AP Biology - Reading Guide Questions

Ch. 12: The Cell Cycle

Instructions: You are to complete every question, regardless of the quality of your answer.
Each question must also be answered using complete sentences and thoughts. Grammar and the
accuracy of your statements count, so think through your answer. Incorrect information can
cancel a correct thought. If you choose to include a diagram, it must be properly and completely
labeled, but cannot be the only response provided. Finally, you are not permitted to
copy/plagiarize any source including your text book and websites. You are to produce your own
original work and while paraphrasing may sometimes seem like the only way to answer a
question, you need to prove to me that you have processed the information for your own
understanding.

1. Link the terms gametes, chromosomes, chromatin, somatic cells and genome
together.

Chromosomes are genetic material in the nucleus of the cell that are made
up of the DNA, which contains the genes. This gives the cell its unique
characteristics. What is also unique to the cell is the number of
chromosomes it contains; each cell contains a specific amount. Somatic
cells, which are the body cells of humans excluding sperm and eggs cells,
have 46 chromosomes, 23 from one parent and the other 23 from the other
parent. On the other hand sperm and egg cells, gametes, have only 23
chromosomes. All of these chromosomes, including all other eukaryotic
cells’ chromosomes, consist of the DNA material along with proteins to
help the chromosome function and remain secure. This is known as
chromatin. Together, all of this genetic material is known as the cell’s
genome. In order for all cells to have a proper genome, when a cell divides
to form a new cell, the DNA first has to be doubled.

2. Produce a simple compare and contrast of mitosis and meiosis.

During mitosis, somatic cells are produced. This happens when the
starting cell’s (parent cell) DNA, and therefore chromosomes, are copied
and then doubled. This results in the formation of two sister chromatids
that make up the chromosome. Identical genetic information is found
amongst the sister chromatids. Then, these two sister chromatids begin to
break apart from each other and form two, single chromosomes. As the
nucleus begins to separate, these chromosomes are brought to the two
daughter cells once cytokinesis occurs. These chromosomes have the exact
genetic information as each other ultimately 46 chromosomes will make
 up one (body/somatic) cell. This process is similar to meiosis in that
chromosomes are distributed to from new cells. However, meiosis is
different because it creates new daughter cells in the gonads that do not
have the exact genetic information as each other. Additionally, the
daughter cells that are produced are gametes, not somatic cells. These
daughter cells that form also only have 23 chromosomes rather than 46.

3. Name and describe what occurs and either limits or permits each stage of the cell
cycle.

The first stage is Interphase, which is made up of G1 phase, S phase, and G2

phase. During the G2 phase, the nucleus, with a nucleoli, is surrounded by
nuclear envelope. A centrosome doubles to form another centrosome.
Chromosomes have been doubled from the S phase but have not taken their
shape yet. Next is prophase. During this stage, chromosomes begin to take
shape because chromatin fibers begin to coil. Two sister chromatids form
from the chromosomes. Centrosomes move apart and release microtubules,
forming an aster of microtubules that make up the mitotic spindle. The
nucleoli also disappear. Then there is prometaphase. During this phase, the
nuclear envelope begins to deteriorate which causes microtubules to move
towards chromosomes to pass through the middle of cell. Chromatids of
chromosomes contain kinetochore (proteins), which is the attachment site to
the spindle. There are also microtubules connected to the kinetochore to move
the chromosomes. Next is metaphase. This is the longest stage. Centrosomes
are at completely different ends by this point. Chromosomes with their
centromeres align themselves on metaphase plate (center). Kinetochores are
connected to microtubules, again creating keeping the spindle. After this
comes anaphase, which is the shortest. During anaphase, sister chromatids
separate to form individual chromosomes, which move to different sides of
the cell (starting with centromere) and causes kinetochore microtubules to
shrink. The cell stretches out when other microtubules stretch. At the end of
this stage, chromosomes are equally distributed to both sides of cell so that it
can soon divide. The last two phases are telophase and cytokinesis. During
telophase, 2 daughter nuclei begin to take shape as well as a nuclear envelope
from the parent cell’s envelope. Chromosomes loosen and lose their
compactness. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm doubles and splits. Cleavage
furrow forms (indent) in animal to separate the cells apart. This production of
2 daughter cells is the M phase. After, the newly formed cells can then go
through interphase and G1 phase so that the cells can grow and duplicate
within to prepare for more divisions.
4. What role does the centrosome play in both plants and animal cell division?

Centrosomes are important in both plant and animal cell division because
they help create the mitotic spindle (microtubules and proteins), which is
necessary in mitosis in order for the chromosomes to separate and then to
move apart so that the cell can divide. The centrosome helps to build this
spindle because it helps bring all the microtubule fibers together. In order
for this to happen, the centrosome must first double to form another
centrosome. Then the two centrosomes must relocate (during prophase and
prometaphase) to different ends of the cell. As they do so, microtubules
are released out from the centrosomes. By the time the two centrosomes
reach different sides of the cell and move to the pole of the spindle, the
microtubules form an aster, multiple microtubule fibers that are connected
to each centrosome. The apparatus forms. The centrosome plays almost
the same role in both animal and plant cells. The only difference is that in
animal cells, centrioles are found in the centrosomes. However, they have
little importance when it comes to forming the mitotic spindle.

5. Label the following diagrams indicating key features in each cell stage.

The nucleus, with a nucleoli,
is surrounded by nuclear
envelope. Two centrosomes
are present after first
centrosome doubles.
Chromosomes have been
doubled but have not taken
their shape yet.
Chromosomes begin to take shape Nuclear envelope begins to break apart
as chromatin fibers coil. Two sister
which causes microtubules to move
chromatids form from the towards chromosomes; microtubules
chromosomes. Centrosomes move pass through middle of cell.
apart and release microtubules Chromatids of chromosomes contain
(asters form), forming mitotic kinetochore (protein) which is the
spindle. Nucleoli disappears. attachment site. There are also
microtubules connected to the
kinetochore to move the chromosomes.
 Shortest stage. Sister chromatids
Longest stage. Centrosomes are at
separate to form individual 2 daughter nuclei take shape
completely different ends.
chromosomes, which move to with nuclear envelope from
Chromosomes with their centromeres
different sides of the cell (starting parent cell. Chromosomes
align themselves on metaphase plate.
with centromere) and causes loosen.
Kinetochores connected to
kinetochore microtubules to shrink. Cytoplasm doubles and splits.
microtubules, again keeping the
Cell stretches out when other Cleavage furrow (indent) in
spindle.
microtubules stretch. Chromosomes animal cells to separate.
equally distributed to both sides of
cell.

6. Taken from pg. 225 (7th edition), Figure 12.8: Inquiry – During anaphase, do
kinetochore microtubules shorten at their spindle pole ends or their kinetochore
ends?

Kinetochore microtubules shorten at their kinetochore ends, not their

spindle pole ends, which explains that as chromosomes move and follow
the microtubules and move to different ends of the cell, the kinetochore
microtubules shorten at their kinetochore ends.

7. Who/what utilizes binary fission and what are the complications with a so-called
simpler division?

Prokaryotic cells reproduce and create new cells through binary fission,
which occurs when the DNA (bacterial chromosome) doubles at the origin
of replication and then the two separate chromosomes move away from
each other until they reach different sides of the cell. The plasma
membrane must also be doubled so that the prokaryote can split to form
two cells. However, there are complications that come with binary fission.
However, although this process is simpler because there is only one
bacterial chromosome that contains the DNA, when this chromosome
 starts to double the chromosomes begin to take over the cell because the
cell is so small. In order for the chromosomes to fit within the cell before
it has the chance to expand and eventually split, the chromosomes have to
be folded or coiled a lot more than they usually would have to. Because of
this there can always be problems with creating new and exact genomes.

8. Your textbook provides an analogy for the cell cycle control system. This
question asks that you provide a different visual anaology (i.e. – draw one) and
label it properly with the correct checkpoints.
9. Translate into Freshman-level English, this phrase from your textbook, “…
kinases are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating
them.” and explain in what area of cell division this applies (with AP-level detail).
Kinases are enzymes that are used to attach phosphate groups to other
proteins, so that those proteins change in some way to be effective within
the cell cycle. Protein kinases are involved during the G1 and G2
checkpoints, because they are the proteins that control whether or not the
cell can continue its cycle or not. If a cell can pass through the G2
checkpoint it can then enter the M phase. However, in order for kinases to
work and be active they are connected with cyclin to form Cdks. One type
of cyclin Cdk complex is MPF, which adds phosphate groups to proteins
to help begin mitosis. During anaphase, cyclin is removed from the MPF
so that the Cdk remains, waiting for new cyclin made during S and G2
phases so that it can produce MPK again.

10. How do the terms density-dependent inhibition, metastasis and anchorage

dependence relate to the growth of cancer cells?
Cancer cells are cells within the body that grow without limitations.
Cancer cells are so dangerous because they do not have density-dependent
inhibition, which is the idea that cells divide and reproduce only as much
as they need to based on growth factors and nutrients. When cells run out
of nutrients and growth factors (protein that encourages cell reproduction)
it will no longer reproduce; it will stay at that density. Cancer cells, on the
other hand, do not have this; they continue to reproduce regardless of the
amount of growth factors or nutrients. This is caused by abnormalities or
wrong signals as well as the idea that cancer cells can control what they
want their growth factor amounts to be. If cancer cells are given enough
nutrients that will continue to grow and divide. Additionally, cancer cells
do not exhibit anchorage dependence, which is that cells must be anchored
to some sort of other layer or siding in order to divide. Metastasis relates
to cancer cells because as cancer cells reproduce and are contained in one
area, they have the ability to spread to other areas of the organism via
blood and lymph vessels. When tumors form, some cells from the tumor
can travel through the blood vessels and spread throughout the body,
which makes cancer that much more dangerous.