Elemente de Istoric Al Teoriilor Despre

Academia Romana Comitetul Român de Istoria si Filsofia Ştiinţei şi Tehnicii (CRIFST) Divizia de Logică, Metodologie şi Filosofia Ştiinţei (DLMFS)
– Grupul de Cercetari Interdisciplinare (GCI)

Simpozionul “Modele fundamentale ale Materiei si Universului”
ELEMENTE DE ISTORIC AL TEORIILOR DESPRE

UNIVERS – PRIVITE MAI ALES PRIN PRISMA
TEORIILOR FIZICII
Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Academia Romana Comitetul Român de Istoria si Filsofia Ştiinţei şi Tehnicii (CRIFST) Divizia de Logică, Metodologie şi Filosofia Ştiinţei (DLMFS) – Grupul de Cercetari Interdisciplinare (GCI)
TEORII COSMOLOGICE IN GENERAL

 Brahmanda (Cosmic Egg) Universe - The Hindu Rigveda, written in

India around the 15th - 12th Century B.C., - cyclical or oscillating
universe in which a “cosmic egg”, or Brahmanda, containing the
whole universe (including the Sun, Moon, planets and all of space)
expands out of a single concentrated point called a Bindu before
subsequently collapsing again. The universe cycles infinitely between
expansion and total collapse.
 Anaxagorian Universe - The 5th Century B.C. Greek philosopher
Anaxagoras - the original state of the cosmos was a primordial mixture
of all its ingredients which existed in infinitesimally small
fragments of themselves. This mixture was not entirely uniform, and
some ingredients were present in higher concentrations than others, as
well as varying from place to place. At some point in time, this mixture
was set in motion by the action of “nous” (mind), and the whirling motion
shifted and separated out the ingredients, ultimately producing the
cosmos of separate material objects, all with different properties, that we
see today.
 Atomist Universe - The 5th Century B.C., the Greek philosophers

Leucippus and Democritus founded the school of Atomism, which
held that the universe was composed of very small, indivisible and
indestructible building blocks known as atoms (from the Greek
“atomos”, meaning “uncuttable”). All of reality and all the objects in
the universe are composed of different arrangements of these
eternal atoms and an infinite void, in which they form different
combinations and shapes.

 Aristotelian Universe - the 4th Century B.C., established a geocentric

universe in which the fixed, spherical Earth is at the centre, surrounded
by concentric celestial spheres of planets and stars. Although he
believed the universe to be finite in size, he stressed that it exists unchanged
and static throughout eternity. Aristotle established the four classical
elements of fire, air, earth and water, which were acted on by two
forces, gravity (the tendency of earth and water to sink) and levity (the
tendency of air and fire to rise). He later added a fifth element, aether, to
describe the void that fills the universe above the terrestrial sphere.
 Stoic Universe - Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece (3rd Century B.C.

and after) believed in a kind of island universe in which a finite cosmos is
surrounded by an infinite void (not dissimilar in principle to a galaxy).
They held that the cosmos is in a constant state of flux, and pulsates in size
and periodically passes through upheavals and conflagrations. In the Stoic
view, the universe is like a giant living body, with its leading part being the
stars and the Sun, but in which all parts are interconnected, so that what
happens in one place affects what happens elsewhere. They also held a
cyclical view of history, in which the world was once pure fire and
would become fire again (an idea borrowed from Heraclitus).


 Heliocentric Universe - The 3rd Century B.C. Greek astronomer and mathematician
Aristarchus of Samos was the first to present an explicit argument for a
heliocentric model of the Solar System, placing the Sun, not the Earth, at the
center of the known universe. He described the Earth as rotating daily on its axis
and revolving annually about the Sun in a circular orbit, along with a sphere of fixed
stars. His ideas were generally rejected in favour of the geocentric theories of Aristotle
and Ptolemy until they were successfully revived nearly 1800 years later by
Copernicus. However, there were exceptions: Seleucus of Seleucia, who lived about a
century after Aristarchus, supported his theories and used the tides to explain
heliocentricity and the influence of the Moon; the Indian astonomer and mathematician
Aryabhata described elliptical orbits around the Sun at the end of of the 5th Century
A.D.; as did the Muslim astronomer Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi in the
9th Century.
 Ptolemaic Universe - The 2nd Century A.D. Roman-Egyptian mathematician and

astronomer Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus) - geocentric model largely based on
Aristotelian ideas, in which the planets and the rest of the universe orbit about a
stationary Earth in circular epicycles. In terms of longevity, it was perhaps the most
successful cosmological model of all time. Modifications to the basic Ptolemaic system
were suggested by the Islamic Maragha School in the 13th, 14th and 15th
Centuries including the first accurate lunar model by Ibn al-Shatir, and the
rejection of a stationery Earth in favour of a rotating Earth by Ali Qushji.
 Abrahamic Universe - Several medieval Christian, Muslim and Jewish scholars

put forward the idea of a universe which was finite in time. In the 6th Century
A.D., the Christian philospher John Philoponus of Alexandria argued against the
ancient Greek notion of an infinite past, and was perhaps the first commentator to
argue that the universe is finite in time and therefore had a beginning. Early Muslim
theologians such as Al-Kindi (9th Century) and Al-Ghazali (11th Century) offered
logical arguments supporting a finite universe, as did the 10th Century Jewish
philosopher Saadia Gaon.
 Partially Heliocentric Universe - In the 15th and early 16th Century, Somayaji
Nilakantha of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in southern
India developed a computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary
model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbited the Sun,
which in turn orbited the Earth. This was very similar to the Tychonic system
proposed by the Danish nobleman Tycho Brahe later in the 16th Century as a kind
of hybrid of the Ptolemaic and Copernican models.

 Copernican Universe - In 1543, the Polish astronomer and polymath Nicolaus

Copernicus adapted the geocentric Maragha model of Ibn al-Shatir to meet the
requirements of the ancient heliocentric universe of Aristarchus. His publication of
a scientific theory of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the motions of celestial
objects can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in the centre of the
universe, stimulated further scientific investigations and became a landmark in the
history of modern science, sometimes known as the Copernican Revolution. His
Copernican Principle (that the Earth is not in a central, specially favoured position)
and its implication that celestial bodies obey physical laws identical to those on
Earth, first established cosmology as a science rather than a branch of
metaphysics. In 1576, the English astronomer Thomas Digges popularized
Copernicus’ ideas and also extended them by positing the existence of a multitude
of stars extending to infinity, rather than just Copernicus’ narrow band of fixed
stars. Giordano Bruno took the Copernican Principle a stage further in 1584 by
suggesting that even the Solar System is not the centre of the universe, but rather
a relatively insignificant star system among an infinite multitude of others. In 1605,
Johannes Kepler made further refinements by finally abandoning the classical
assumption of circular orbits in favour of elliptical orbits which could explain the
strange apparent movements of the planets. Galileo's controversial support of
Copernicus' heliocentric model in the early 17th Century was denounced by the
Inquisition but nevertheless helped to popularize the idea.


 Cartesian Vortex Universe - In the mid-17th Century, the French

philosopher René Descartes outlined a model of the universe with
many of the characteristics of Newton’s later static, infinite
universe. But, according to Descartes, the vacuum of space was not
empty at all, but was filled with matter that swirled around in large
and small vortices. His model involved a system of huge swirling
whirlpools of ethereal or fine matter, producing what would later be
called gravitational effects.

 Static (or Newtonian) Universe - In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his
“Principia”, which described, among other things, a static, steady state,
infinite universe which even Einstein, in the early 20th Century, took
as a given (at least until events proved otherwise). In Newton’s universe,
matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed, and the universe is
gravitationally balanced but essentially unstable.
 Hierarchical Universe and the Nebular Hypothesis - Although still
generally based on a Newtonian static universe, the matter in a
hierarchical universe is clustered on ever larger scales of hierarchy,
and is endlessly being recycled. It was first proposed in 1734 by the
Swedish scientist and philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg, and
developed further (independently) by Thomas Wright (1750), Immanuel
Kant (1755) and Johann Heinrich Lambert (1761), and a similar model was
proposed in 1796 by the Frenchman Pierre-Simon Laplace.

 Einsteinian Universe - The model of the universe assumed by Albert

Einstein in his groundbreaking theory of gravity in the early 20th
Century was not dissimilar to Newton’s in that it was a static,
dynamically stable universe which was neither expanding or
contracting.
 However, he had to add in a “cosmological constant” to his general
relativity equations to counteract the dynamical effects of gravity
which would otherwise have caused the universe to collapse in on
itself (although he later abandoned that part of his theory when
Edwin Hubble definitively showed in 1929 that the universe was not
in fact static).

 Big Bang Model of the Universe - After Hubble’s demonstration of the

continuously expanding universe in 1929 (and especially after the
discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias
and Robert Wilson in 1965), some version of the Big Bang theory has
generally been the mainsteam scientific view. The theory describes the
universe as originating in an infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point (or
singularity) between 13 and 14 billion years ago, from where it has been
expanding ever since. The essential statement of the theory is usually
attributed to the Belgian Roman Catholic priest and physicist Georges
Lemaître in 1927 (even before Hubble’s corroborating evidence), although a
similar theory had been proposed, although not pursued, 1922 by the
Russian Alexander Friedmann in 1922. Friedmann actually developed two
models of an expanding universe based on Einstein’s general relativity
equations, one with positive curvature or spherical space, and one with
negative curvature or hyperbolic space.


 Oscillating Universe - This was Einstein’s favoured model after he rejected

his own original model in the 1930s. The oscillating universe followed from
Alexander Friedmann’s model of an expanding universe based on the
general relativity equations for a universe with positive curvature (spherical
space), which results in the universe expanding for a time and then
contracting due to the pull of its gravity, in a perpetual cycle of Big Bang
followed by Big Crunch. Time is thus endless and beginningless, and the
beginning-of-time paradox is avoided.
 Steady State Universe - This non-standard cosmology (i.e. opposed to the

standard Big Bang model) has occurred in various versions since the Big
Bang theory was generally adopted by the scientific community. A popular
variant of the steady state universe was proposed in 1948 by the English
astronomer Fred Hoyle and the and Austrians Thomas Gold and Hermann
Bondi. It predicted a universe that expanded but did not change its density,
with matter being inserted into the universe as it expanded in order to
maintain a constant density. Despite its drawbacks, this was quite a popular
idea until the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965
which supported the Big Bang model.


 Inflationary (or Inflating) Universe - In 1980, the American physicist Alan

Guth proposed a model of the universe based on the Big Bang, but
incorporating a short, early period of exponential cosmic inflation in order
to solve the horizon and flatness problems of the standard Big Bang
model. Another variation of the inflationary universe is the cyclic model
developed by Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turok in 2002 using state-of-the-art
M-theory, superstring theory and brane cosmology, which involves an
inflationary universe expanding and contracting in cycles.
 Multiverse - The Russian-American physicist Andrei Linde developed the

inflationary universe idea further in 1983 with his chaotic inflation theory
(or eternal inflation), which sees our universe as just one of many
“bubbles” that grew as part of a multiverse owing to a vacuum that had
not decayed to its ground state. The American physicists Hugh Everett III
and Bryce DeWitt had initially developed and popularized their “many
worlds” formulation of the multiverse in the 1960s and 1970s. Alternative
versions have also been developed where our observable universe is just one
tiny organized part of an infinitely big cosmos which is largely in a state of
chaos, or where our organized universe is just one temporary episode in an
infinite sequence of largely chaotic

ALTE TEORII….

Platon
Current topological models
Kepler's Platonic solid model of

the Solar System from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596)
SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DIN FIZICA

CARE POT FI (SUNT) BAZA UNOR
TEORII COSMOLOGICE DESPRE

MATERIE SI UNIVERS

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (1)
MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL STANDARD(1)

MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL STANDARD(2)

INTERACTIUNI FUNDAMENTALE
- FORTE FUNDAMENTALE IN FIZICA -

Fundamental interactions - fundamental forces in Physics (1)
• Interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions.

There are four conventionally accepted fundamental interactions—gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear. Each one is described
mathematically as a field.
 The gravitational force is modelled as a continuous classical field.
 The other three, part of the Standard Model of particle physics, are
described as discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are
each carried by a quantum, an elementary particle.

• The two nuclear interactions have short ranges, producing forces at

minuscule, subatomic distances.
• The strong nuclear interaction, which is carried by the gluon particle, is
responsible for the binding of quarks together to form hadrons, such as protons
and neutrons; as a residual effect, it binds the latter particles to form atomic
nuclei.
• The weak nuclear interaction, which is carried by the W and Z particles, also
acts on the nucleus, mediating radioactive decay.
• The other two, electromagnetism and gravity, produce significant forces at
macroscopic scales where the effects can be seen directly in everyday life.
– The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and

magnetic fields, which are responsible for chemical bonding and are
used in electrical technology. Electromagnetic forces tend to cancel each
other out when large collections of objects are considered, so over the
largest distances (on the scale of planets and galaxies), gravity tends to
be the dominant force.

Classical theory
• 1687 - Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical
structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and
relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time.
– Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by
impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an
attractive force.
– His law of universal gravitation mathematically stated it to span the entire universe
instantly (despite absolute time), or, if not actually a force, to be instant interaction
among all objects (despite absolute space.)
– As conventionally interpreted, Newton's theory of motion modelled a central force
without a communicating medium.
– Thus Newton's theory violated the first principle of mechanical philosophy, as
stated by Descartes, No action at a distance.
• 1820 - explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a field filling space
and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces will
be unified into one.
• 1870 - James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an
electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at
constant speed in a vacuum.
The electromagnetic field theory contradicted predictions of Newton's theory of motion,
unless physical states of the luminiferous aether—presumed to fill all space whether
within matter or in a vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—aligned all
phenomena and thereby held valid the Newtonian principle relativity or invariance.

Forte-interactiuni, materie, univers

Si
Conditiile existentei vietii

MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL
STANDARD, COSMOLOGIA SI CONDITIILE DE
EXISTENTA ALE VIETII
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2006/Jan/pie-chart.jpg
• Life must form out of baryons and electrons, but that’s only 4% of universe
• Gravity brings matter together, and baryons cool and condense into stars
• In cold, dense environments, many organic molecules have been detected
• But how do planets form with these materials?
Candidates for Life
• Dark energy?
– No: too smooth, meaning it can’t clump together
to form structure
• Dark matter?
– Probably not; although dark matter can
clump it can’t cool and form complex structure
• Baryons?
Well, sure! We’re made of them

MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL
STANDARD, COSMOLOGIA SI CONDITIILE DE
EXISTENTA ALE VIETII (2)
Matter Content of the Universe - David Spergel March 2006 Valencia, Spain
composition of the universe
4.5% Baryons
22.4% Dark Matter
73% Dark Energy
<0.1% Neutrinos, Radiation
• Deuterium abundance is sensitive to the ratio

• Baryon Abundance from Nucleosynthesis
• of baryons/photons Wbh2 = 0.022 \pm 0.02

EXEMPLE ISTORICE DE MODELE DESPRE

MATERIE SI UNIVERS

EXEMPLE ISTORICE DE MODELE DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (1)
Timeline of classical mechanics:
Early Mechanics (1)

4th century BC - Aristotle founds the system of Aristotelian physics
260 BC - Archimedes mathematically works out the principle of the lever and

discovers the principle of buoyancy

 60 AD - Hero of Alexandria writes Metrica, Mechanics, and Pneumatics
1021 - Al-Biruni realizes that acceleration is connected with non-uniform

motion
 1000-1030 - Alhazen and Avicenna develop the concepts of inertia and momentum
 1100-1138 - Avempace develops the concept of a reaction force
1100-1165 - Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi discovers that force is

proportional to acceleration rather than speed, a fundamental law in classical

mechanics
Timeline of classical mechanics - Early Mechanics (2)
• 1121 - Al-Khazini publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in which he

develops the concepts of gravitational potential energy and gravity at-a-
distance
 1340-1358 - Jean Buridan develops the theory of impetus
 1490 - Leonardo da Vinci describes capillary action
 1500-1528 - Al-Birjandi develops the theory of "circular inertia" to explain
Earth's rotation
 1581 - Galileo Galilei notices the timekeeping property of the pendulum
 1589 - Galileo Galilei uses balls rolling on inclined planes to show that different
weights fall with the same acceleration
 1638 - Galileo Galilei publishes Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences

Timeline of classical mechanics - Early Mechanics (3)
 1658 - Christiaan Huygens experimentally discovers that balls placed

anywhere inside an inverted cycloid reach the lowest point of the cycloid in the
same time and thereby experimentally shows that the cycloid is the
tautochrone
 1668 - John Wallis suggests the law of conservation of momentum
 1676-1689 - Gottfried Leibniz develops the concept of vis viva, a limited
theory of conservation of energy


Formation of Classical Mechanics (Newtonian mechanics) (1)
1687 - Isaac Newton publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica,
in which he formulates Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal
gravitation
1690 - James Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone

problem
1690 - James Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone

problem
1691 - Johann Bernoulli shows that a chain freely suspended from two points will form

a catenary
1691 - James Bernoulli shows that the catenary curve has the lowest center of gravity

of any chain hung from two fixed points

1696 - Johann Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone

problem
1714 - Brook Taylor derives the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in
terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving an ordinary differential equation


 1733 - Daniel Bernoulli derives the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a
hanging chain by solving an ordinary differential equation
 1734 - Daniel Bernoulli solves the ordinary differential equation for the
vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end
 1738 - Daniel Bernoulli examines fluid flow in Hydrodynamica
 1739 - Leonhard Euler solves the ordinary differential equation for a forced
harmonic oscillator and notices the resonance phenomenon
 1742 - Colin Maclaurin discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating
spheroids
 1743 - Jean le Rond d'Alembert publishes his "Traite de Dynamique", in
which he introduces the concept of generalized forces for accelerating
systems and systems with constraints

 1747 - Pierre Louis Maupertuis applies minimum principles to mechanics

 1759 - Leonhard Euler solves the partial differential equation for the vibration
of a rectangular drum
 1764 - Leonhard Euler examines the partial differential equation for the
vibration of a circular drum and finds one of the Bessel function solutions
 1776 - John Smeaton publishes a paper on experiments relating power,
work, momentum and kinetic energy, and supporting the conservation of
energy
 1788 - Joseph Louis Lagrange presents Lagrange's equations of motion
in Mécanique Analytique


 1789 - Antoine Lavoisier states the law of conservation of mass
 1813 - Peter Ewart supports the idea of the conservation of energy in his
paper On the measure of moving force
 1821 - William Hamilton begins his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic
function
 1834 - Carl Jacobi discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating
ellipsoids
 1834 - John Russell observes a nondecaying solitary water wave (soliton) in
the Union Canal near Edinburgh and uses a water tank to study the
dependence of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water
depth
 1835 - William Hamilton states Hamilton's canonical equations of motion


 1835 - Gaspard Coriolis examines theoretically the mechanical efficiency of
waterwheels, and deduces the Coriolis effect.
 1841 - Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, writes a paper on the
conservation of energy but his lack of academic training leads to its rejection.
 1842 - Christian Doppler proposes the Doppler effect
 1847 - Hermann von Helmholtz formally states the law of conservation of
energy
 1851 - Léon Foucault shows the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum
(Foucault pendulum)
 1902 - James Jeans finds the length scale required for gravitational
perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium

PROGRAMELE CU ASPECTELE NELAMURITE IN

MODELAREA FIZICO MATEMATICA A MATERIEI
SI UNIVERSULUI

CHALLENGES IN PHYSICS (1)









CHALLENGES IN MATHEMATICS – HILBERT PROGRAM (1)

CHALLENGES IN MATHEMATICS – HILBERT PROGRAM (2)

CAUTAREA DE MODELE ALE MATERIEI SI UNIVERSULUI
I MODELE (STANDARD, CLASICE ETC)

SI/SAU “MISTERUL” CONSTANTELOR

MODELE SI CONSTANTE (1)
O ABORDARE DE FIZICA ELEMENTARA……
F=X*Y [F] = [X] * [Y]
Fundamental Physical Constants
Name Symbol Value

Combination
Speed of light c
Planck constant h
Planck constant h
...
Planck hbar
Planck hbar
...
Gravitation constant G
Boltzmann constant k
Coulomb constant
Boltzmann constant k
Molar gas constant R
Bohr radius
Avogadro's number NA 6.0221 x 1023 mol -1
Charge of electron e
Permeability of vacuum
Fine structure constant
Permittivity of vacuum
Coulomb constant
Faraday constant F
Compton wavelength
Mass of electron
Mass of electron
Mass of proton
Mass of proton
Mass of neutron
Mass of neutron
Atomic mass unit
Atomic mass unit
u
u
Bohr magneton
Avogadro's number
Stefan-Boltzmann
constant
Rydberg constant
Bohr magneton
Bohr magneton
Flux quantum
Bohr radius Magnetic flux quantum
Standard atmosphere atm
Wien displacement
b
constant

ANEXA 1
Modelul standard - Detalii

Lambda-CDM model (1)

The ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) or Lambda-CDM model is a
parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a
cosmological constant, denoted by Λ, associated with dark energy, and cold dark
matter (abbreviated CDM).
It is referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology because it is the
simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of the following properties
of the cosmos:
 the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave background

 the large-scale structure in the distribution of galaxies
 the abundances of hydrogen (including deuterium), helium, and lithium
 the accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the light from
distant galaxies and supernovae
The model assumes that general relativity is the correct theory of gravity on
cosmological scales. It emerged in the late 1990s as a concordance cosmology,
after a period of time when disparate observed properties of the universe appeared
mutually inconsistent, and there was no consensus on the makeup of
the energy density of the universe.

• The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding cosmological inflation,

quintessence and other elements that are current areas of speculation and
research in cosmology.
• Some alternative models challenge the assumptions of the ΛCDM model.
• Examples of these are modified Newtonian dynamics, modified gravity and

theories of large-scale variations in the matter
• Most modern cosmological models are based on the cosmological principle,

which states that our observational location in the universe is not unusual
or special; on a large-enough scale, the universe looks the same in all directions
(isotropy) and from every location (homogeneity).


•The model includes an expansion of metric space that is well documented both as the
red shift of prominent spectral absorption or emission lines in the light from distant galaxies
and as the time dilation in the light decay of supernova luminosity curves.
• Both effects are attributed to a Doppler shift in electromagnetic radiation as it
travels across expanding space.
• Although this expansion increases the distance between objects that are not
under shared gravitational influence, it does not increase the size of the objects
(e.g. galaxies) in space.
• It also allows for distant galaxies to recede from each other at speeds greater
than the speed of light; local expansion is less than the speed of light, but
expansion summed across great distances can collectively exceed the speed of
light.
•Λ represents the cosmological constant, which is currently associated with a
vacuum energy or dark energy in empty space that is used to explain the contemporary
accelerating expansion of space against the attractive effects of gravity.
•A cosmological constant has negative pressure, which contributes to the stress-
energy tensor that, according to the general theory of relativity, causes accelerating
expansion. The fraction of the total energy density of our (flat or almost flat) universe that is
dark energy, , is currently [2015] estimated to be 69.2 ± 1.2% based on Planck satellite
data.


•Cold dark matter is a form of matter introduced in order to account for gravitational effects
observed in very large-scale structures (the "flat" rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational
lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies) that cannot be
accounted for by the quantity of observed matter.
•Dark matter is described as being cold (i.e. its velocity is far less than the speed of light at the
epoch of radiation-matter equality); non-baryonic (i.e. consisting of matter other than protons
and neutrons); dissipationless (i.e. cannot cool by radiating photons); and collisionless (i.e. the
dark matter particles interact with each other and other particles only through gravity and
possibly the weak force).
 The dark matter component is estimated to constitute about 26.8% of the mass-energy
density of the universe.
 The remaining 4.9% comprises all ordinary matter observed as atoms, chemical
elements, gas and plasma, the stuff of which visible planets, stars and galaxies are
made. As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is
unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10
per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe.
 The energy density includes a very small fraction (~ 0.01%) in cosmic microwave
background radiation, and not more than 0.5% in relic neutrinos. Although very small
today, these were much more important in the distant past, dominating the matter at
redshift > 3200.

• All four fundamental forces are believed to be related, and to unite

into a single force at high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck
scale, but particle accelerators cannot produce the enormous
energies required to experimentally probe this.
• A goal of theoretical physicists working beyond the Standard Model

is to quantize the gravitational field, yielding a theory of quantum
gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical
framework with the other three forces. Other theorists seek to unite
the electroweak and strong fields within a Grand Unified Theory
(GUT).
• Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within
one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with
mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE).
• A few researchers have interpreted various anomalous observations

in physics as evidence for a fifth force, but this is not widely
accepted.
Gravity (1)
Gravitation is by far the weakest of the four interactions. The weakness of gravity can easily
be demonstrated by suspending a pin using a simple magnet (such as a refrigerator
magnet). The magnet is able to hold the pin against the gravitational pull of the entire Earth.
Yet gravitation is very important for macroscopic objects and over macroscopic distances for
the following reasons. Gravitation:
 Is the only interaction that acts on all particles having mass, energy and/or momentum
 Has an infinite range, like electromagnetism but unlike strong and weak interaction
 Cannot be absorbed, transformed, or shielded against
 Always attracts and never repels
Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not
relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such
bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of
zero. Nothing "cancels" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be
attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the
gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale
structure of the universe.

Gravity (2)
• The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the
structure of galaxies and black holes and it retards the expansion of the universe.
• Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as

planetary orbits, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they
were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.
• Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times,

Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates.
• During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this was
not the case — neglecting the friction due to air resistance, and buoyancy forces if an
atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled
balloon) all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newton's law of
Universal
• Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Our present-
day understanding of gravitation stems from Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity
of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description
of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.

Gravity (3)
• Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more
general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that
gravitation is mediated by a massless spin-2 particle called the graviton.
• Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields) on
all but the smallest scales, there are rival theories of gravitation. Those taken seriously by
[citation needed] the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and
the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general
relativity are possible.
• Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.

Electroweak interaction (1)

• Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at
everyday low energies. They can be modeled using two different
theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV,
they would merge into a single electroweak force.
• Electroweak theory is very important for modern cosmology, particularly
on how the universe evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang,
the temperature was approximately above 1015 K. Electromagnetic
force and weak force were merged into a combined electroweak
force.
• For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon
Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1979.

This is larger than the planet Earth would weigh if weighed on another
Earth. The atomic nuclei in one jug also repel those in the other with the
Electromagnetism (2) same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction
of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the
•Electromagnetism is the force that acts between nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force.
electrically charged particles. This phenomenon Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity but cancel
includes the electrostatic force acting between out so that for large bodies gravity dominates.
charged particles at rest, and the combined Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient
effect of electric and magnetic forces acting times, but it was only in the 19th century that it was discovered that
between charged particles moving relative to electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental
each other. interaction. By 1864, Maxwell's equations had rigorously quantified this
•Electromagnetism is infinite-ranged like gravity, unified interaction. Maxwell's theory, restated using vector calculus, is the
but vastly stronger, and therefore describes a classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological
number of macroscopic phenomena of everyday purposes.
experience such as friction, rainbows, lightning, The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with the
and all human-made devices using electric letter "c") can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent
current, such as television, lasers, and with the theory of special relativity. Einstein's 1905 theory of special
computers. Electromagnetism fundamentally relativity, however, which flows from the observation that the speed of light
determines all macroscopic, and many atomic is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the
levels, properties of the chemical elements, theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications
including all chemical bonding. far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.
•In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water there In another work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein
are also explained the photoelectric effect by hypothesizing that light was
transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons. Starting around 1927,
of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of
such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of electromagnetism. Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman,
the jugs repel those in the other jug with a Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, completed
force of this theory, which is now called quantum electrodynamics, the revised
theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum
mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such
as quantum tunneling, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged
particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical
electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices
such as transistors to function.

Electromagnetism (3)
•The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with the letter "c") can
be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special
relativity.
•Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which flows from the observation
that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed
that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far
beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.

Electromagnetism (4)
•Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by hypothesizing that light was

transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons.
 Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic
theory of electromagnetism.
 Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger,
and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, completed this theory, which is now called quantum
electrodynamics, the revised theory of electromagnetism.
•Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis

for electromagnetic behavior such as quantum tunneling, in which a certain
percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible
under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic
devices such as transistors to function.

Weak interaction
The weak interaction or weak nuclear force is responsible for some

nuclear phenomena such as beta decay.
Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two
aspects of a unified electroweak interaction — this discovery was the
first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model.
In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak
force are the massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons.
The weak interaction is the only known interaction which does not
conserve parity; it is left-right asymmetric.
The weak interaction even violates CP symmetry but does conserve
CPT.

Strong interaction (1)
• The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly
because of the way it varies with distance. At distances greater than 10 femtometers, the strong
force is practically unobservable. Moreover, it holds only inside the atomic nucleus.
• After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the
nuclear force, was needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion, a manifestation of
electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist.
Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume that is about
10−15 m, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, Hideki
Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive particle, whose mass is approximately
100 MeV.
• The 1947 discovery of the pion ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of
hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an extremely complicated theory of
hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:
 The pions were understood to be oscillations of vacuum condensates;
 Jun John Sakurai proposed the rho and omega vector bosons to be force carrying particles
for approximate symmetries of isospin and hypercharge;
 Geoffrey Chew, Edward K. Burdett and Steven Frautschi grouped the heavier hadrons into
families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of strings.

• While each of these approaches offered deep insights, no approach led directly to a
fundamental theory.
• Murray Gell-Mann along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961.
Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental
theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as simple models for the interactions of quarks.
The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were Moo-Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu, who
introduced the quark color charge and hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-
carrying field.
– At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks.
– Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were
fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be
permanently confined.
• In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and Harald Fritzsch proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field
was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little
later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered that this theory had the
property of asymptotic freedom, allowing them to make contact with experimental
evidence. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct
at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept
QCD since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could
be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined.

• Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein and Valentine Zakharov
were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only
a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum.
• In 1980, Kenneth G. Wilson published computer calculations based on the first principles of
QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks.
Since then, QCD has been the established theory of the strong interactions.
• QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles

called gluons. The gluons interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances
the lines of force collimate into strings. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only
explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string-like behavior, discovered by
Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.

Physics beyond the Standard Model - Elementary particle § Beyond the Standard Model (1)
• Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four
fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.
• Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that all of the fundamental
interactions, other than gravity, arise from a single interaction with symmetries
that break down at low energy levels.
– GUTs predict relationships among constants of nature that are unrelated in the SM.
– GUTs also predict gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and
strong forces, a prediction verified at the Large Electron–Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric
theories.
• Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face
a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include
– string theory,
– loop quantum gravity, and
– twistor theory, have secured wide acceptance.
• Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force-
carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the
possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.
Physics beyond the Standard Model - Elementary particle § Beyond the Standard Model (2)
• Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical fifth force, and the
search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental research in physics. In
supersymmetric theories, there are particles that acquire their masses only through
supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as moduli can mediate new
forces.
• Another reason to look for new forces is the recent discovery that the expansion of
the universe is accelerating (also known as dark energy), giving rise to a need to explain
a nonzero cosmological constant, and possibly to other modifications of general relativity.
• Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as CP violations,
dark matter, and dark flow.
• In December 2015, two observations in the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the Large
Hadron Collider hinted at the existence of a new particle six times heavier than the Higgs
Boson. However, after obtaining more experimental data, the anomaly appeared not be
significant.

ANEXA 2
Modelul fizicii pornind de la

analiza constantelor

Dimensionless physical constant (1)
• In physics, a dimensionless physical constant, sometimes called a fundamental

physical constant, is a physical constant that is dimensionless.
• It has no units attached and has a numerical value that is independent of the
system of units used. Perhaps the best-known example is the fine-structure
constant, α, which has approximate value of 1⁄137.036. 4πε0ħcα = e2.
• The term fundamental physical constant is also used to refer to universal but
dimensioned physical constants such as the speed of light c, vacuum
permittivity ε0, Planck constant h, and the gravitational constant G.
• Increasingly, physicists reserve the use of the term fundamental physical

constant for dimensionless physical constants that cannot be derived from any
other source.
• There is no exhaustive list of such constants. But it is meaningful to ask about

the minimal number of fundamental constants necessary to determine a given
physical theory.


•
• There is no exhaustive list of such constants. But it is meaningful to ask about
the minimal number of fundamental constants necessary to determine a given
physical theory.
• The Standard Model requires 25 physical constants, about half of them the
masses of fundamental particles (which become "dimensionless" when
expressed relative to the Planck mass or, alternatively, relative to the electron
mass along with the gravitational coupling constant).
• Fundamental physical constants cannot be derived but have to be measured.
• Development in physics may lead to either a reduction or an extension of their

number: discovery of new particles, or new relationships between physical
phenomena, would introduce new constants, while on the other hand, the
development of a more fundamental theory might allow the derivation of
several constants from a more fundamental constant.
• A long-sought goal of theoretical physics is to find first principles ("Theory of

Everything") from which all of the fundamental dimensionless constants can be
calculated and compared to the measured values.

• The large number of fundamental constants required in the Standard Model

has been regarded as unsatisfactory since the theory's formulation in the
1970s. The desire for a theory that would allow the calculation of particle
masses is a core motivation for the search for "Physics beyond the
Standard Model".
• The mathematician Simon Plouffe has made an extensive search of

computer databases of mathematical formulae, seeking formulae for the
mass ratios of the fundamental particles.
• Arthur Eddington set out alleged mathematical reasons why the reciprocal
of the fine structure constant had to be exactly 136. When its value was
discovered to be closer to 137, he changed his argument to match that
value.
• Experiments have since shown that Eddington was wrong; to six significant
digits, the reciprocal of the fine-structure constant is 137.036.
• An empirical relation between the masses of the electron, muon and tau
has been discovered by physicist Yoshio Koide, but this formula remains
unexplained.

• α, the fine structure constant, the coupling constant for the electromagnetic
interaction (≈ 1⁄137).
• The square of the electron charge, expressed in Planck units, which defines
the scale of charge of elementary particles with charge.
• μ or β, the proton-to-electron mass ratio, the rest mass of the proton divided
by that of the electron (≈1836). More generally, the ratio of the rest masses
of any pair of elementary particles.
• αs, the coupling constant for the strong force (≈1)
• αG, the gravitational coupling constant (≈10−45) which is the square of the
electron mass, expressed in Planck units. This defines the scale of the
masses of elementary particles and has also been used to express the
relative strength of gravitation.

Martin Rees's Six Numbers - six dimensionless constants, whose values are fundamental to present-
day physical theory and the known structure of the universe
• N ≈ 1036 the ratio of the fine structure constant (the dimensionless coupling constant for
electromagnetism) to the gravitational coupling constant, the latter defined using two protons. In
Barrow and Tipler (1986) - this ratio is denoted α/αG. N governs the relative importance of gravity and
electrostatic attraction/repulsion in explaining the properties of baryonic matter
•ε ≈ 0.007 The fraction of the mass of four protons that is released as energy when fused into a helium
nucleus. ε governs the energy output of stars, and is determined by the coupling constant for the
strong force
•Ω ≈ 0.3 the ratio of the actual density of the universe to the critical (minimum) density required for the
universe to eventually collapse under its gravity. Ω determines the ultimate fate of the universe. If Ω ≥
1, the universe will experience a Big Crunch. If Ω < 1, the universe will expand forever
•λ ≈ 0.7 The ratio of the energy density of the universe, due to the cosmological constant, to the critical
density of the universe. Others denote this ratio b
•Q ≈ 10−5 The energy required to break up and disperse an instance of the largest known structures in
the universe, namely a galactic cluster or supercluster, expressed as a fraction of the energy
equivalent to the rest mass m of that structure, namely mc2
•D = 3 the number of macroscopic spatial dimensions

noi înșine.

ANEXA 3
Exemplu de model al Materiei

si Universului
nebazat pe abordari din fizica

https://books.google.ro/books?id=AnbRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT475&lpg=PT475&dq=Matter+content+in+the+universe&source=bl&ots=oOElExBqcA&sig=zh9jMyRBCaIs0Dw4gW9cXjsP8aA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY
ycTa8d_RAhXKDpoKHX3JDH44ChDoAQhXMAg#v=onepage&q=Matter%20content%20in%20the%20universe&f=false




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Academia Romana Comitetul Român de Istoria si Filsofia Ştiinţei şi Tehnicii (CRIFST) Divizia de Logică, Metodologie şi Filosofia Ştiinţei (DLMFS)

– Grupul de Cercetari Interdisciplinare (GCI)

ELEMENTE DE ISTORIC AL TEORIILOR DESPRE

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

TEORII COSMOLOGICE IN GENERAL

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Brahmanda (Cosmic Egg) Universe - The Hindu Rigveda, written in

 Atomist Universe - The 5th Century B.C., the Greek philosophers

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Aristotelian Universe - the 4th Century B.C., established a geocentric

 Stoic Universe - Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece (3rd Century B.C.

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Ptolemaic Universe - The 2nd Century A.D. Roman-Egyptian mathematician and

 Abrahamic Universe - Several medieval Christian, Muslim and Jewish scholars

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Copernican Universe - In 1543, the Polish astronomer and polymath Nicolaus

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Cartesian Vortex Universe - In the mid-17th Century, the French

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Einsteinian Universe - The model of the universe assumed by Albert

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Big Bang Model of the Universe - After Hubble’s demonstration of the

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Oscillating Universe - This was Einstein’s favoured model after he rejected

 Steady State Universe - This non-standard cosmology (i.e. opposed to the

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

 Inflationary (or Inflating) Universe - In 1980, the American physicist Alan

 Multiverse - The Russian-American physicist Andrei Linde developed the

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Current topological models

Kepler's Platonic solid model of

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DIN FIZICA

TEORII COSMOLOGICE DESPRE

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (1)

MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL STANDARD(1)

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

MECANICA CUANTICA -MODELUL STANDARD(2)

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (3)

- FORTE FUNDAMENTALE IN FIZICA -

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (4)

Fundamental interactions - fundamental forces in Physics (1)

• Interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions.

 The gravitational force is modelled as a continuous classical field.

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (6)

Fundamental interactions - fundamental forces in Physics (3)

• The two nuclear interactions have short ranges, producing forces at

– The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and

Fundamental interactions - fundamental forces in Physics (5)

SITUATIA ACTUALA A MODELELOR DESPRE MATERIE SI UNIVERS (8)

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Forte-interactiuni, materie, univers

Unele aspecte ale modelării in fizică Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu februarie 2017

Candidates for Life