

We have to use more alternative energy sources.
panels on my roof.

You ought not to use your

Everyone had to save energy. (and they did.)
fireplace very often.

It's a good idea to leave

People have to make changes in their habits.
your car in your garage.

Past - Late Advice vs. Past Necessity

SHOULD HAVE * MUST HAVE

Use should have for advice given after the Use had to or needed to or It was necessary
event happened. "It was advisable, but did not that ... for past necessity. Use had to for
happen." The advice is hypothetical – what actual past events. Must have is used for
we would have done in a particular situation. making conclusions not for stating past
 necessity.

We must have protected our environment.

We should have protected our
(*Must have means conclusion not
environment. (but we didn't.)
necessity.)

We should selected cars that were

more fuel-efficient a long time ago. (but
we didn't.)

We should have banned the use of

plastic bags. (but we didn't.)

Other Past Expressions

OUGHT TO HAVE HAD TO

It was advisable, but did not happen. (Advice that

comes too late to use.)
It was necessary.

I ought to have installed solar panels on We needed to use more alternative

my roof. (but I didn't.) energy sources to save money.

You ought not to have put in a lawn in Everyone needed to save energy during
your yard. (grass) (but you didn't.) the hot summer.

It would have been a good idea to use It was necessary that we used plants
plants that didn't need much water. that required little water.

Must / Must have

Making guesses or conclusions

Guessing vs. Concluding

MIGHT HAVE MUST HAVE

An informed guess (conclusion, inference,

A guess based on a little information deduction) based on known details or
information.

She is alone. She has nothing but a glass of

She's sad. She might miss her absinthe (strong alcohol).
family or she might be disappointed.
She must be depressed.
 She is upset. Her boyfriend is not around
She looks upset. She might be anymore.
thinking about her love life.
She must have broken up with her boyfriend.

COMPARE

MUST – CONCLUSION MUST – NECESSITY

Must can be used when making a

Must can be used when stating opinion about
conclusion or inference based on known
what needs to be done.
details or information.

She must be upset. (I can see her We must ask her if we can do something to
facial expression.) help.

She told me that she had to break up with

boyfriend and to leave her alone. (The past
She must have had a bad experience.
tense of must is had to.)

Sentence Types
Word Order

SENT TYPE SUBJECT MODAL VERB BASE

STATEMENT
guess She might be upset.

inference She must be upset.

NEGATIVE
guess She might not be upset.

inference She must not be upset.

PAST
guess She might have been upset.

inference She must have been upset.

NEG. PAST
guess She might not have been upset.

inference She may not have been upset.

W / ADVERB
 been
guess She might really have upset.

inference She must truly have been upset.

Can / Could
Expressing ability

Can expresses four types of ability:

MANAGE TO, POTENTIAL
PHYSICAL ABILITY MENTAL ABILITY
SUCCEED IN ABILITY

The Internet can I was able to buy Most people can Contestants can
transfer video files onto an iphone after use computers to become famous
personal computers. saving for two submit their tax after appearing on
months. (a single past information. American Idol.
occurrence)

Also see May / Can (permission)

Physical Ability

CAN / COULD BE ABLE TO

Also, use (be) able to to indicate physical ability. Note

Use can or could (past tense) to
that the past tense forms, could vs. was able to may
indicate physical ability.
differ in meaning.

High-speed connections can

High-speed connections are able to download
download large music files
large video files in seconds.
quickly.

Dial-up (telephone) connections

Dial-up (telephone) connections were able to
could download music files
download music files slowly.
slowly.

Smart phones can connect to Smart phones are able to connect to the Internet.
 the Internet.

Older telephones could only call Older telephones were only able to call other
other telephones. telephones.

Manage to, Succeed in

COULD – multiple events or

WAS ABLE TO – single event
ongoing activity

Could is used for multiple occurrences Use be able to for a single occurrence, a moment
of ability or ongoing ability. Could is of completion or success; "He managed to pass his
not used for a moment of completion exams." (followed by an infinitive) "He succeeded
or success, a one-time event. in passing his exams." (followed by a gerund)

I practiced a lot during the winter.

By summer, I could drive pretty I practiced a lot during the winter. By summer, I
well. (habitual activity) was able to pass my driving exam. (single event)
I practiced a lot during the winter. I managed to get my driver's license/ licence. I
By summer, I could pass my succeeded in getting my driver's license / licence.
driving exam. (single event)

Through hard work and research,

they have made progress. Through hard work and excellent research, they
(continual activity) were able to find a cure for the disease.
Through hard work and research, They managed to find a cure. They succeeded in
they could find a cure for the finding a cure.
disease. (single event)

After saving for five years, they

were realizing their dreams. After saving for five years, they were able to buy
(continuous activity)
their own home. (single event)
After saving for five years, they
They managed to buy their own home. I
could buy their own home. (single
event) succeeded in buying my own home.

Eng-US: license (n./ v.) , Eng–Br: licence (n.)

Eng-US: practice (n./ v.) , Eng–Br: practise (v.)

Mental Ability

CAN / COULD KNOW HOW TO / KNEW HOW TO

Use can or could (past tense) to indicate Also, use know how to or knew how to (past
mental ability. tense) to indicate mental ability.

We know how to solve our economic

We can solve our economic problems.
problems.

Previously, we could solve our Previously, we knew how to solve our

economic problems economic problems.
 Engineers know how to design safer
Engineers can design safer buildings.
buildings.

Before the earthquake, engineers knew

Before the earthquake, engineers could
how to design safe buildings, but they
design safe buildings, but they didn't.
didn't.

Potential / Probable Effect

CAN / COULD HAVE POTENTIAL

Use can or could for the possibility that Use has / have the potential to for the
something will develop in a particular way, or possibility that something will develop
have a particular effect. (Could is used in past in a particular way, or have a particular
and present tense sentences.) effect.

Overspending can crash the economy of a Overspending has the potential to

country. (present tense) crash the economy of a country.

Overspending could crash the economy of a Overspending had the potential to

country. (present tense) crash the economy of a country. (past
tense)

Currently, people have the potential

Currently, people can become famous by
to become famous by appearing on
appearing on YouTube. (present tense)
YouTube. (present tense)

In the past, people had the potential

In the past, people could become famous by
to become famous by appearing on
appearing on television. (past tense)
television. (past tense)

May / Can
Requesting permission and suggesting

Permission

MORE FORMAL COMMON

Can is commonly used in speech to ask

Giving permission, making requests
permission. It is also more commonly used in
and offering suggestions require the
questions and negative sentences. See note
speaker to be aware of levels of
below regarding its usage both formally and
formality. Use may to ask permission.
informally.

May I smoke here? Can I smoke here?

You may use your cellphone in the You can use your cellphone in the restaurant
 restaurant patio. patio.
You may not go in there now. He's You cannot go in there now. He's busy.
busy. formal

Request

MORE FORMAL LESS FORMAL

Would or could to make a Will or can is used informally in speech to make a

request. request.

Would you please smoke Will you smoke outside please?

outside? Can you smoke outside please?
Would you mind smoking
outside please? I'd like you to smoke outside please. (would+like – Is
used by a person of authority)
Could you smoke outside
please?

Suggestion / Invitation

MORE FORMAL LESS FORMAL

Use let's, why don't we or how about to suggest or

Use shall or would you like to suggest
or invite someone to do something.
invite someone to do something in a less formal
situation.

Let's go outside?
Shall we go outside?
Why don't we go outside?
Would you like to go to a table
How about going outside?
outside?

NOTE: Using can for permission:

 can. (3) permission: In informal circumstances, since the second half of the 19c.,
can has often been used in contexts of permission where may had earlier been
obligatory: Can I speak with the Count? – Tennyson… But in any context where
politeness or formality are overriding considerations, may is the better word. May I
come and stay with you? —Fowler's Modern English Usage (126)
345. 1. permission: can / could more common Can and could are more common
than may and might, which are used in a formal style. Compare: Can I look at your
paper. Excuse me, may I look at your newspaper for a moment? There is an old
belief that may/might are more 'correct' than can/could in this case, but this does not
reflect normal usage.—Swan (345.1)
can, may 1. The use of can in a direct question to request permission is basically an
oral use. (Several examples are given for speech.)
Conclusion: The uses of can which request permission are seldom found in edited
prose. In general, this use of can belongs in speech, reported or fictional. In
negative statements, cannot and can't are much more frequently used than may not
and mayn't; use in negative contexts is seldom notice or criticized. —Merriam-
Webster's Dictionary of English Usage (218)
9-2 POLITE REQUESTS WITH "I" AS THE SUBJECT May and could I are used to
request permission. They are equally polite. Can I is used informally to request
permission, especially if the speaker is talking to someone s/he knows fairly well.
Can I is usually considered a little less polite than may I or could I. —Azar (152)

Modal Ageement
In mixed time frames

When using modals in complex sentences, the verb tenses need to adjust to the
intended time frames.

Connectors with Mixed Time Frames

CONNECTOR CLAUSE 1 - main verb CLAUSE 2 - adjusted time frame

Apple opened its iphone so that there would be more
so that
software to developers applications available.

that it would make the software

said that The company said
available.

that developers would make so many

that/which No one had any idea
useful applications.

Apple started advertising to who they believed would buy their

who
young people iphones and ipods.

If Apple had not made their then there would not be such amazing
if - then
application software available application development!
 Cause - Effect so that & because

1st CLAUSE: BE GOING TO 2nd CLAUSE: WILL

When using a complex sentence with two

The first clause tends to use be going
clauses, speakers vary their use of will and be
to and the second clause uses will.
going to.

Apple is going to release a new iphone/ipod so that they will do more amazing
operating system things.

People with older phones are going to update so that they will be able to take
their phones advantage of new features.

Because iphones and ipods are going to get

more people will want them.
even better

Restated Speech "said (that)"

QUOTED SPEECH RESTATED SPEECH

Adjust the time frame of the verb in the second

clause to the verb in the first clause

" We will lower the price of the

Apple said it would lower the price of the iphone.
iphone".

"We are going to bring you several Apple said it was going to bring several new
new features." features.

Apple said that 3G service would allow iphones

"3G service will allow iphone to to send data even faster.
send data even faster."

Noun clauses - "that" & "which" (the future as seen from the past)

PAST TENSE FUTURE PREDICTION

In 1984, the movie industry tried to block which it thought would decrease
Sony from selling VCRs, movie attendance .

that technology would proceed so

The music industry had no idea
rapidly.

who would be able to pirate music files

The music industry never predicted so easily.
 Conditional Sentences

CONDITION - A REAL SITUATION FUTURE PREDICTION

If Apple opens the iphone service then people will choose their own services
carrier to all, carriers.

If more people buy iphone then more engineers will develop applications
applications, for them.

If we have more choices,

then we will have more functionality.

CONDITION - AN IMAGINARY
FUTURE PREDICTION
SITUATION
If Apple had opened up the iphone then we would have chosen other service
service carrier earlier, carriers.

If Apple hadn't offered the then there wouldn't have been so many
application software to everyone, creative games and clever applications.

service carrier - phone company that provides voice and data service
Future Perfect
Making predictions

Prediction

INTENT A PREDICTION OF COMPLETION

Use will to express determination to do
something (volition). In the negative form,
intent becomes is refusal. Using will for
intent indicates the person will take action
to cause something to happen.
Use will have to indicate that something is
scheduled or predicted to be completed
before X time. Using will have for
scheduled events indicates the event will
happen as a matter of course.

Tomorrow, we will finish this By tomorrow, we will have finished our

project. (We are determined to do so.) project. (We predict we will be done.)

Tomorrow evening, we will present our

By evening, our clients will have seen
project to our clients.
our work.

clients (n.) – people or customers who request a service

Future Perfect Expressions

BY THE TIME IF

X will already be done when (by the time) Y

X will already be done if Y happens
happens
 We will have left the office by the time We will have left the office If you arrive
you arrive. after 5 p.m. (future hypothetical)

You would have found us goneif you had

we will have invented more efficient
come late. (hypothetical situation in the
cars by the year 2011.
past that did not happen - imaginary.)

Related page: By the time

Adverbs

FUTURE FUTURE PERFECT

Future perfect uses adverbs with exact

Future tense uses adverbs of time with
times in the future – the ending time at
indefinite or exact times in the future.
which the action will be completed.

• by the time
• tomorrow • by tomorrow
• tonight • by this time next week
• next week • by the year 2020
• next Saturday • (adverbs indicating a completion
• next month date)

Subject – Verb Agreement

SINGULAR PLURAL

will have + participle (not has) will have + participle

By tomorrow, I will have finished my

book.
By tomorrow, we will have finished our
By tomorrow, he will have finished his
books.
book.
By tomorrow, they will have finished
By tomorrow, she will have finished her
their books.
book.

Related page: Participle Review

Modal Review
 I will cut the hedge. / I would have cut the hedge.
Meanings in present and past tense

Do these modals mean the same in present and past tense?

will may can shall must

migh
would could should (had to)
t

In these sentences, the meaning is the same:

PRESENT PAST
He says that he will come He said that he would come late.
late. (intention) (intention)

He says that he may come late. He said that he might come late.
(possibility) (possibility)

He says that he can help. (ability) He said that he could help. (ability)

He says that we shall help them. He said that we should help them.
(obligation) (obligation)

In these sentences, the meaning is different:

PRESENT PAST
I could drive there. (potential option, possibility,
I can drive there. (ability)
ability)

I could have been a little late. (a guess,

I could be a little late. (possibility)
opportunity lost)

You may smoke

He might smoke here. (possibility)
here. (permission) See may/can

Shall we go in there? (invitation) Should we go in there? (caution)

 I will go jogging I would go jogging Tuesday. (past habit) but I
Tuesday. (intention) have an appointment. (excuse)

You must have eaten this. (conclusion)

You must eat this. (necessity)

Modals and Expressions

PRESENT PAST
FUTURE (from a past perspective)
He said that he would leave. Maybe he did.
FUTURE Maybe he didn't.
I will leave tonight. * He would have left, but his car was not
working. He didn't leave.
He is going to leave tonight. (intends
to) He said that he was going to leave. But he
didn't.
He leaves tonight. (as scheduled)
He said that he was going to leave, but he
didn't.

INVITATION
Shall we go into this restaurant?
INVITATION
Let's go into this restaurant.
Why don't we go into this restaurant.

REQUEST
Would you please close the door? REQUEST
Please close the door. / Do me a
favor and close the door.

PERMISSION
May I come in?
Can I come in?
PERMISSION
Could I come in?
He said that we could come in.
Might I come in? very formal
He said that we had permission to come in.
Do I have permission to come in?
He said that we were permitted to come in.
Am I permitted to come in?
Let me in. permission or demand

PHYSICAL ABILITY PHYSICAL ABILITY

She can run twenty six miles. She could run twenty-six miles always or
She is able to run twenty six miles. multiple events
Because she was naturally strong, she could
 lift 75 pounds.
She was able to run 26 miles. single- or
multiple events
After working out for six months, she was able
to lift 75 pounds. one-event

MENTAL ABILITY MENTAL ABILITY

She can solve that problem. She could solve that problem.
She knows how to solve that She knew how to solve that problem.
problem.

SUGGESTION
SUGGESTION
You could try a new method.
You could have tried a new method. but you
You should try a new method.
didn't.
Why don't you try a new method.
You should have tried a new method. but you
I suggest that you try a new method. didn't.

PREFERENCE
She would rather come today.
PREFERENCE
She would rather come today than
tomorrow. She would rather have come today than
tomorrow.
She prefers that you come today.

OPPORTUNITY LOST
OPPORTUNITY You could have gone with us if you had said
* You could go with us if you have something. but you didn't. (hypothetical)
time.

POSSIBILITY
He may be hurt. POSSIBILITY
He might be hurt. He may have been hurt.
He could behurt. He might have been hurt.
It is possible that he is hurt. He could have been hurt.
Possibly, he is hurt. It was possible that he was hurt.
Perhaps, he is hurt. Possibly, he was hurt.

ADVICE ADVICE TOO LATE

You should write to your family. You should have written to your family. but
You ought to write your family. you didn't. (hypothetical)
You ought not to write that to them. You ought to have written to your family.
You had better write your family. You ought not to have written to them.
 You'd better not do that.
It's a good idea to write your family
I am supposed to write to my family.
social expectation

NECESSITY
I must talk to you right away.
It is necessary that I talk to you
I have to talk to you.
I need to talk to you.
NECESSITY
I had to talk to you right away.
I needed to talk to you.
It was necessary that I talked to you.

EXPECTATION / PROBABILITY
EXPECTATION / PROBABILITY
His train should arrive soon.
His train should have arrived. but it didn't
I expect that his train will arrive soon. (hypothetical)
It is probable that his train will arrive I expected that his train would have arrived
soon. soon.

CONCLUSION
He is not at work. He must be sick.a
sure guess
CONCLUSION
He's not here, so I guess / believe /
He wasn't at work. He must have been sick.
think he is sick. a sure guess
I concluded that he was sick.
I conclude he is sick.

r.

Modals Practice
Means the Same!

Answer will appear

Practice 1

Which modal can complete the sentence and keep the same meaning? (Hold
the mouse button down on the modal to reveal answer.)
FILL IN THE
MODAL 1 MODAL 2 MODAL 3 MODAL 4 MODAL 5
BLANK
POSSIBILIT POSSIBILITY
POSSIBILITY POSSIBILITY POSSIBILITY POSSIBILITY
Y ?
? ? ? ?
It ____ be can
may might could shall
true.

ABILITY ABILITY?
ABILITY? ABILITY? ABILITY? ABILITY?
I _____ can
am able should could know how
drive.

SUGGESTO SUGGESTIO
SUGGESTIO SUGGESTIO SUGGESTIO SUGGESTIO
N N?
N? N? N? N?
_____ Would we
Will we Shall we Could we Can we
leave?

ADVICE ADVICE?
ADVICE? ADVICE? ADVICE? ADVICE?
You _____ should
ought to must need to had better
help him.

NECESSITY
NECESSITY?
You _____ NECESSITY? NECESSITY? NECESSITY? NECESSITY?
must
go to the might need to should have to
hospital.

CONCLUSI
CONCLUSIO
ON CONCLUSIO CONCLUSIO CONCLUSIO CONCLUSIO
N?
He _____ be N? N? N? N?
has to
crazy to do must will should ought to
that!

This page is not accessible to hand-held devices.

MODALS
Auto-Correcting Quiz

Review pages for quiz: Modal Summary

1. Select the answer the best completes the sentence. (15 questions)
2. The quiz auto-corrects after clicking the submit button. Answers will appear in a new
window. (Please disable your pop-up window blocker.)

Formun Üstü

1. Before this year, I __________ move out of my parents' house. I didn't have a job.

a. may not

b. cannot
 c. should not

d. could not

e. shall not

2. Living at home after going to college ___________ drive you and your parents
crazy.

a. could

b. would

c. should

d. would have

e. should have

3. If you don't use an agent, you ____________ not be able to find an apartment in
the city.

a. ought to

b. must

c. should

d. might

e. can

4. I couldn't sign a lease before I reached age 18, but now I ____________ . I am 21.

a. able

b. can

c. can able

d. can know

e. sign

5. When I was in college, I ____________ manage a job and my studies at the same
time.

a. must not
 b. might not

c. don't

d. couldn't

e. couldn't be able to

6. A friend said, "Next week, I will ____________ help you move."

a. am able to

b. can

c. could

d. going to

e. be able to

7. My friend said, " I ____________ help earlier in the morning than later in the
afternoon." (preference)

a. 'd better

b. 'd like

c. 'd have

d. 'd rather

e. would

8. My friend has a lot of books on his shelves. He __________ like to read a lot.
(conclusion)

a. must

b. will

c. can

d. ought to

e. have to

9. He told me that he _____________ and help me move, but he never did.

 a. would came

b. would have come

c. will come

d. would come

e. will have come

10. After trying for two years, yesterday, I ____________ lease a good apartment
with a view of the city. (managed to)

a. am able to

b. can

c. could

d. was able to

e. could have

11. My mother said, "In the city, you ___________ go out alone at night." I told her I
wouldn't .

a. must not

b. don't have to

c. couldn't

d. aren't able to

e. would not

12. In the city, everyone ______________ use public transportation to help ease
traffic and save energy.

a. must

b. is supposed to

c. has to

d. was able to

e. could have
13. When I rented a room in college, I ____________ my parents co-sign the lease.

a. must have

b. had to have

c. must have had

d. have to have

e. would have had

14. I could ____________ in the school dormitories, but they were too noisy.

a. have lived

b. has lived

c. lived

d. live

e. have been lived

15. Her family ___________ pleased when they found out she had gotten an
excellent job in the city.

a. must

b. must be

c. must have been

d. has to be

e. must been

Answers will appear in a new window. Turn your Pop-up Blocker off!
Formun Altı

MODAL ARTICLE
Identifying Modals In Context
 The Recording Industry vs. Music Pirates
Text of Article
Programs such as Napster and Gnutella allow you to download MP3 files from
other people's hard drives without paying a penny to the artist or entertainment
industry. With a Napster client such as Macster (or the Mac-compatible Furi client for
Gnutella) and a broadband Internet connection, Mac users can download an
album's worth of MP3 files in less than an hour. This leads us to the second factor:
high-speed Internet access.

The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), an industry group that

represents major record labels, filed suit against Napster. As we went to press, a
judge had decided not to dismiss the lawsuit against Napster, leaving open the
possibility of a trial.
How does this affect you?
It might put Napster out of business, and if you're a devoted Napster user, this is
certainly sad news. But Metallica's actions could bring the controversy closer to
home. The fact that Metallica was able to obtain the screen names of these users
should concern those who post and download files on Napster.

Should the recording industry wish to get personal and go after individuals--and you
engage in this kind of file trading--it's possible that you'll be taken to task
(prosecuted) for your actions.
Where will this all lead? While the recording industry should have seen this coming,
the fact is they didn't. Moving copyrighted files across the Internet is both easy to do
and easy to get away with--but it won't be for long. Though the RIAA and Metallica
aren't likely to start getting people who download an MP3 or two tossed into the
pokey, they will take steps other than prosecution to protect their rights and work.
This means that stricter copy-protection schemes will be introduced in the near
future. Yet this too is a short-term solution; though copy-protection measures will
surely reduce piracy, savvy people will find a way to skirt them. With this in mind,
the entertainment industry must eventually bow to the realities of this new wired
world, shift its current distribution model, and seek alternative means of
compensation--with actions such as advertising on online distribution centers,
offering "bonus" material that can be purchased only online, and streaming "pay to
play" content on demand.

PRACTICE
Recognizing the Verb Forms in Context
 1. What are the tenses of these modals (from the article above?)

Formun Üstü
# MODAL PHRASE CHECK ANSWER

1a
should concern hint1a

1b
can download hint1b

1c
was able to hint1c

1d
should have seen hint1d

# MODAL SENTENCE YOUR RESPONSE HINT

ability

know how
What is the meaning of this
modal?
2
Computer users can download an possibility
.
album's worth of MP3 files in less Hint 2
than 3 minutes.
potential

permission
 Is this modal phrase active or
passive? passive
3
"This means that stricter copy-
. Hint 3
protection schemes will be
active
introduced in the near future."

It is advisable that the

What is the meaning of the recording industry wish
modal phrase?
Should the recording industry
4 wish to get personal and go after It is predicted that the
. individuals--and you engage in this recording industry wishes Hint 4
kind of file trading--it's possible that
you'll be taken to task (prosecuted)
for your actions. If the recording industry
wishes . . .

are able to bring

Hint 5

What is the meaning of the know how to bring

5 modal phrase?
. Metallica's actions could bring the
controversy closer to home. possibly will bring

have the potential to bring

What modal phrase completes

the blank in the embedded
sentence?
QUOTE:"We will write stricter digital
will
copyright laws."
6 EMBEDDED SENTENCE:
. A few years ago when creating would Hint 6
digital copyright laws, the
legislators never dreamed they
_______ need to write stricter would have
digital copyright laws.

Formun Altı
 MODAL SUMMARY
Formun Üstü

partner-pub-6479 ISO-8859-1 Search

Search

w w w .grammar-q

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Diagnostic

• Quiz 1: beginning –
Modal Diagnostic Quiz: a intermediate
Modal tool to help you identify
• Quiz 2: intermediate –
Diagnostic specific points that need advanced
review

Degrees of Certainty

Will / Might: expressing

degrees of certainty
Will / • will
Polar bears will perish.
Might • may (100% certain)
• might They might not survive in
• could the arctic. (< 50% certainty)
• it is possible that

Intent – Future & Past

Will / Will / Would: expressing I will win this singing contest!

Would intent or refusal I thought that I would win
• will / would intent that contest.
• won't / wouldn't refusal The judges won't vote for
me. They refuse.
 The judges wouldn't vote for
me. They refused.

I am going to text Brad the

news.
Be going / Will : expressing I will call Jill tomorrow to
Be see how she is.
going / intent vs. prediction
Will We are going to go to the
• will
movies.
• be going [to + verb] We are going to come
home.

Scheduled Activities – Present & Future

Scheduled
Events: indicating planned
acitivites and events On Thursday, I assist the
librarian at the Public Library.
• present – stating (routine)
Calendar
reocurring or habitial Activities
activities I am working at the
Scheduled preschool on Wednesday.
• present continous – (near future, personal plan)
Events stating near future
personal plans I will get there around noon.
(scheduled/ estimated)
• future – stating
predictions,
information,
estimations or
calculations

Preference and Request

 Would: stating preference,
request, habit or excuse
• would you rather have X
or Y (preference)
• would you like
(preference)
Would
• would (used to)
• would you(request)
• would have(make an
excuse)
• would rather have (past
preference)
Would you like some coffee?
Would you rather have tea or
coffee?
On Sundays, we would visit
our relatives
I would have stopped
smoking, but it was too
difficult.
I would rather have found an
easy way out, but I didn't.

Expectation

The movie should be

Should & Should have:
available next week.
expressing expectation, The movie will be available
convention or advice next week. (expectation)
Should we wear black pants
• should (expectation) to work? (convention)
Should Are we supposed to wear
• will (expectation)
black pants to work?
• are supposed to (social (convention)
convention)
You should try ordering
• ought to (option or advice) your movies online.
• should have (expectation (suggestion)
not met) She ought not to talk on her
• would have (excuse) cell phone when she's with
you. (advice)

Options & Advice

Could / Could / Should: offering

You could try using a
Should options and advice hammer. (option, another choice)
• could You should be careful.
• should (advice)
 Degrees of Advisability

Students should be honest

about downloading
Should/ Must: expressing copyrighted music.
advisability and necessity They must not download
Should/
copyrighted music.
Must • advisability
They have to respect artists'
• advice
rights to earn fair profits.
• necessity
The Recording Industry
• not required doesn't have to price their
CDs so high.

Conclusions & Inferences

Must have: making guesses,

inferences and conclusions She's sad. She might miss
her family or she might be
Must • might disappointed.
have
• might have Also, she is alone. She has
• must nothing but a half-empty
• must have glass.
She must be depressed.

Ability

Can/ Could: expressing

physical, mental and I can lift a car.
potential ability I can change a tire.
Can/ • physical ability Driving drunk can cause a
could fatal accident.
• mental ability
• potential I was able to pass my
driving test. (single event)
• manage to
 Permission

May/ Can: requesting

permission and offering You may leave early.
May / suggestions You can leave early. informal
Can May I see your arm?
• permission
• request Shall we dance?
Let's dance
• invitation / suggestion
Would you like to dance ?

Mixed Time Frames

Modals Agreement: in mixed

Modal time frames Apple said that it would
Agreemen introduce more functionality
• so that
t with the newer software.
• which
• that
• because

Future Perfect: making

predictions
Future • present – statement of
Perfect intent
By 5 o'clock, we will have
• future perfect – finished our meeting.
statement of prediction

Also see "by the time"

Review

Modal Review: meanings in
present and past tense
Do these modals mean the
same in present and past
Modal tense?
Review • will – would – would
have
• can – could – could
have
• may – might – might
have
• must – had to - must
have
• and more
Modal Practice: Means the
Same!
• possibility
• expectation
Modal • advice
Practice
• permission
• necessity
• conclusion
Modal Quiz: auto-correcting
Modal
Quiz quiz
I can drive there. (ability)
I could drive
there. (permission / ability
/ potential)
Shall we go in
I will cut the hedge. there? (invitation)
Should we go in
there? (warning)
You must eat this.
(necessity)
You must have eaten this.
(conclusion)
I would have cut the
hedge.
He ____ be crazy to do
that.
may might could can must
Finding an apartment in San
Francisco ____ be very
difficult.
 It might put Napster out of
business, and if you're a
Modals in Context: identify devoted Napster user, this is
modals and tense use in the certainly sad news. But
context of an article Metallica's actions could
Modals
• identifying modals in a bring the controversy closer
in
paragraph to home. The fact that
Context
Metallica was able to obtain
• identifying tense use
the screen names of these
users should concern
those who post and
download files on Napster.

Related Pages

Passengers could have

Should / Could have: taken other smaller trans-
atlantic ships.
considering options and
The captain could have
advice in the past chosen a more southern
Could/Should • If ...then trans-atlantic route.
have
• past + participle
The owners should have
• could have, might supplied enough
have, should have lifeboats for everyone .

If the night watchmen

Past Unreal Situations 2: had had binoculars, they
analyzing an accident would have been able to
spot the iceberg earlier.
• If ...then The captain could have
PastUnreal2
• past + participle steered directly into the
• could have, might
iceberg causing less
have, should have damage.
The Titanic should have
had more lifeboats.
 Predicting that something By the time I leave work,
will be completed before the sun will be setting.
By the another event or time (ongoing)
Time By the time I leave work,
• by the time vs. when
the sun will have set.
Located in Adverb Summary (completed)

Omitting if: giving advice in

hypothetical situations

Omitting- • omitting if Should you see him again,

If • were I you call me immediately.
• had I been you
• should you

MODALS
Diagnostic Quiz

Identify specific English grammar points that need review. Use the study links to
find out why a particular answer is correct or incorrect.

QUIZ 1
Beginning – Intermediate

1. Select your response from each menu. Then check your answer.
2. If your response is incorrect, use the study link to guide you to the specific information
you need.

Formun Üstü
# YOUR RESPONSE CHECK YOUR ANSWER
 Next year, I intend to go to a new school.

1.
Next year, to a new school.

Will / Might | Will/ Would

It is possible that it will be a difficult to find one I like.

2. a difficult to find one I like.

Will / Might

"We hope you are able to find one you like."

3. They said that they hoped one I

liked.

Can / Could | Modal Review

I want a school that has the ability to challenge me.

4. I want a school that me.

challenge (v.) – test and improve the skills or abilities of someone

Can / Could

I'm not sure how I will commute there everyday.

5.
there everyday.

commute (v.) – travel to school or work

Will / Might
 In my last school, I used to get a ride everyday.

6. In my last school, a ride everyday.

used to (v.) – be an old or former habit (no longer now)

Modals

I expect to hear from the admissions office soon.

from the admissions office soon.

7.

admissions office (n.) – the office that admits or accepts new students
Should / Will

I managed to pass a placement test for an advanced level

English class.

8. a placement test for an advanced

level English class.

Could/ Was able to

to place (n.) – to qualify for a level

I prefer to take a history class instead of another language

class.

9.
a history class than another language
class.

instead of (v.) – in place of Would

My advisor says that I need to take a science class.

10. a science class.

Could / Should | Should / Must

 I have a few options. One option is to take a biology class.

11.
a biology class.

option (n.) – a choice, a selction

Could / Should | Should / Must

However, I really think it's important to take a chemistry

class.
12.

a chemistry course.
Could / Should | Should / Must

Reset

Formun Altı

QUIZ 2
Intermediate-Advanced

1. Select the word or words that best complete the sentence.

2. Compare your response to the answer to the right by clicking the "check" button.

Formun Üstü
# YOUR RESPONSE CHECK YOUR ANSWER

Jack was supposed to come to the soccer game this

morning, but he didn't show up.
13.

to soccer practice.
Should/Should have

I guess he overslept.

overslept.
14.
overslept (v.) – slept past his wakeup time
inference (n.) – something that you think is true, based on information that you
have
Might have / Must have

He had the opportunity to get a ride with us, but he didn't

ask.
15.

to get a ride with us, but he didn't ask.

Could / Could have

16. He told me to call him so that he up

in time.

Modal Agreement

17. I did call him a half an hour before the game, but he

did call (v.) – emphasis verb form with auxiliary before the main verb
 Refusal

If I had awakened him in person, at

18. the game now!

in person (experession) – face to face (not electronically)

Mixed Tenses

The coach told us that it was necessary to start the game

without him – our goalie!
19.
The coach told us that the game
without him.
Modal Review

I asked the coach, "Do you mind if I give him one more call?"

20.
I aked the coach if I one more time.

May/ Can

He replied, "By the time he gets here, the game

21. .

Future Perfect | By the time

22. "It is possible that he has a good excuse."

" a good excuse. "

 Will / May / Might

"Jason, please fill in for Jack." said the coach

23.
The coach asked "Jason Jack?"

Would | May/ Can

"Shall we get this game started?"

24.
The coach said that the game started.

Modals - Pressent vs. Past Tense

We played the game and, unfortunately, we lost.

25.
if Jack had been there.
Might have – past uncertainty | Might
have- conditional use

Formun Altı