Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Ethics
Table of Contents
Introduction 3
Why an ethical framework? 3
A starting point 3
Definitions 3
Ethical Values 4
Types of ethical concerns 4
Resolving ethical conflicts 5
Document layout 5
Client well-being 5
Client choice 6
Privacy and confidentiality 7
Respect for life 8
Maintaining commitments 9
Maintaining commitments to clients 9
Maintaining commitments to oneself 9
Maintaining commitments to nursing colleagues 10
Maintaining commitments to the nursing profession 11
Maintaining commitments to team members/colleagues 12
Maintaining commitments to quality practice settings 12
Continued on next page
Table of Contents continued
Truthfulness 13
Fairness 14
Conclusion 18
Selected Bibliography 19
Nursing standards are expectations that contribute ethics, and they require the ability to think through
to public protection. They inform nurses of their a problem and reach a sound decision that they can
accountabilities and the public of what to expect of explain and justify by referring to ethical values.
nurses. Standards apply to all nurses regardless of their
roles, job description or areas of practice. This document is not intended to be a comprehensive
— College of Nurses of Ontario guide in nursing ethics. For more in-depth or specific
information, nurses are encouraged to consult with
Introduction colleagues and persons with expertise in ethics, and
to make use of the selected bibliography at the end
Why an ethical framework? of this document. Nurses may also want to enrol in
Consideration of ethical issues is an essential courses in bioethics or health care ethics. In Ontario,
component of providing care within the therapeutic all universities and many community colleges offer
nurse-client relationship. Nurses1 encounter such courses. Contact the continuing education,
ethical conflict, uncertainty and distress in their philosophy or nursing departments for information.
everyday practice. Continuous changes in the Nurses are also encouraged to attend conferences and
health care system, in areas such as technology and become involved in ethics committees and rounds in
in values, contribute to these ethical dilemmas. their settings to continue learning about ethics.
Understanding and communicating beliefs and
values helps nurses to prevent ethical conflicts and Definitions
to work through them when they do occur. There Nursing: Nursing is the therapeutic relationship
are many ways to understand and work through that enables the client to attain, maintain or regain
ethical situations. optimal function by promoting the client’s health
through assessing, providing care for and treating
A starting point the client’s health conditions. This is achieved
This document describes the ethical values that by supportive, preventive, therapeutic, palliative
are most important to the nursing profession and rehabilitative means. The relationship with
in Ontario. It also provides scenarios of ethical an individual client may be a direct practice role
situations in which there is a conflict of values. or it may be indirect, by means of management,
Nurses are encouraged to use these scenarios for education or research roles.
reflection and discussion. No solutions are offered
because there is no one solution that is best in all Therapeutic relationship: The therapeutic
situations. The behavioural directives are intended relationship is established and maintained by
to help nurses work through ethical situations and the nurse through the nurse’s use of professional
provide information about the College of Nurses nursing knowledge, skill, and caring attitudes
of Ontario’s (CNO’s) expectations for ethical and behaviours to provide nursing services that
conduct. These are taken into account when CNO contribute to the client’s health and well-being. The
Committees assess nurses’ practices. Nurses need relationship is based on trust, respect and intimacy
to consider behavioural directives carefully when and requires the appropriate use of the power
making decisions about ethical care as this process inherent in the care provider’s role. (For further
will strengthen their practice. information, see CNO’s Therapeutic Nurse-Client
Relationship, Revised 2006 practice standard.)
To make decisions about ethical situations, nurses
need to be aware of their personal values. They Caring: In the literature, caring is defined in
need to be knowledgeable of clinical situations and a number of different ways (Fry, 1994). Caring
1
In this document, nurse refers to a Registered Practical Nurse (RPN), Registered Nurse (RN) and Nurse Practitioner (NP).
when planning and providing care, and a nurse’s privacy and confidentiality;
■
own personal values must never interfere with the respect for life;
■
truthfulness; and
■
(for example, from colleagues, ethics committees, There may be situations in which clients request
clergy, literature); nurses to perform an act that is illegal or may cause
trying to improve the level of health care in the
■
serious harm. In these situations, nurses need to
community by working with individuals, groups, inform clients, in a nonjudgmental manner, about
other health care professionals, employers or the potential risks and harm associated with the
government staff to advocate for needed health practice, or that the practice is illegal in Canada
policy and health resources; or Ontario. By exploring the implications of the
respecting the informed, voluntary decisions of
■
request and providing education and support to
clients, including participants in research; and clients, nurses have a better chance of preventing a
minimizing risks and maximizing benefits to
■
practice that has a risk of harm.
clients and research participants (CNA, 1994).
When values differ
Client choice Consideration of clients’ wishes may be difficult
Client choice means self-determination and includes when their beliefs and values differ from those
the right to the information necessary to make of nurses. Nurses have their own personal values
choices and to consent to or refuse care. Clients and may experience an ethical conflict when they
know the context in which they live and their own disagree with clients’ decisions. Nurses may believe
beliefs and values. As a result, when they have the that, as health care professionals, they know what
necessary information, they can decide what is best is best for clients; however, clients have the right to
for themselves. choose a risky course of action.
Clients who are not competent in all areas of When a client’s wish conflicts with a nurse’s
their lives may still be capable of making sound personal values, and the nurse believes that she/he
decisions in some areas and need to be allowed an cannot provide care, the nurse needs to arrange for
opportunity to make decisions in those areas. When another caregiver and withdraw from the situation.
a client is incompetent, nurses need to ensure that If no other caregiver can be arranged, the nurse
a therapeutic relationship is maintained within must provide the immediate care required. If no
the limits possible for the client and with the other solution can be found, the nurse may have to
substitute decision-maker. When individual clients leave a particular place of employment to adhere to
are incompetent to make decisions, a substitute her/his personal values.
2
Other CNO documents, for example, the Consent practice guideline, discuss the consent legislation in greater detail.
are not the same as theirs; At times, nurses learn information which, if not
following clients’ wishes within the obligations of
■
revealed, will result in serious harm to the client or
the law and the standards of practice; others. Nurses need to consult with the health care
following substitute decision-makers’ directives if
■
team and, if appropriate, report the information
clients are incompetent to make decisions about to the person or facility affected. The client or
their care, within the obligations of the law and substitute decision-maker should be told of the need
standards of practice; to report the information and given the opportunity
exploring clients’ rationales for their decisions
■
to take action. Some legislation also requires that
before acceding to wishes that the nurse disagrees nurses reveal confidential information to others. For
with. (Can other options be found that coincide example, the Child and Family Services Act requires
with client wishes and the nurse’s knowledge and all health care professionals to report suspected
judgment?); child abuse.
supporting informed decision-making;
■
release the health record to the manager. The Respect for life
manager becomes angry and says she will Respect for life means that human life is precious
discipline the nurse for not taking direction from and needs to be respected, protected and treated
a supervisor. with consideration (Keyserlingk, 1979). Respect
for life also includes considerations of the quality
2. Jack is HIV-positive and has not told his wife, of life. It is sometimes difficult to identify what
Aimee. Lori, his nurse, asks him to talk with is human life and what society wants, values and
Aimee about his health status since Aimee, as protects in relation to human life. It is also difficult
well as their unborn child, could be at risk. Jack for health care professionals, including nurses, to be
remains adamant that he will not tell Aimee and clear about their own beliefs in relation to human
tells Lori that if she does, he will sue her. life, although it is important that they be aware of
their personal beliefs.
3. Giselle, age six, is in Grade 1. Some parents
overheard a conversation and have decided that Health care professionals need to make every
Giselle has hepatitis. They organize the other reasonable effort to preserve human life.
parents, and soon a delegation meets with the Technology now allows life to be preserved longer.
principal, insisting that they be told the truth. Many health care professionals and clients believe
The principal arranges for the public health nurse that some treatments that preserve life at all
to speak to the parent delegation. The parents tell costs are unacceptable when the quality of life is
Linda, the public health nurse, that they need to questionable.
know the facts about Giselle’s health to protect
their children. When a client’s wish conflicts with a nurse’s personal
values, and the nurse believes that she/he cannot
Behavioural directives provide care, the nurse needs to arrange for another
Nurses demonstrate regard for privacy and caregiver and withdraw from the situation. If no
confidentiality by: other caregiver can be arranged, the nurse must
■ keeping all personal and health information provide the immediate care required. In the longer
confidential within the obligations of the law term, the nurse may have to leave a particular place
and standards of practice, including that which is of employment to adhere to her/his personal values.
documented or stored electronically. (For further
information, see the Documentation, Revised 2008 Scenario
practice standard);
■ informing clients or substitute decision-makers The following situation illustrates an ethical
that other health care team members will have conflict related to respect for life.
access to any information obtained while caring
for clients; Tina has stated that she never wants to be
■ informing clients or substitute decision-makers dependent on technology to live. She has MS and
who comprise the health care team; was recently admitted to a long-term care facility.
■ informing clients or substitute decision-makers On admission, she stated that she never wants a
that information may be used for purposes feeding tube or to have CPR. Last week, she had
other than client care (e.g., research, quality a stroke and is uncommunicative. The health care
improvements); team is considering approaching her husband to
■ refraining from collecting information that is obtain consent for a feeding tube. Misha, her nurse,
unnecessary for the provision of health care; and is distressed that the team is considering such an
■ protecting clients’ physical and emotional privacy. intervention.
The family of a client who has been in a coma one another, and refer to each other when they do
for some time has requested that the feeding tube not have the necessary competence to provide a
be withdrawn and that the client be allowed to specific part of the nursing care.
die. One nurse is very upset about the prospect of
caring for a client for whom she is not allowed to However, in situations in which clients’ safety
provide nourishment. She believes that providing and well-being are compromised, nurses’ primary
nourishment is fundamental to caring. responsibility is to their clients. Nurses, therefore,
need to take action when colleagues put clients at
Behavioural directives risk or are abusive toward clients in any way. (For
Nurses demonstrate a regard for maintaining further information, see the Therapeutic Nurse-
commitments to themselves by: Client Relationship, Revised 2006 practice standard
■ clarifying their own values in client situations; and the Professional Misconduct document.)
■ identifying situations in which a conflict of their
own values interferes with the care of clients; Scenario
■ exploring alternative options for treatment and
seeking consultation when values conflict; The following situation illustrates an ethical
■ determining and communicating their values conflict related to maintaining commitments to
pertinent to a position before accepting it; and nursing colleagues.
■ recognizing their physical and mental limitations,
and the impact their own health has on their Candice, an RN, observes Michelle, another RN,
ability to provide safe, effective and ethical care. speaking in a loud, angry manner to Kate, an RPN.
Michelle is criticizing Kate about her nursing care.
Maintaining commitments to nursing Kate’s client is nearby and can hear every word.
colleagues Candice realizes that this kind of behaviour is
Nurses have a commitment to each other. Nursing unprofessional and can have a very negative impact
is one profession with two categories of registration: on Kate’s relationship with her client. The client
Registered Practical Nurses (RPNs) and Registered may start to distrust Kate’s ability to competently
Nurses (RNs), which includes Nurse Practitioners care for him. Candice also recognizes that all the
(NPs). Ethical nurses are concerned about the RNs, herself included, have been upset recently.
well-being of nursing colleagues and therefore are There are rumours that RNs are going to be laid off
respectful toward each other. Respectful behaviour and replaced with RPNs.
among nurses contributes to the best possible
outcomes for clients (Hansen, 1995). Behavioural directives
Nurses demonstrate regard for maintaining
Reorganization and job uncertainty can have a commitments to nursing colleagues by:
negative impact on the way nurses work together ■ showing a caring attitude by expressing warmth,
and relate to each other. More than ever, nurses interest and empathy toward one another;
need to work collaboratively and promote an ■ knowing and respecting each others’ roles, scopes
environment of collegiality. This means that nurses of practice and the collaborative nature of practice
show consideration and respect for each other. between RNs, NPs and RPNs;
Establishing and maintaining collegial relationships ■ contributing to positive team functioning and
requires nurses to use a wide range of commu supporting one another;
nication strategies and effective interpersonal skills. ■ introducing themselves to colleagues and
addressing colleagues by the name or title that
Nurses have a duty to know and acknowledge each their colleagues prefer;
colleague’s role and unique contributions to the ■ listening to colleagues without immediately giving
team effort. Nurses trust in the expertise of one advice or diminishing colleagues’ feelings;
another, share their expertise and knowledge with
or behaviours to discover the underlying meaning; The following situation illustrates an ethical
discussing and working through ethical conflicts
■
conflict related to maintaining commitments to the
and concerns with one another; nursing profession.
knowing the expertise of colleagues and accessing
■
it when clients would benefit from that expertise; Mary has a friend at work, Cory, who is under a
sharing nursing knowledge and expertise with
■
great deal of personal stress. Cory has indicated
others, including nursing students; that she is grateful for the support and help she
learning and practising effective communication
■
is receiving from her nursing colleagues. Mary,
with colleagues; however, has begun to notice that Cory’s practice
providing peer feedback in a respectful manner;
■
has become much less competent. Cory is failing
recognizing that substance abuse by
■
to do appropriate assessments of her clients. Mary
colleagues is a health problem requiring prompt has also noted that, at times, Cory’s judgment
assistance, support and treatment; has seemed impaired and that she is increasingly
intervening in situations in which the safety and
■
disorganized. Cory is also becoming short-tempered
well-being of clients are compromised; and with other staff and abrupt to clients. No serious
reporting to the appropriate authority any nursing
■
mistakes have been made as of yet. Mary has tried
colleague whose actions or behaviours toward to speak to Cory about her concerns, but Cory says
clients are unsafe or unprofessional, including she’s doing fine. Mary realizes that action needs to
any physical, verbal, emotional, financial and/or be taken, although she does not wish to add to her
sexual abuse. friend’s problems by reporting Cory to the nurse
manager.
Maintaining commitments to the nursing
profession Behavioural directives
Nurses have a commitment to the nursing Nurses demonstrate regard for maintaining
profession. Being a member of the profession brings commitments to the nursing profession by:
with it the respect and trust of the public. To ■ promoting the goals of the profession in a manner
continue to deserve this respect, nurses have a duty that meets the needs of clients;
to uphold the standards of the profession, conduct ■ conducting themselves in a way that promotes
themselves in a manner that reflects well on the respect for the profession;
profession, and to participate in and promote the ■ participating in CNO’s Quality Assurance
growth of the profession. (For further information, Program;
see CNO’s Professional Standards, Revised 2002 ■ contributing to continual quality improvement
practice standard.) initiatives for the profession;
■ following the standards and practice expectations
As members of a self-regulating profession, nurses of the profession;
also have a commitment to help regulate nursing to ■ notifying CNO of issues that are relevant for safe,
protect the public’s right to quality nursing services. effective and ethical care;
It is in the public’s interest that the profession ■ assisting CNO in developing standards, practice
continue to regulate itself by developing and expectations and position statements;
changing the methods of self-regulation to meet the ■ cooperating with regulatory functions (e.g., an
changes in health care and society. Nurses have an investigation of a peer’s practice); and
obligation to participate in the effective evolution ■ being accountable for their actions and
of self-regulation. Self-regulation is a privilege, and behaviours.
Maintaining commitments to team knowing and respecting each team member’s role
■
care team. Nurses need to respect all health care supporting one another;
professionals and their roles, and are expected to exploring colleagues’ unusual comments, attitudes
■
collaborate and coordinate care with team members. or behaviours to discover the underlying meaning;
When there are overlapping scopes of practice showing a genuine interest in colleagues and
■
Establishing and maintaining collegial relationships accessing it when clients would benefit from that
requires nurses to use a wide range of effective expertise;
communication strategies and interpersonal skills. sharing nursing knowledge and expertise with
■
clients. Nurses, therefore, take action when team recognizing that substance abuse by colleagues
■
members put clients at risk or are abusive of clients is a health problem requiring prompt assistance,
in any way. (For further information, see CNO’s support and treatment;
Therapeutic Nurse-Client Relationship, Revised 2006 intervening in situations in which the safety and
■
practice standard and its Professional Misconduct well-being of clients is compromised; and
document.) reporting to the appropriate authority any team
■
The following situations illustrate ethical conflicts health care team members;
related to maintaining commitments to quality providing clear role expectations for nurses
■
1. A number of nurses have been very unhappy with their scope of practice and individual abilities;
the level of staffing in their facility. They believe providing, and/or advocating for, needed
■
that clients are receiving unsafe care. They have resources for safe, effective and ethical nursing
spoken with management about their concerns care;
and were told that the implemented changes promoting positive collegial relationships;
■
are in the best interest of client care. Someone showing sincere appreciation for staff
■
has suggested they talk to their MPP about the contributions (Hansen, 1995); and
care. Others feel that they first need to pursue looking into and following up on concerns
■
2. Sam’s client has indicated that he does not wish the decisions in a particular situation. In some
to hear the truth about his illness. Sam is obliged situations, no decision will adequately address all
to be truthful, and his client has the right to the concerns.
decide about the care he receives.
When nurses find that resources are too scarce to
Behavioural directives provide care that meets the standards of practice,
Nurses demonstrate a regard for truthfulness by: they need to promptly make their concerns known.
discussing clients’ direct questions about
■
Nurses need to provide the best possible care under
their diagnosis with the health care team and the circumstances.
advocating for the clients’ right to receive the
information; Scenario
assessing the clients’ readiness for information;
■
clients to be told about their health condition. appropriate authority and the health care team so
that all can be involved in resolving a problem;
Fairness advocating for input into policies and procedures
■
Fairness means allocating health care resources on about the use of resources;
the basis of objective health-related factors. The advocating for adequate resources to provide safe,
■
Canada Health Act provides access to health care for effective and ethical nursing care;
all Canadians. Health care resources, however, are working with other health care professionals to
■
limited; this makes it difficult to make decisions advocate for social changes that promote quality
about who receives care and what kind of care they practice settings and client well-being; and
receive. demonstrating a willingness to explore alternative
■
Because nearly every ethical situation involves other impossible. Looking at staffing, however, may
members of the health care team, these people need lead to reorganizing the workload to allow nurses
to be part of the discussion to resolve the issues to concentrate more fully on nursing care, helping
and develop an acceptable plan of care. An ethics to alleviate the problem.
resource person in the agency, such as an ethicist,
clergy member or ethics committee, can also be Plan/approach
of assistance. Other resources are literature, CNO Develop an action plan that takes into account
■
Practice Consultants and the Centre for Bioethics at factors drawn from the assessment, options and
the University of Toronto. consequences. Sometimes doing nothing is the
best course of action. This should be a conscious
There are many ways of working through and decision, since doing nothing will affect the
understanding ethical situations. One example of outcome and should not be a means of avoiding a
how to do this is included in this section. For other decision.
examples, refer to the bibliography, which begins on Decide which is the best course of action.
■
■ Reassess and re-plan if others are concerned Revised 2002 practice standards. Joanne then
with the outcome. For example, a client refuses consults a colleague, who teaches ethics to nursing
a recommended treatment. The team has done students, and a Practice Consultant at CNO. Both
everything possible to inform the client of the individuals tell her that there is no absolute duty to
consequences of refusing the treatment. Further respect confidentiality. Confidential information
assessment might uncover ethnocultural beliefs can be disclosed when a person(s) is at serious
that make it impossible for the client to agree to risk. However, it is preferable if the client discloses
the treatment. In light of this information, the the information. If the client refuses, the nurse is
team can either recommend another treatment or obligated to take action to prevent serious harm to
accept the client’s decision. an innocent person(s).
■ Consider policies and guidelines for subsequent
situations and decisions, and revise them as Joanne decides that she needs to know more about
necessary. John’s clinical situation and sees John’s psychiatrist
■ Assess the time allowed for ethical decision- the next time she is working. The psychiatrist is
making. Many ethical dilemmas occur when surprised that John has this type of employment
there is not enough time to consider the issues as he was discharged on the condition that he
properly. have only supervised contact with children. The
psychiatrist shares Joanne’s concerns.
Evaluation will help sensitize participants to ethical
thinking and improve their ability to work through With the information she has, Joanne thinks
ethical dilemmas. the dilemma is whether she should break client
confidentiality to protect children from the threat
Scenario of serious harm. Joanne is also concerned about
John’s well-being, now that he is living in the
The following situation illustrates an ethical community and has found employment. As well,
dilemma and has been worked through using by disclosing confidential information, she will not
the proposed framework. This scenario provides have maintained a commitment to a client.
an answer for the purpose of understanding the
framework. A similar real-life situation would Joanne has several options
need to be worked through in the context of the 1. Do nothing. She would not tell John’s new
particulars of that situation before choosing the employer or her neighbours, reasoning that she
third option. is uncertain about the risk and wants to err on
the side of caution by not disclosing confidential
One of Joanne’s clients in the psychiatric unit, information. She will, however, tell her children
John, confides to her that he is fascinated by young to avoid him.
children, boys and girls. He tells Joanne he is
afraid that he will hurt a child some day. Joanne In choosing this option, Joanne is potentially
brings that information to the team. A short time placing children at risk and is, therefore, not
later, John is discharged. Some weeks following his following her professional obligations to prevent
discharge, Joanne notices that John is the ice-cream potential serious harm. Joanne is overlooking the
vendor in her neighbourhood. She is concerned for fact that to do nothing is a decision to be passive
the children in the neighbourhood, her own as well (i.e., an act of omission is an act of commission).
as the others, and wonders what she should do. She has failed to honour her commitment to her
client and others.
A. Assessment/description of situation
Joanne decides that she needs more information. 2. Reveal confidential information. Joanne
She reviews her professional obligations by referring would tell John’s employer of the potential
to CNO’s Ethics and Professional Standards, risk, considering that she must protect the
neighbourhood children from potential harm. the situation, Joanne sees that giving confidential
information to an employer and the neighbourhood
With this option, Joanne might protect the would not protect children because John could
children from potential risk, but at a great cost. move to another town. The real issue is how to
The result of revealing this information would be provide appropriate care and maintain a commit
that John would probably lose his job, come to ment to the client and others.
mistrust nurses and deteriorate clinically. Again,
Joanne would not have honoured her professional C. Implementation/action
obligation to protect client confidentiality. Joanne contacts John, and he agrees to see the
psychiatrist. John is assessed and found to present a
3. Try to meet both her obligation to protect the danger. John agrees to treatment and is admitted to
public and to protect her client’s confidentiality the psychiatric facility.
and well-being. Working with the mental
health care team, Joanne would arrange for Another finding could have been that John does not
John to be assessed by the team to determine pose a risk to children and, therefore, there is no
whether he poses a danger to children at this justification for disclosing confidential information
time. If the team determines that John poses a to anyone.
serious danger to children, it must then decide
how to respond to this situation. John could D. Evaluation/outcome
be an involuntary client unless he agreed to be The team meets to assess how John “slipped
admitted to a psychiatric facility. If it were found through the cracks.” The team determines that
that John does not pose a danger, then there is no heavy workloads brought on by staff cutbacks have
justification to disclose confidential information. resulted in some clients being discharged too early.
The discharge planning process for clients who have
With this option, Joanne can begin to meet her a history of dangerous behaviour is re-evaluated to
obligations to the client and to the public. prevent another premature discharge. As well, the
team proposes a follow-up program for clients with
B. Plan/approach similar mental health problems. Joanne is praised
Joanne chooses the third option. The team decides for her swift attention to a potentially dangerous
to ask John if he will agree to see his psychiatrist situation. An educational program regarding the
for an assessment. Joanne is chosen to contact John criteria for involuntary admission and respect for
because she is the team member who has had the confidentiality is arranged.
closest therapeutic relationship with him.
At the end, Joanne reflected and realized that if
Her justification for this option is that the priority she had taken the second option and revealed the
is to respect client well-being. John may need client’s confidential information, John would not
further care and, if so, this should be provided. have received needed care. Also, he could have
Joanne’s other priority is to prevent harm to others. moved and presented a danger to children in a
To do so, she realizes that she has to determine different location. She also realized that the first
whether John is a serious risk to children. By option to do nothing would have been less trouble
thinking through the problem, Joanne realizes in the short run, but could have led to serious and
that whether to disclose confidential information harmful consequences for John and the children
is not the ethical dilemma. When she reflects on later on.
Conclusion
This ethical framework is designed to provide
nurses with direction in identifying and resolving
ethical situations. Because nurses will not be
able to address every situation that arises alone,
they will need to access resources and use their
judgment based on the particulars of the situation.
Continuing education about ethical issues and
conflicts will help nurses and other health care
professionals understand and resolve new ethical
situations. Reading and discussing this document
is a first step in the process. Ongoing self-reflection
and further discussion with peers about these issues
will contribute to nurses’ ability to resolve ethical
situations in their practice. A selected bibliography
has been included to assist in further education
about ethics.
Clark, L., Robbs, L. & Walkerley, S. (1993). Krouse H. & Roberts, S.J. (1980). Nurse-patient
Potential and pitfalls of a nursing ethics interactive styles: power, control, and satisfaction.
subcommittee. Registered Nurse, 5(3), Western Journal of Nursing Research, 11(6), pp.
pp. 9–11. 717–725.
Comack, M. (1993). Feeding the dying: Myths & Lund, M. (1991). Stopping treatment: Who decides?
realities. Registered Nurse, 5(3), pp. 20–21. Geriatric Nursing, 12(3), pp. 147–151.
Curtin, L. (1994). Collegial ethics of a caring Marck, P. (1990). Therapeutic reciprocity: A caring
profession. Nursing Management, 25(8), phenomenon. Advances in Nursing Science, 13(1),
pp. 28–32. pp. 49–59.
Curtin, L. (1993). Creating moral space for nurses. Milner, S. (1993). An ethical nursing practice
Nursing Management, 24(3), model. Journal of Nursing Administration, 23(3),
pp. 18–19. pp. 22–25.
Ericksen, J. (1993). Putting ethics into education. Moorhouse, A., Caulfield, P., Donner, G. &
The Canadian Nurse, 89(5), pp. 18–20. Thomas, J. (1993). A pilot study of bioethics
education of nursing students. Registered Nurse,
Ericksen, J. (1989). Steps to ethical reasoning. The 5(3), pp. 16–19.
Canadian Nurse, 85(7), pp. 23–24.
Morse, J., Solberg, S., Neander, W., Bottorff, J. &
Foster, P., Larson, D. & Loveless, E.M. (1993). Johnson, J. (1990). Concepts of caring and caring
Helping students learn to make ethical decisions. as a concept. Advances in Nursing Science, 13(1),
Holistic Nursing Practice, 7(3), pp. 1–14.
pp. 28–35.
Moulsdale, W. & Johnston-Canjar, S. (1993). A
Fowler, M. (1989). Ethical decision-making in nurse’s view: Ethics in the neonatal intensive care
clinical practice. Nursing Clinics of North America, unit. Registered Nurse, 5(3), pp. 14–15.
24(4), pp. 955–965.
Nelson, H. (1992). Against caring. The Journal of
Fry, S. (1989). Toward a theory of nursing ethics. Clinical Ethics, 3(1), pp. 8–15.
Advances in Nursing Science, 11(4), pp. 9–22.
Canadian Nurses Association. (1997). Code of ethics Roy, D., Williams, J. & Dickens, B. (1994).
for registered nurses. Ottawa, ON: Author. Bioethics in Canada. Scarborough, ON: Prentice
Hall.
Canadian Nurses Association. (1994). Ethical
guidelines for nurses in research involving human Victorian Order of Nurses, Hamilton-Wentworth
participants. Ottawa, ON: Author. Branch. (1993). Ethics in the community: A
learning package for health care professionals.
Canadian Nurses Association. (1997). Everyday Hamilton, ON: Author.
ethics... putting the code into practice. Ottawa, ON:
Author. Yeo, M. (1996). Concepts and cases in nursing ethics.
(2nd ed). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
Curtin, L. & Flaherty, M. (1982). Nursing Ethics:
Theories and pragmatics. Bowie, MD: Robert J.
Brady
Notes:
Notes:
June 2009
41034
2009-05