Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65

www.elsevier.com/locate/tsf

Band-gap engineering in CIGS solar cells using Nelder–Mead simplex

optimization algorithm
G. Černivec *, J. Krč, F. Smole, M. Topič
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaxka 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Available online 18 January 2006

Abstract

Band-gap grading in a CIGS absorber and a conduction band offset at n/p hetero-interface are two important parameters of band-gap
engineering aiming at high efficient CIGS solar cells. To obtain optimal CIGS absorber’s band-gap grading profile an automatic optimization loop
based on Nelder – Mead simplex optimization algorithm has been implemented. The optimization problem is described with an objective function,
which—by varying the input parameters—is minimized or maximized. In our study two types of objective functions are used; optical and
electrical. As the most optimal profile a parabolic, double graded band-gap profile with a positive or nearly zero conduction band offset at n/p
hetero-interface is calculated. Structures with different CIGS absorber thicknesses and bulk and/or hetero-interface recombination lifetimes are
examined and their optimized parameters are discussed in the light of experimental achievements.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: CIGS solar cell; Graded absorber; Window/absorber hetero-interface; Optimization algorithm

1. Introduction electrostatic fluctuations eventually result in increased recom-

Minority carrier lifetime of a CIGS absorber, quality of an n-
type window layer/p-type absorber layer hetero-interface and
the CIGS absorber’s band-gap profile are parameters that have
major influence on the performance of the CIGS solar cell.
Both, analytical [1] and numerical [2] approaches are used to
analyze the influence of the CIGS absorber and hetero-interface
as limiting factors of the conversion efficiency. The band-gap
profiles of the CIGS absorber can be realized with the spatial
variation of gallium (Ga) in the co-evaporation process [3]. In
band-gap engineering [4,5] main focus is on the effect of the
CIGS grading (normal, reverse, double), while keeping the
absorber’s and hetero-interface’s quality at best known
experimentally determined values.
In our work we investigate the effect of the minority carrier
recombination lifetime in the CIGS absorber and the hetero-
interface recombination velocity on the optimal band-gap
engineered CIGS absorber under standard test conditions—
STC (AM1.5, 1000 W/m2, 25 -C). Local fluctuations in
polycrystalline CIGS absorber [1] affect the transport proper-
ties. In our numerical modeling approach band-gap and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +386 1 4768 848; fax: +386 1 4264 630.
E-mail address: gregor.cernivec@fe.uni-lj.si (G. Černivec).
0040-6090/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2005.11.095
bination, which can be modeled as decreased bulk and/or
hetero-interface recombination lifetime.
We developed a numerical procedure for the automatic
optimization, which is explained in Section 2. Several
objective functions, needed in the automatic optimization
process were implemented to optimize the band-gap profile of
Cu(In1x Gax )Se2 absorber. Firstly, the minimization of the
thermalization power loss and the heat power loss is
investigated in graded band-gap profile optimization process,
in order to obtain solar cell with the overall maximum open-
circuit voltage and/or maximum output power. Secondly, the
CIGS absorbers with non-graded or graded band-gap profiles
of different thicknesses are optimized for the overall
maximum output power and conversion efficiency limitations
are discussed.
2. Optimization procedure
To describe an optimization problem an objective function,
i.e. functional, has to be constructed. It takes a vector input and
returns a scalar value. A Nelder –Mead simplex optimization
algorithm [6] is used in order to optimize the objective
function. The simplex algorithm does not need a derivative;
only a numerical evaluation of the objective function is
 G. Černivec et al. / Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65 61

x2 interface (xV = 0) and the DE cn/p; since the band-gap is

F3 changed on the account of the electron affinity (Dv n/
p
F2 =  DE cn/p) [9]. The values of the band-gap and the electron
affinity of the n-type window layer are kept fixed in our
Fnew study.
Optical simulator SunShine [10] is used to calculate
F2 > F1, F3 optical objective functions. Two optical objective functions
F1 are defined; the absorbed power and the thermalization
power loss:
x1 X Z Wcell hIc
Pabs ¼ GL ð x; kÞI dx; ð2Þ
Fig. 1. Geometrical interpretation of Nelder – Mead optimization algorithm in k 0 k
two parameter optimization space. F 1, F 2, and F 3 are functional evaluations of
original simplex. F 1, F 3 and F new are functional evaluations of new simplex. XZ Wcell  
New simplex and old simplex are generally non-symmetrical. hIc
Pth ¼ GL ð x; kÞI  Eg ð xÞ dx; ð3Þ
k 0 k

required. The basis for the simplex algorithm comes from
geometry as shown in Fig. 1. In two dimensional parameter
space simplex is a triangle, determined by three points
(vertices) and their interconnecting line segments [7]. At every
point the objective function is evaluated. The point with the
highest numerical value of all three points is perpendicularly
mirrored against the opposite line segment. This is called a
reflection. The reflection can be accompanied with an
expansion to take larger steps or with a contraction to shrink
the simplex where an optimization valley floor is reached. The
optimization procedure continues until the termination criteria
are met. The termination criterion is usually the maximum
number of reflections with contractions or the volume (area) of
the simplex. The algorithm is generally implemented in N
dimensions, where simplex is a hypercube with N + 1 vertex
points.
The automatic optimization loop consists of the Nelder –
Mead optimization algorithm, implemented in Mathematica 5.1
[8] and the objective functions. The objective function is
optimized by varying the input parameters. In order to
converge to the physically reasonable optimal solutions of
the parameter space, the objective function is weighted by the
penalty function. If the objective function or the input
parameters exhibit non-physical values, the penalty function
is set to the value, which turns the optimization path in the
opposite direction.
In the optimization process the input parameters are the
coefficients of the 2nd order polynomial, which describes the
band-gap profile of the CIGS absorber and the conduction
band offset (DE cn/p) at the n/p hetero-interface, according to
Eq. (1):
"   #
  xV xV 2
Eg xV; Eg0 ; k1 ; k2 ¼ qI Eg0 þ k1 I þ k2 I : ð1Þ
Wabs Wabs
Variable xV is a spatial variable, relative to the n/p hetero-
interface position, E g0, k 1, k 2 are the constant, linear and
quadratic polynomial coefficient, respectively, and Wabs is the
absorber’s thickness. The band-gap grading parameters k 1
and k 2 determine the shape of the band-gap profile, while
parameter E g0 determines the band-gap at the n/p hetero-
where h is the Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light, W cell
is the solar cell’s thickness, E g is spatially dependent solar
cell’s band-gap profile and G L is wavelength dependent
generation rate profile. The simulator uses one dimensional
optical model for multilayer structures with flat and/or rough
interfaces. Optical properties of the layers are defined with
wavelength dependent refractive index—n(k) and extinction
coefficient—k(k). In our optimizations both parameters are
determined based on the experimental results for the different
Cu(In1x Gax )Se2 alloys [11]. The extinction coefficients of
the sub-layers are modified during the optimization process
by shifting their energy (wavelength) axis, according to the
differences in the band-gaps [12]. The refractive index is
kept unchanged. Grading of optical band-gap is accomplished
by dividing the absorber into several discrete sub-layers (20
to 30), with constant but different optical band-gaps,
determined from the band-gap profile. In the optimization
procedure the AM1.5g spectrum is used.
Semiconductor simulator ASPIN [4] is used to calculate the
electrical objective functions. From the drift-diffusion semi-
conductor model [13] the following objective functions are
defined; the transport power ( P tsp) [14], the heat power loss
( P q) [15] and the recombination power loss ( P rec) [16] as
given by Eqs. (4) – (6):
Z Z
1 Wcell 1 Wcell
Ptsp ¼ lEfn ð xÞJn ð xÞdx þ lEfp ð xÞJp ð xÞdx;
q 0 q 0
ð4Þ
where E fn(x), E fp(x) are the electron and hole quasi-Fermi
energies, respectively, J n(x), J p(x) are the electron and hole
electrical current densities, respectively, q is the electron charge
and W cell is the thickness of the solar cell.
Z Wcell
 
Pq ¼ GL ð xÞI Eg ð xÞ  leh ð xÞ dx; ð5Þ
0
Z Wcell
Prec ¼ Rð xÞIleh ð xÞdx: ð6Þ
0
The symbols G L(x) and R(x) correspond to the volume
generation and recombination rate profile, respectively, and
62 G. Černivec et al. / Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65
l eh(x) is a difference of the quasi-Fermi energies, i.e. the
electro-chemical energy per electron-hole pair. The P out
electrical objective function is defined as maximum power
point on the current– voltage (J –V) characteristic of a solar
cell:
  
Pout ¼ f JV Eg0 ; k1 ; k2 : ð7Þ
The quality of the CIGS absorber layer and the hetero-
interface is modeled with the recombination lifetime for the
minority carriers (s bulk) [17] and surface recombination
velocity for the majority carriers (S int) [18], respectively.
The back contact is modeled with surface recombination
velocity equal for majority and minority carriers (S back). The
s bulk, S int, S back and the effective density of states (N c, N v)
are in our study modeled as independent of E g(xV).
3. Band-gap optimization of the Cu(In1x Gax )Se2 absorber
In our optimization study a ZnO:Al/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo
structure is chosen. The semiconductor properties of the
layers are taken from the literature [19]. No electrostatic
fluctuations [1] are assumed; the conduction and the valence
band are smooth and continuous. In the optimization process
the minority carrier lifetime (s bulk) in the CIGS absorber and
the interface recombination velocity (S int) at the CdS/CIGS
hetero-interface are set as independent parameters. The s bulk
values in the range from 1 to 10 ns are assumed as typical for
the CIGS absorber [17], while larger s bulk values are used in
order to explore the efficiency limits and improvement
possibilities. The S int values in the range from 5 I 10 4 v th
to 5 I 10 2 v th are assumed as physically reasonable [2,18],
where v th is a thermal velocity. S int below this range is used
with the same purpose as an overestimated s bulk. A constant
recombination velocity (S back) of 105 m s 1 is assumed at the
back contact. When the CIGS absorber is optimized as non-
graded, the optimization parameter space consists of E g0,
while k 1 and k 2 are set to zero. When the optimization is
2.2
J sc = 230 A/m2
J sc = 250 A/m2
2.0 J sc = 270 A/m2
CdS/CIGS
hetero-interface
J sc = 290 A/m2
J sc = 310 A/m2
J sc = 330 A/m2
1.8 J sc = 350 A/m2
min(Eg)
Eg [eV]
1.6
1.4
1.2
X'
1.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
x [μm]
Fig. 2. Band-gap profiles which produce minimum sum of the thermalization
( P th) and heat ( P q) power losses in the absorption process. The J sc is targeted
with the penalty function. The absorber’s thickness is Wabs = 1 Am; s bulk = 1 ns;
S int = 10 2 v th, where v th is a thermal velocity.
0.80
600
500
0.75
220 Ptsp+Prec
Pq
200 Pth 0.70
Pabs
P [W/m2]
- Voc
-Voc [V]
180
Pout
0.65
160
140
0.60
120
100 0.55
80
0.50
230 250 270 290 310 330 350
JSC [A/m2 ]
Fig. 3. Power-balance of the CIGS solar cell as a generator under STC. The
absorbed power ( P abs), reduced for the thermalization power loss ( P th) and the
heat power loss ( P q) produces the electro-chemical power. The electro-
chemical power is in the process of carrier transport and recombination reduced
for the internal transport power ( P tsp) and the recombination power loss ( P rec),
which results in output power ( P out). Since the J sc is targeted with the penalty
function, the band-gap grading profile is optimized in a way to produce the
overall maximum Voc and maximum P out. The absorber’s thickness is Wabs =
1 Am; s bulk = 1 ns; S int = 10 2 v th, where v th is thermal velocity.
carried out for a graded absorber, the optimization parameter
space consists of E g0, k 1 and k 2.
3.1. Minimization of the thermalization and heat power losses
Two objective functions are used in this optimization
process; optical—the thermalization power loss ( P th) and
electrical—the heat power loss ( P q). Sum of both objective
functions represents a coupled objective function to be
minimized. Since ( P th + P q) minimum would be obtained at
no absorption and to consider the collection of carriers, a
short-circuit current ( J sc) is included into the optimization
as the penalty function. A simple penalty function is used,
which abruptly increases the sum of both objective
functions, if the desired J sc is not reached. Fig. 2 shows
the optimized band-gap profiles for targeted J sc in 1 Am
CIGS/Mo
back thick CIGS absorber. In a desire to improve the collection
contact
efficiency all profiles exhibit the band-gap increment
towards the back contact. When increasing the targeted
J sc, the band-gap lowering can be observed, mainly at the
hetero-interface. All of these profiles produce minimums of
the ( P th + P q), but only one ( J sc = 290 A/m2) produces
maximum of P out as can be seen in Fig. 3. With this type
of the optimization local Voc or P out maximums are found—
determined by the targeted J sc. In order to find the overall
maximum Voc and/or P out maximum, range of the attainable
J sc values has to be searched. For the analyzed solar cell
1.4
with Wabs = 1 Am, the overall maximum Voc is obtained with
the band-gap grading profile that produces 250 A/m2 of J sc.
Since the minimization of ( P th + P q) tries to maximize E g
and l eh, as seen from the Eqs. (3) and (5), this type of
optimization is more appropriate when searching for the
 G. Černivec et al. / Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65 63

0.16
band-gap profile which will produce the overall maximum
(a)
Voc.
0.14

3.2. Maximization of output power

[eV]
0.12

CdS/CIGS
The minimization of the ( P th + P q) does not consider the
transport power. By maximizing the P out electrical objective 0.10

Δ EC
function the transport power loss is implicitly considered and
band-gap profile with the overall maximum output power is 0.08
found.
Following optimizations were done: (1) Optimization of back contact bulk recombination
0.06 recombination
1 Am thick, non-graded absorber. To obtain an overall
E g0  (s bulk,, S int) dependence, the s bulk and S int were varied 220 (b)
from 1 ns to 50 As and from 10 2 v th to 10 12 v th, respectively.
200
(2) Optimization of non-graded absorbers of different thick-
nesses with S int set to 10 2 v th and s bulk varied from 1 to 200 180

Pout [W/m2 ]
ns. (3) Optimization of 1 and 3 Am thick graded absorbers for
two S int values; 10 2 v th and 10 4 v th. The s bulk was varied 160

from 1 to 200 ns. 140 τ bulk = 200 ns

Contour plot of optimized E g0 as a function of S int and τ bulk = 50 ns
s bulk is shown in Fig. 4a. When lowering s bulk, the 120
τ bulk = 10 ns
optimized E g0 increases, reducing the bulk recombination. 100 τ bulk = 1 ns
On the other hand the increased S int (S int > 10 6 v th) starts
limiting the Voc [2,18]. The optimized E g0 is lowered to 80
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 .5 3.0
increase the absorption and maintain the efficiency. The Wabs [μm]
lowest output power (Fig. 4b) is determined by finite
minority carrier mobility, while the highest output power is Fig. 5. Conduction band offset at the CdS/CIGS hetero-interface (a) and output
power of structures with optimized non-graded CIGS absorber (b). Positive
limited by the absorption properties of the CIGS absorber
values of the conduction band offset indicate the ‘‘spike-like’’ offset [2]. Wabs is
[1]. the thickness of the CIGS absorber layer; S int = 10 2 v th, where v th is thermal
velocity. Parameter optimization space: E g0.

(a) Eg0 [eV] 1.40 1.35 When optimizing non-graded absorbers of different thick-
10 -5
1.30 nesses, the conduction band offset (DE cCdS/CIGS) gives the
information about the CdS/CIGS hetero-interface:
10 -6
τ bulk [s]

1.40 1.35 DEcCdS=CIGS ¼ EgCdS  DEvCdS=CIGS  Eg0 ; ð8Þ

10 -7 1.45
1.50 1.45
1.55
1.50 1.45
where E gCdS is the band-gap of the CdS window layer,
1.40
1.55 1.50
1.55 1.35 DE vCdS/CIGS is the valence band offset at the CdS/CIGS
10 -8 1.60 hetero-interface and E g0 is the absorber’s band-gap at the
1.60 1.45
1.60 1.50
1.55 1.40 hetero-interface. DE cCdS/CIGS changes only on the account of
the E g0, since the valence band edge is not affected by gallium
(b) 2
Pout [W/m ] (Ga) addition [9]. At s bulk > 1 ns the DE cCdS/CIGS exhibits the
10 -5 200
210 190
absorber thickness dependence, shown in Fig. 5a. With
decreasing CIGS absorber’s thickness (Wabs < 0.7 Am), the
10 -6 DE cCdS/CIGS decreases, i.e. optimized E g0 increases. The
τ bulk [s]

200
minority carrier (electron) concentration at the back contact
10 -7
210 190 is lowered and the back-contact recombination is reduced [3].
In thick (Wabs > 0.7 Am) CIGS absorbers this effect is less
210 210
210 pronounced. Major efficiency improvement is observed when
10 -8 200 changing the absorber’s quality to s bulk = 10 ns (Fig. 5b). At
200 200 200 190 180
higher s bulk the efficiency improvement saturates. The
190 190 190
10 -9 180 170 thickness dependent P out saturates due the absorption proper-
10 -12 10 -10 10 -8 10 -6 10 -4 10 -2
ties of the CIGS absorber.
Sint [vth]
Optimized band-gap profiles of 1 Am thick CIGS absorber
Fig. 4. Optimized E g0 (a) and P out contours (b) of 1 Am thick, non-graded CIGS exhibit double grading (Fig. 6a). With improved hetero-
absorber under STC. Parameter optimization space: E g0. interface quality (S int = 10 4 v th) the Voc increase from 60 to
64 G. Černivec et al. / Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65

1.8
(a) τbulk = 1ns (c) τbulk = 1ns CIGS/Mo
τbulk = 10ns CIGS/Mo τbulk = 10ns
τbulk = 50ns τbulk == 200ns
50ns

1.6 τbulk = 200ns τbulk > 1μs

τbulk > 1μs
Eg [eV]

-2
Sint= 10 vth
1.4

1.2 Sint = 10-2 vth

(b) ∇
Voc = 60 mV (d)
∇
Voc = 130 mV
∇
CdS/CIGS ∇ Voc = 140 mV
1.6 Voc = 150 mV
∇
Voc < 240 mV
Eg [eV]

Sint = 10-4 vth

1.4

∇
Sint = 10-4 vth Voc
∇ = 110 mV
Voc
∇ = 125 mV
1.2 CdS/CIGS Voc
∇ = 115 mV
Voc
∇ = 123 mV
Voc < 150 mV

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
x [μm] x [μm]

Fig. 6. Optimized graded 1 Am thick CIGS absorber with S int = 10 2 v th (a), S int = 10 4 v th (b) and optimized graded Wabs = 3 Am thick CIGS absorber with S int = 10 2
v th (c) and S int = 10 4 v th (d), where v th is thermal velocity. Band-gap profiles are optimized for different absorber qualities. Parameter optimization space: E g0, k 1, k 2.

150 mV can be observed (Fig. 6b). 3 Am thick CIGS absorber
with s bulk > 1 ns is optimized with double graded band-gap
profiles (Fig. 6c). The s bulk = 1 ns band-gap profile is optimized
in single grading in order to minimize the bulk recombination.
The Voc increase due the hetero-interface improvement ranges
from 110 to 120 mV (Fig. 6d). Normal grading, i.e. band-gap
increase towards the back contact, increases the collection
efficiency due to the effective field, which repels the electrons
from the back contact. Reverse grading, i.e. band gap increase
towards the CdS/CIGS hetero-interface, increases the Voc, but
1.25
1.20
P norm
opposes the electric field in the space charge region (SCR) and
decreases the collection efficiency. In order to minimize bulk
recombination, band-gap profiles of CIGS absorbers with low
s bulk are overall optimized to higher values irrespective to the
S int.
Optimized band-gap graded profiles improve the efficiency
for all CIGS absorber thicknesses (Fig. 7). Maximum
efficiency improvements, reaching 15% to 23 % relative,
are achieved in 0.5 Am thick band-gap graded CIGS absorber.
3.3. Discussion
τ bulk > 1 μs From Fig. 4 we can observe that maximal output power
τ bulk = 200 ns under STC of a CIGS solar cell with 1 Am thick, non-graded
τ bulk = 50 ns absorber (for given realistic absorption and transport proper-
τ bulk = 10 ns ties) is 210 W/m2, resulting in 21% conversion efficiency.
τ bulk = 1 ns With optimal band-gap grading the output power can be

1.15
improved up to 19% relatively, as shown in Fig. 7. This
would result in band-gap graded solar cell with 25%
1.10
conversion efficiency. The fundamental mechanisms that
limit CIGS solar cell’s efficiency to 25% are the transport
power and the recombination power losses. The sum of both
1.05 ( P tsp + P rec) varies under STC from 70 to 90 W/m2— as
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 plotted in Fig. 3. This loss accounts for a decrease of
Wabs [μm] theoretical limit of 33% conversion efficiency ranging from
Fig. 7. Optimized graded absorber’s P out normalized with the optimized non- 7% to 9% absolutely.
graded absorber’s P out for various absorber qualities. Wabs is the thickness of With realistic bulk and hetero-interface recombination
the CIGS absorber layer; S int = 10 2 v th, where v th is thermal velocity. properties (s bulk = 10 ns, S int = 10 2 v th) the conversion
 G. Černivec et al. / Thin Solid Films 511 – 512 (2006) 60 – 65
efficiencies of non-graded absorber would reach 18% and
with optimizing the grading profile the efficiency could be
improved for additional 13% relatively (Fig. 7) to 20.5%
absolutely.
4. Conclusions
A procedure to automatically optimized absorber layer in
CIGS solar cells has been developed. The Nelder – Mead
simplex optimization algorithm was implemented to examine
and optimize n-type window layer/p-type CIGS absorber layer
hetero-structure. Two optimization criteria were applied; the
minimization of the thermalization power loss and heat power
loss and the maximization of the output power.
When optimizing the CIGS absorber’s band-gap profile with
the electrical function maximization criterion, the overall
maximum output power is obtained, since the transport loss
is implicitly considered in the output power. The absorbers
with s bulk < 10 ns are optimized in normal graded band-gap
profiles, while optimized profiles of the absorbers with
s bulk > 10 ns exhibit double grading. Optimal E g0 depends on
the hetero-interface recombination velocity (S int). The overall
maximum output power for physically reasonable S int values is
obtained with E g0 ranging from 1.3 to 1.4 eV. Band-gap
engineering renders higher output power improvements for
structures with thinner CIGS absorber layer.
65
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