• Why only negative 24 vdc supply give in vibration measuring

The principle is that analyzer supplies a negative voltage

to transducer,who converts it into a frequency & sends it
across the probe.Now as the probe comes into the area of
rotor it creates a magnetic field & with it eddy current is
produced on the rotor side.Which changes the amplitude of
the frequency.It induces the voltage & remaining frequency
comes to the transducer through the return way.Transducer
converts it into the voltage .
Now coming back to the question The gap voltage has a
negative relation with the voltage induced i.e. as the gap
increases the induced voltage decreases.So to make it to
into a linear relation ship, negative voltage is supplied.
i.e

Gap Gap voltage

0 mm 0 vtg
1 mm -9 voltage
2 mm 18 voltage
& when the probe is in air it will have no induced voltage
so all -24 voltage without induced voltage will return back
Eddy Current (Proximity Probe) Transducer
Installation
Part-1 Radial Vibration
Eddy Current The gauge of the selected wire
Transducers depends on the length of the
(Proximity instrument wire run, and should be as
Probes) are follows to prevent loss of high
the vibration frequency signal:
transducer of Up to 200 feet 22 AWG
choice when installing vibration Up to 1000 feet 20 AWG
monitoring on Journal Bearing Up to 4000 feet 18 AWG
equipped rotating machinery. Eddy
Current Transducers are the only The following wiring connection
transducers that provide Shaft convention should be followed:
Relative (shaft relative to the bearing)
vibration measurement. Red -24 VDC
Black Common
Several methods are usually available
for the installation of Eddy Current White Signal
Transducers, including internal,
internal/external, and external Common Point Grounding
mounting. To prevent Ground Loops from
creating system noise, system
Before selecting the appropriate common, ground and instrument wire
method of mounting Eddy Current shield must be connected to ground at
Transducers, special consideration one location only. In most cases, the
needs to be given to several important recommendation is to connect
installation considerations that will commons, grounds and shields at the
determine the success of your Monitor location. This means that all
monitoring program. commons, grounds and shields must
be floated or not connected at the
Theory of Operation machine.

Eddy Current Transducers work on Occasionally due to installation

the proximity theory of operation. A
Eddy Current System consists of a
matched component system: a Probe,
an Extension Cable and an
Oscillator /Demodulator. A high
frequency RF signal @2 mHZ is
generated by the
Oscillator/Demodulator, sent through
methods instrument wire shields are
connected to ground at the machine
case and not at the monitor. In this
case, all of the instrument wire
shields must be floated or not
connected at the monitor.
Conduit
Dedicated conduit should be
the extension cable and radiated from provided in all installations for both
the Probe tip. Eddy currents are mechanical and noise protection.
generated in the surface of the shaft. Flexible metal conduit should be used
The Oscillator /Demodulator from the Eddy Probe to the Oscillator
demodulates the signal and provides a /Demodulator junction box, and rigid
modulated DC Voltage where the DC bonded metal conduit from the
portion is directly proportional to gap junction box to the monitor.
(distance) and the AC portion is
directly proportional to vibration. In Calibration
this way, a Eddy Current Transducer All Eddy Current Systems (Probe,
can be used for both Radial Vibration Cable and Oscillator Demodulator)
and distance measurements such as should be calibrated prior to being
Thrust Position and Shaft Position. installed. This can be done by using a
SKF-CM CMSS601 Static
Special Considerations Calibrator, -24 VDC Power Supply
and a Digital Volt Meter. The Probe
Number of Transducers is installed in the tester with the
All vibration transducers measure target set against the Probe tip. The
motion in their mounted plane. In micrometer with target attached is
other words, shaft motion either then rotated away from the Probe in
directly away from or towards the 0.005" or 5 mil increments. The
mounted Eddy Current Probe will be voltage reading is recorded and
measured as radial vibration. graphed at each increment. The
CMSS601 Calibrator will produce a
On smaller less critical machines, one voltage change of 1.0 VDC +-0.05
(1) Eddy Current Transducer system VDC for each 5 mils of gap change
per bearing may be adequate for while the target is within the Systems
machine protection. linear range.

The single Eddy Current Probe will Gap

then measure the shaft's vibration in When installed,Eddy Current Probes
that given plane. Therefore, the Eddy must be gapped properly. In most
Current Probe should be mounted in Radial Vibration applications,
the plane where the greatest vibrationgapping the transducer to the center
is expected. of the linear range is adequate. For
the Model CMSS65 and 68 gap
On larger more critical machines, two should be set for -12.0 VDC using a
(2) Eddy Current Transducer systems Digital Volt Meter (DVM), this
are normally recommended per corresponds to an approximate
bearing. The Probes for this type of mechanical gap of 0.060" or 60 mils.
installation should be mounted 900 The voltage method of gapping the
apart from each other. Since the Probe is recommended over
Probes will measure the vibration in mechanical gapping. In all cases,
their respective planes, the shaft's final Probe gap voltage should be
total vibration within the journal
 bearing is documented
measured. and kept in a
An "Orbit" safe place.
or cartesian
product of Internal
the two vibration signals may be Mounting
viewed when both Eddy Current
Transducers are connected to an Internal
SKF-CM Information System or an Mounting is accomplished with the
Oscilloscope. Eddy Current Probes mounted
internally to the machine or bearing
Linear Range housing with a SKF-CM CMSS903
Several versions of Eddy Current Bracket or with a custom designed
Transducers are available with a and manufactured bracket. The
variety of Linear Ranges and body Transducer system must be installed
styles. In most cases, SKF-CM's and gapped properly prior to the
CMSS68 with a linear range of 90 bearing cover being reinstalled.
mils (0.090") is more than adequate Provisions must be made for the
for Radial Vibration measurements... transducer's cable exiting the bearing
housing. This can be accomplished
Model Range Output Size by using an existing plug or fitting, or
CMSS65 90 mils
200 1/4"x28 UNF by drilling and tapping a hole above
mV/mil 1" to 5" Length the oil line. The Transducer's cables
200 3/8"x24 UNF must also be tied down within the
CMSS68 90 mils
mV/mil 1" to 9" Length
bearing housing to prevent cable
240 50 1" x 12 UNF 1"
CMSS62 failure from "windage".
mils mV/mil to 5" Length

Target Material/Target Area For added safety and reliability, all

Target Material
Eddy Current Transducers are
calibrated at the factory for 4140
Steel unless specified otherwise. As
Eddy Currents are sensitive to the
permeability and resistivity of the
shaft material any shaft material other
than 4000 series steels must be
specified at the time of order. In cases
of exotic shaft material a sample may
need to be supplied to the factory.
Mechanical Runout
Eddy Current Transducers are also
sensitive to the shaft smoothness for
Radial Vibration. A smooth (64
fasteners inside the bearing housing
should be safety wired, or otherwise
prevented from working loose inside
the machine.
Advantages of Internal Mounting
• Most economical installation.
• Less machining required.
• True bearing relative
measurement.
• Usually good viewing surface
for Eddy Probe.
Disadvantages of Internal Mounting
• No access to Probe while
micro-inch) area approximately 3
times the diameter of the Probe must
be provided for a viewing area. The
prepared journal area on most shafts
are wider than the bearing itself
allowing for Probe installation
immediately adjacent to the bearing.
machine is running.
• Cables must be tied down due
Electrical Runout
to "windage".
Since Eddy Current Transducers are
• Transducer cable exits must
sensitive to the permeability and
be provided.
resistivity of the target material and
• Care must be taken to avoid
the field of the transducer extends
oil leakage.
into the surface area of the shaft by
approximately 15 mils (0.015"), care
External/Internal Mounting
must be taken to avoid non
homogeneous viewing area materials
External/Internal mounting is
such as Chrome.
accomplished when the Eddy Probes
are mounted with a Mounting
Another form of electrical runout can
Adapter (SKF-CM CMSS911 or
be caused by small magnetic fields
904). These adopters allow external
such as those left by Magna-fluxing
access to the Probe yet allows the
without proper degaussing.
Probe tip to be internal to the
machine or bearing housing. Care
Perpendicular to shaft centerline
must be taken in drilling and tapping
Care must be exercised in all
the bearing housing or cover to insure
installations to insure that the Eddy
that the Eddy Probes will be
Current probes are mounted
perpendicular to the shaft center line.
perpendicular to the shaft center-line.
Deviation by more than 1-2 degrees
In some cases due to space
will effect the output sensitivity of the
limitations External/Internal
system.
mounting is accomplished by drilling
or making use of existing holes in the
Orientation of Transducer(s)
bearing itself, usually penetrating at a
As most machine casings are
oil return groove.
horizontally split, transducers are
commonly found mounted at 450
Advantages of External/Internal
both sides of vertical 900 apart.
Mounting
If possible transducer orientation
• Eddy Probe replacement
should be consistent along the length
while machine is running.
of the machine train for easier
• Usually good viewing area for
machine diagnostics. In all cases
Eddy Probe.
orientation should be well
• Gap may be changed while
machine is running.
 documented.
Transducer
(Probe) side
clearances
The RF Field
emitted from the Probe tip of a Eddy
Current Transducer in approximately
a 450 coned shape. Clearance must be
provided on all sides of the Probe tip
to prevent interference with the RF
Field. As an example, if a bearing is
drilled to permit installation, the hole
must be counter bored to prevent side
clearance interference. Care must also
be taken to avoid collars or shoulders
on the shaft that may thermally
"grow" under the Probe tip as the
shaft grows from heat.
Eddy Current Probe tip to tip
clearances
Although Probe tip to tip clearances
are not normally an issue on most
machines, it should be noted that
Eddy Current Probes radiate an RF
Field larger than the Probe tip itself.
As an example, Model CMSS65 and
68 probe should never be installed
with less than one (1) inch of Probe
tip to tip clearance. Larger Probes
require more clearance. Failure to
follow this rule will allow the
Oscillator/Demodulator to create a
"beat" frequency which will be the
sum and difference of the two
Oscillator/Demodulator RF
frequencies.
System Cable Length and Junction
Boxes
Eddy Current Transducer Systems are
a "tuned" length, and several system
lengths are available. Length is
measured from the Probe tip to the
Disadvantages of External/Internal
Mounting
• May not be true bearing
relative measurement.
• More machining required.
• Long Probe/Stinger length
(Resonance).
External Mounting
Pure external Eddy Probe mounting
is usually a last resort installation.
The only valid reason for using this
method is inadequate space available
within the bearing housing for
internal mounting. Special care must
be given to the Eddy Probe viewing
area and mechanical protection of the
transducer and cable.
Advantages of External Mounting
• Most Inexpensive Installation.
Disadvantages of External Mounting
• May be subject to "Glitch" or
Electrical/Mechanical runout.
• Requires mechanical
protection.
Installation Checklist
1. Mounting Type, Internal
External/Internal External
2. Number of Transducers, X or
X&Y
3. Target Material, 4140 Other
4. Smooth Target Area
5. Size of Target Area
 6. Junction Box Location(s)
Oscillator/Demodulator, and is 7. Metal Conduit (Junction Box
measured electrically which can to Monitor)
slightly vary the physical length. For 8. Flexible Conduit (Junction
example, the Model CMSS65 and 68 Box to Probe)
are available in 5 and 10 meter 9. Correct Instrument Wire
system lengths. Care must be taken to 10. Shielding Convention,
insure that the proper system length is Monitor or Machine
ordered to reach the required Junction 11. Calibration
Box.
12. Gap Set
Grounding and Noise
Electrical noise is a very serious
consideration when installing any
vibration transducer, and special care
needs to be taken to prevent
unnecessary amounts of noise. As
most plant electrical noise is 60 HZ,
and many machines running speed is
also 60 HZ, it is difficult to separate
noise from actual vibration signal.
Therefore, noise must be kept to an
absolute minimum.

Instrument Wire
A 3-wire twisted shielded instrument
wire (ie; Belden #8770) is used to
connect each Oscillator/Demodulator
to the Signal Conditioner in the
Monitor. Where possible, a single run
of wire from the
Oscillator/Demodulator (Junction
Box) to the Monitor location should
be used. Splices should be avoided.
Compressor Surge Control: Design And Modeling For
Performance Verification
By Marybeth Nored, Augusto Garcia-Hernandez, Klaus Brun and Jeff Moore, Southwest
Research Institute, San Antonio, TX | September 2009 Vol. 236 No. 9

Figure 3: Recycle Valve Tested During ESD Event At SwRI MRF.

Buyer's Guide
Compressor station pkgs.
Compressor valves
Compressors, gas

When a compressor reaches its surge condition, it loses the ability to maintain peak head
and the entire system becomes unstable.

Surge is most accurately described as a system phenomenon - not a localized instability.

Under normal conditions, the compressor operates to the right of the surge line.
Compressor surge is sometimes viewed as a common occurrence but design of a proper
surge control system should be regarded as both a necessary design practice and an
effective risk-mitigation measure.

The surge-control system is an important element in the compressor system because it

protects the compressor from surge over the range of compressor operations. Protection
of the compressor through the surge-control system will help to avoid considerably more
costly repairs or overhauls due to damaging surge conditions. Control systems may be
implemented using a variety of methods and philosophies. However, the primary
objective of any surge-control system should be to predict and prevent the occurrence of
surge so as to reduce possible damage to the compressor and ensure a safe working
environment for all station personnel. In order to ensure the system is designed properly
for its various and often competing requirements, operators will choose to verify
component selection, response time and behavior through a dynamic compressor surge
model.

The principle of a centrifugal compressor surge-control system is based on ensuring that

the flow through the compressor is not reduced below a minimum flow limit at a specific
head. The majority of surge-control techniques restrict the operation of the compressor to
flow rates above a defined surge-control line based on the surge margin for a particular
compressor. Restriction of the operating window of the compressor in order to avoid
surge because of mistakes in the surge control system design should be avoided. A
properly designed surge-control system can allow the operational range of the
compressor to be extended based on the response of the surge-control system.

At a minimum, the control system should actively measure the compressor head and flow
through the compressor system controls and determine the resulting operating point. The
recycle valve should be opened in a specified time to a valve set point determined by the
control system. This signal to the valve is based on the compressor operation, its
proximity and its movement (rate) relevant to the surge-control line. Opening of the
recycle valve in the surge-control system effectively avoids surge by providing more flow
and reducing compressor head, to move the compressor away from its surge point. In
Figure 1, the compressor rundown behavior is plotted over a head vs. flow map. The
compressor flow begins to drop from 900 cfm to 500 cfm. Shortly before reaching the
measured surge line, the recycle valve opens and the flow through the compressor
increases, to effectively avoid reducing the flow further to the left of the surge line.

A surge-control system should be capable of monitoring the operation of the compressor

continuously. The function of the surge-control system is to detect the approach to surge
and provide more flow to the compressor through opening the recycle valve to avoid the
potentially damaging flow reversal period and surge cycling. The surge-control system
should be designed for the three surge environments (which may have competing
demands) and the compressor operating parameters as well as manufacturer
specifications.

Various design philosophies are also provided through the use of surge-control system
design criteria, which allow the performance of the surge-control system to be evaluated.
The actual choice of design philosophy rests with the operating company and compressor
manufacturer - and may be based on experience with a particular compressor or station.
Common surge-system design philosophies may include:

1. Design To Avoid Surge: The philosophy requires control system design criterion
based on a calculated allowable discharge system volume. The allowable
discharge piping volume should be determined by simple or more complex
transient models of the compressor system.
2. Design To Permit Surge Under Specified Conditions: The design philosophy
acknowledges that due to operational changes to the compressor station or cost-
based decisions, the compressor may not be fully protected by the existing surge-
control system.
 3. Design Based On Risk Evaluation: The surge-control system is evaluated against
a set of risk factors developed for a particular compressor and dynamic simulation
is not necessarily required because of previous modeling efforts or experience.

The design of the surge-control system is more difficult than other station-control
systems because of the high speed of disturbances and dynamic nature of surge. In
addition, a variety of control system responses is required, depending on whether the
compressor is starting up, operating in its normal operation at a low flow period, or
undergoing a sudden shutdown.

Start-up Environment: The challenge to the surge-control system in the start-up

environment is to quickly bring the compressor up to design speed without overheating
the discharge gas. For steam turbine or single-shaft gas turbines, the start-up period will
be lengthened and cooling of the recycle gas may need to be considered. In a typical
start-up mode, gas is continually recycled to bring the compressor online. Operating in
continuous recycle will cause the process gas temperature to increase until new gas can
be supplied from upstream. With the recycle valve fully open and the downstream check
valve closed, all compression horsepower will serve as heat input to the recycled gas.

Normal Process Control: The operation of the surge-control system under normal process
operation is distinctly different. The surge-control system should not limit the operational
range of the compressor. A relatively flat surge line equates to higher surge sensitivity to
changes in compressor head. A steeper line indicates that the compressor is more
sensitive to flow-rate changes or uncertainties near the surge line. In either case, the
surge-control system must provide for smooth operation of the compressor. The
challenge for the surge-control system in process control is to match the transition into
surge (across the surge margin), which is typically gradual during normal process control,
with a gradual increase in flow through the recycle valve. This requires precision control
of the valve motion. The control signal and response of the recycle valve for normal
process control will differ from the shutdown environment. During normal process
control operation, lower gain signals should be used for adjusting the flow by opening or
closing the valve in a controlled manner.
Emergency Shutdown (ESD): In an ESD event, the compressor is suddenly shut down
and driver power is removed. This operation requires distinctly different functionality
from the surge-control system. Delayed shutdown or slowly decreasing speed is not
possible as ESDs are intended to provide immediate shutdown of the unit due to safety
considerations. The surge-control system must function quickly to open the recycle valve
fully because the coastdown path is not being controlled by the station operator - only by
the deceleration of the compressor based on the power train inertia and any residual
power in the system. The emergency shutdown requires more demanding control-system
response and may alter the surge-control system design because a single valve may not
provide sufficient flow quickly enough. Additional evaluation of the system may need to
be performed.

The worst-case emergency shutdown occurs when the compressor is operating at

maximum head at the lowest allowable surge margin. This operating point should govern
the design of the surge control system - as the maximum possible differential which must
be overcome by the recycle valve flow.

One of the most critical components in the surge system design is the recycle valve type
and design (especially in high horsepower compressor installations, > 100 MMscf/d).
Examples of the dramatic effects on the compressor rundown path are shown in Figure 2,
for various valve capacities and delays in opening time. Note these lines are actual test
results from the Southwest Research Institute closed-loop test facility on a Solar C-160
compressor. The 6-inch diameter recycle valve for the facility is shown in Figure 3. Test
7 on the performance map in Figure 2 corresponds to the normal operation of this valve.

Anti-Surge Valve Design

Complicated actuation systems on large recycle valves will introduce new dynamics into
the valve actuation system that may cause a departure from linearity in the response.
Response time or stroking time of the valve should not be used as the only criterion in
selection of the recycle valve because this will impair the controllability of the valve and
robustness of the design, needed for the process control environment.

Testing of the recycle valve for frequency response, amplitude step response in both
directions (opening and closing) is recommended for valves configured with custom
pneumatic systems or particularly large recycle valves (>12 inch diameter). In addition,
noise attenuation characteristics and the turbulence through the valve can become major
design issues for a station. High turbulence levels through a recycle valve have been
shown to cause low-frequency turbulent excitation which can excite the recycle loop
piping and structural support system. Recommended maximum noise level for the recycle
valve is 85 dBA or less during normal operations at 1 m distance. Noise requirements for
the valve during partial or full recycle may be different than those during a compressor
emergency shutdown event.

Valve actuation system requirements primarily stem from the process control
environment - not the shutdown environment. The key parameter to the recycle valve in
the process control environment is precise control of the valve position. It is necessary to
specify the speed for which the valve is allowed to change position and the amount of
overshoot permitted.

In the startup environment, the key criteria is to match the valve characteristic to the
compressor performance map to ensure that the compressor can come up to full speed as
the recycle valve is closed. The key requirements for the recycle valve in an ESD are
response time and flow-rate capacity for the given discharge system volume. For an
emergency shutdown, the valve opening time is critical. Typically for the first one-second
period after shutdown, the compressor deceleration will reduce the speed by
approximately 30% and the head by 50 %. This deceleration period can take as long as
five seconds, depending on the machine. To maintain flow through the compressor, the
recycle valve must begin to open within the first second after the downstream check
valve is closed.
The competing requirements for the recycle valve make use of multiple valve systems
appealing. This approach to surge-control system design is not often the most cost-
effective solution. In addition, the use of multiple valves for each surge-control function
will require additional testing to ensure that the transition into and out of each operation
is smooth.

Surge Control System Modeling

A surge model can be used to effectively design the surge-control system based on the
particular compressor system. Once the system-design criteria have been established, the
surge model should be used to verify the design criteria have been met. The modeling
process and interpretation of results should consider the high uncertainty associated with
any numerical transient model and the assumptions governing the compressor surge
model. If the transient model predicts the compressor operation to narrowly avoid the
actual surge condition, the high uncertainty of the model results should indicate that surge
is possible. In this case, the modeling effort would suggest that the surge-control system
or downstream piping volume should be redesigned.

Modeling the surge-control system in the startup, process control and shutdown
environment is recommended. The shutdown case will produce the most stringent
requirements for limiting piping volume and maintaining fast recycle valve response. A
basic fixed volume model can be implemented to determine surge-control system
dynamic response in the shutdown environment - as shown in Figure 4.

A more complex dynamic model may also be needed to model more complicated systems
with multiple recycle loops or more than one compressor unit. Several basic empirical
rules are sometimes used to determine if the surge-control system adequately protects the
compressor. These empirical rules are not necessarily physics-based and only apply to a
limited number of compressors and types of systems. A basic fixed-volume model can be
used in a spreadsheet-based application to determine a more accurate system-specific
discharge volume.

For more sophisticated systems and complicated piping geometries, transient (dynamic)
models may be warranted. Dynamic models of the compressor surge system are distinctly
different from a steady state model. The dynamic model is a purely transient study. The
model will predict pressure and flow rate based on the mass accumulation in the system
because these effects are transient processes. Dynamic models will predict intermediate
process conditions when the flow through the compressor is changed. These are useful in
the design of the compressor anti-surge control for all three working environments.

If properly modeled, the dynamic model should provide a resource for the operating
company and manufacturer in protecting the compressor prior to the installation of the
surge control system. An example of the amount of detail and component specifications
to these models is shown in the basic 1-D Stoner model layout for the SwRI closed loop
natural gas facility in Figure 5. In performing the recent testing of the Solar C-160
compressor, the authors determined the sensitivity of the modeling software to changes in
valve geometry, piping selection, friction factor, and compressor deceleration curves. In
addition, several non-dimensional parameters were developed to compare different
compressor piping systems in terms of deceleration, system energy and bleed volume. 1
This work was published recently at the ASME Turbo Expo by J. Moore et al.

The dynamic model can also be a valuable tool in the design of a new compressor system
installation. Results from the transient analysis should be used to evaluate the system
piping design, placement of the downstream check valve and anti-surge valve, and the
valve selection. The study should confirm the safe design of the surge-control system to
adequately protect the compressor from surge. A transient simulation of the surge-control
system can be used to save time and expense in changing the system after installation.
The transient modeling process should be employed in the design stage of a compressor
installation and adapted to suit the range of application needed. Many references in
industry are available to provide examples on the use of dynamic modeling to optimize or
predict the behavior of a surge-control system.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Gas Machinery Research Council for the funding and
support given to the compressor surge control research program