The World of Beowulf

Author(s): John Halverson

Source: ELH, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Dec., 1969), pp. 593-608
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
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 VOL. 36, NO. 4
DECEMBER, 1969

THE WORLD OF BEOWULF

BY JOHN HALVERSON

I
In thefirstpartofBeowulf,Heorotis the centerof the world.
Almostall movementis focusedon it. Grendelseeksit out for
destructive purposes;Beowulfcomesto cleanseit. All thenobles
assemblethere;therethe King presidesand distributes treasure.
It shinesout over manylands (311),' a beacon of civilization;
it is the people'splace (" folestede"-76). For the dwellerson
earthit is the foremost buildingunderthe heavens (309-310).
It towers," healaernamast " (78), spaciousand gold-adorned
(1799f.), on a highplace (285). Lavishlyadorned,it is a splen-
did,shiningstructure.It is theworkofmanyhands (992); many
a peopleis calleduponto decoratethepeople'splace (74-6): it is
theproductofsocialenterprise. It is a placeofprotection(1037),
a place of safety(2075), above all, a place of communaljoy, of
light,warmth,song,and companionship.The festivities of the
hall are suffusedwiththe socialpleasuresof foodand drinkand
the musicof the harp. The queen, adornedwithgold,moves
amongthepeople,greetsthem,proffers a cup (612ff.). Thereis
alwaysthepleasantsoundof humanvoices (" sigefolcasweg"-
644) .
1
QuotationsfromKlaeber'stext,Beowulfand the Fightat Finnsburg(Boston,
1950).

JohnHalverson 593
 The hall is wheretreasureis distributed,
a functionuppermost
in Hrothgar's "
mindwhenhe buildsHeorot (71-2). Nor did he
beliethatpromise; he distributed bracelets,
treasureat thefeast"
(80-1). CommonheitiforHrothgar(as forkingsgenerallyin
Old English)denotea giveroftreasure;sincgifa, goldgyfa,
sincees
brytta,beaga brytta,etc. Heorot is not only a monumentalarti-
fact,an achievementof homo faber;it is also the centerforhomo
politicus,the place of social joy, music,drinkingand feasting,the
source of pleasure, where friendsand kinsmenare togetherin
peace. The hall embodies all the good thingsof this world; it
representsthe principleof harmony: everything is in order.
At the centerof the centeris the King, Hrothgar. It is his
hall: "lHrotigaresham" (717), "sele Hrotgares" (826). His
presencedominatesthe assemblies. Petitions are addressed to
him,and it is he who makes all decisions. He is the source of
food,drink,and treasure.And he is the protectorof his people:
the mostfrequentheitiforhim are combinationswithhelm,hleo,
hyrde,eodor, and weard, and Hrothgarhimselfspeaks of this
roleof theking (1769-71). He gives extendedadvice to Beowulf
about the role and duty of the king (1700 ff.), and cites the
negativeexampleof Heremod:
breatbolgenmod beodgeneatas,
eaxlgesteallan, ot Paethe ana hwearf,
mvereDeoden mondreamumfrom. (1713-15)
nallasbeagas geaf
Denum afterdome; dreamleasgebad,
Paethe Doesgewinnes weorcProwade,
leodbealo longsum. (1719-22)
The ruler who abandons his primaryduties of protectionand
liberalitybecomes a monster,solitaryand joyless. He will die
and anothersucceedhim who sharestreasure,the ancientwealth
of earls,withoutregret,withoutfear:
fehboberto,
se Pe unmurnlice madmasdadeP,
eorlesaergestreon, egesanhe gymeb. (1755-7)
Hrothgar,self-evidently,
and by Beowulf'slater confirmation,
is
such a god cyning:
Swa se !6eodkyning Peawumlyfde;
neallesic Pam leanumforloren
haefde,
maegnes mede, ac he me matmasgeaf. (2144-6)

594 The Worldof "Beaunf"

Expressionssuch as cefterdome and Iieawum,lyfderevealthe
basis of the king'sprestigein his steadfastadherenceto the old
customs;he is the guardianof time. The good kingmaintains
his country, his retainersand people,and theirtraditions;he is
the protector, the championof his people,not theirbane. Such
a ruleris Hrothgar;so was Offa(1957if.); so willBeowulfbe.
As thecenterofthecommunity, theKingreceivesthedeference
thatis his due. Hrothgar's pre-eminence in the courtis obvious.
The centrality of his positionis impliedin Beowulf'sfirstap-
proachto him,fromsentinel to Heorotto theKing'sintermediary
(" ar ond ombiht"-336) to the King himself: Beowulfmoves
in definitestagesfromthe periphery to the center.Heorotand
Hrothgarseen to be identified by Grendel;not only does the
demonhate thejoyfulsoundsand appearanceof the greathall,
but he also carrieson a feudwithitsking: " Grendelwan/ hwile
wit Hrob5gar"(151-2). That Grendel'sfeudis notpersonalmay
be surmisedfromthe fact that Grendelmakesno attemptto
findthe King and killhim.
Even thedigression oftheswimming contestis directedtoward
Hrothgarinsofaras the conclusion of the episodeis his reassur-
ance in Beowulf(608-10). Narrativedivisionsare oftenmarked
by theentrance orexitofllrothgarorby Beowulf'sgoingto him.
Beowulf'sjourneyis completedthe momenthe is in the King's
presence.Theirfirstlonginterview is closedby Hrothgar'sde-
parture(662) and the stageleftforBeowulf'sencounter with
Grendel. The next scene,an interludebeforethe fightwith
Grendel'smother, openswithHrothgar'sarrivalin stateto look
at Grendel'sarm (920-2) and closeswiththe King'sdeparture,
exactlyas before(19236-7).The depredations of the monster
follow.Then Beowulfgoesto theKing (1316-9) and learnsthe
news;thetwogo offto themeretogether(1400-1);whenthepool
becomesbloody,theKingreturns home (1601-2);whenBeowulf
emerges, he goesdirectly to greetHrothgar(1644-6). The pres-
enceoftheKing defines themovement ofthenarrative.
The poet also showsmoreinterestin the state of Hrothgar's
emotions-hissorrowandjoy,hisfeelings ofconfidence,hopeand
doubt-thanin anyoneelse's.2His opinions, judgments, and feel-
ings are central.His movements and speechare formal,nearly
ritual.A courtlyprotocolis maintained, as we learnat thetime
2E. g., 129-31,147-9,189-91,etc.

JohnHalverson 595
ofBeowulf's firstaudiencewhenWulfgar is implicitly commended
because " cute he dugubeDeaw" (359). Hrothgaris nearly
alwayssurrounded by a retinue:" Hrotgarsaet/ eald ond anhar
mid his eorlagedriht"(356-7). Thereis a slightsuggestion in
thesepassagesofhierarchy, ofan incipient differentiationofcourt
and nobility.Thereis a distinctsuggestion oftheceremonial, or
ritual,magnificationoftheking.His movements frequentlyhave
sucha tone: he goes" tirfaest" or " geatolic" and is accompanied
by a splendidretinue.Whenhe speaks,everyonebecomessilent
(1699).
Hrothgarhas someof the numenthatin manyculturaltra-
ditionssurroundsthe royal person. A particularlystriking
sequenceat thebeginning ofthepoemdrawsan implicitparallel
betweenHrothgar as makerand God as creator.The King'sfirst
significant act is the construction of the greathall, forwhich
he " shapes" thenameHeorot (" scophimHeortnaman"-78).
Followingalmostimmediately is the songof the scop about the
creationof the world.The Almighty constructed the earth,set
out thesunand moon,luminaries as lightfordwellersoftheland
(" gesettesigehrepig sunnanondmonan/ leomanto leotheland-
buendum "-94-5), and adornedthe regionsof the earthwith
branchesand leaves, and also shaped life (" ond geframtwade
foldansceatas/ leomumand leafum,lif eac gesceop"-96-7).
Heorotis sucha luminary(" lixtese leomaoferlanda fela "-
311) forthedwellers in theland (" foremaerost foldbuendum "-
309) and muchadorned(" gefraetwod "-992). Indeed,theking
as builderand lordof the hall is exactlythe extendedmetaphor
forChristthatbeginsthepoemof thatname. A similarparallel
is implicitwhenwe aretoldofthegiantswhofoughtagainstGod
a longtime (" gigantas,pa wit Gode wunnon/ lange Irage"-
113-4) and shortlyafter,that GrendelfoughtagainstHrothgar
a longtime(" Grendelwan/hwilewibHrotgar"-151-2).
So thereare a numberof suggestions in the representationof
Heorotand Hrothgarof God and his creation.The importance
of theassimilation is in theidea of creatingor making,whichis
seenas a God-likeact. As God broughtformout of chaos,light
out ofdarkness, so the kingbringsorderto his worldand main-
tainsit. If theconstruction ofHeorotis conceivedas a repetition
oftheoriginal cosmogonic act,"thenits destruction by firewould
S
See theworksof Mircea Eliade. especially,Cosmosand History: The Myth of the
EternalReturn,tr. WillardTrask (New York, 1959).

596 The Worldof "Beowulf"

correspond closelyto the end of the worldas envisionedby the
Old NorseVoluspa,and thedeathofHrothgarto thatof Othin.
The meaningfulness of the centeris obviousin Beowulf,as it is
in thetheme
particularly
in all theOld Englishelegiacliterature,
of exile. The lord'shall definesmeaningful reality.
II
At thepolitical-social level,thestruggle fororderis veryclear,
and theachievement as clearlytenuous.The roleofkinship groups
in thedevelopment ofmedievalformsof socialorganization was
fundamental; 4in Beowulfthe winemwcg relationshipis the most
important of social ties. The solidarityof the kinshipgroupis
evidentin the obligationof vengeancethat fellon the kinsmen
of a slainpersonand thecorresponding responsibilityforsharing
the punishment a
of malefactor. This obligation and mutual
responsibility werestillvirtually unquestioned evenat theend of
the middleages. The psychological foundation of the winermceg
relationship is thenatureof the family:its interdependence, its
proximity, its " natural" solidarity.If anything was secureand
reliable,it was firstof all the immediatefamily.At least one's
kinsmencouldbe trusted.The primarybondof societybecame
treow,"good faith,trust,"as epitomizedby the familytie; the
hoped-for resultis indicatedby thefactthatthewordsib means
both" kinship" and " peace." The mostedifying personalasso-
ciationsin Beowulf,thosetheherohas withHrothgar, Hygelac,
and Wiglaf,findexpression in the familyrelationship.Wiglaf
and Hygelacare bothbloodrelativesto Beowulf,and Hrothgar's
highesttributeto the herois to adopt himas his son (946-9).
Besides these admirableexamplesof the loyaltyand love of
kinsmenare thoseillustrating the despisedopposite.The proto-
typeis Cain,whoslewhisownbrother(108,1261-3). Unferth is
guiltyofthe same crime according to bothBeowulf (587) and the
poet (1166-8). Hints are given of treacheryto come from
Hrothgar's nephew,Hrothulf:
Da godantwegen
saxton suhtergefaoderan; Da gytwas hierasib etgaxere,
aeghwylc otrumtrywe. (1163-5;cf.1015if.)
The disruption of that sib by Hrothulf's rebellionwas to begin
the tragicdownfall of the Danes.
4 See Marc Bloch,Feudal Society,tr.L. A. Manyon (London,1961).

John Halverson 597

 The warofkinsmanagainstkinsmanis a terrible thing.It is
oneofBeowulf's chiefvirtuesthathe neverinjuredkinsmen-or
companions.The extensionof the social organization of the
family anditsethicalprinciples to a largergroup,thecompanions
ofthehall,is obviously not difficult,especiallyas relativespro-
liferateand the distinction betweenwine and magas becomes
blurred.In anyevent,theorganization oftheduguPrelieson the
sametrustas thatofthefamily.The extension is discerniblein
suchtermsas sibbegedryht, usedtwiceforBeowulf'sfollowers in
thefirstpartofthepoem,wherethereis no indication thatthey
are his kinsmen.Loyaltyto the lordis the primaryvirtueof
retainers, but it is conditionalon the lord's liberality.His
obligationto distributetreasureis cited again and again in
Beowulfand in Old Englishliterature generally;just as con-
theregularformofbattlefield
sistently, exhortation is to remem-
berthegiftsof thelord. We hearit not onlyfromWiglaf,but
fromBrytnoth's retainers
in TheBattleofMaldonand evenfrom
Satan in GenesisB (409ff.). Thus the tie betweenlord and
retainersis moreformally contractual thanthatobtaining in the
kinshipgroup.The contracteventuallydevelopsintothe ritual
of fealtywithits attendantcomplications, but at this earlier
period,dutiesand responsibilities are relativelysimpleand im-
mediate.The moststriking carry-over fromkinshipethicsis the
dutyto revengea slainlord. A merecontractwouldterminate
withthe death of the lord; obligationswould cease at that
moment.But theideal of vengeanceforthe slainearl is every-
wherein evidenceand a principalsourceof the dramaof The
BattleofMaldonand oftheFinnepisodeofBeowulf.
In thatpassageand in twoor threeotherplacesin thepoem,
the finalextension of thetrust-ethic can be seen,thatis, in the
relationshipsbetweendifferent peoples.At thislevelformal oaths
are required,supportedby the givingor exchanging of gifts,
includingwomenin politicalmarriages.Afterthe fall of his
lord,Hengestswearsa trucewithFinn,butthedutyofvengeance
ranklesuntil it can be fulfilled.Hrothgarsettles with the
Wylfings by sendingancienttreasures and receiving oaths (470-
2); he looksforward to amitywiththe Geats,broughtabout
by Beowulfand to be confirmed by thegiftsand tokensoflove
that his ship will take over the sea: the two nationswill be
strongly allied" aftertheold fashion " (1855-65). Wealhtheow,
it is impliedbyherdesignation "
as fribusibb folca,"wasmarried

598 The Worldof "Beowulf"

to Hrothgaras a peace-pledgeof peoples,and her daughter,
Freawaru,is similarly alliedto IngeldoftheHeathobardsin the
hope of settlingthatfeud. The purposeof the king'sgivingof
treasureis quiteclearin Hrothgar's actionsand statements:it is
the cementof the politicalstructure.
But it is tragicallyineffective. An atmosphereof anxiety
broodsoverall the social relationships of Beowulf,familialand
political. Justly,for kinsmanrises against kinsman,retainer
against lord, the lord against his companions;politicalfeud
breaksout againaftertentative settlement;theDanes willdestroy
themselves in internecinewar,the Geats willbe overthrown by
their enemies;oaths are broken,the peace-pledgesforgotten.
Nothingis secure,nothingstable. And Heorot will go up in
flames.
III
ThereareinBeowulfnumerous referencesto,and somedetailed
descriptionof, artifacts,particularly treasure (Beowulf'sfirst
rewards,the swordin the lair of Grendel'smother,the jewelry
ofthequeen,etc.). In comparison thereis notablylittledescrip-
tion of nature. What thereis is mostlyassociatedwith the
monstersof the poem,and presentsthe outsideworldas cold,
dark,and forbidding. We hearoftenofwindynesses,wastelands,
fens,darkand hiddenplaces,and the stormysea, but rarelyof
" wuldortorhtan weder" or " fager foldanbearm" (1136-7).
The mostcompelling and famousdescriptions are of the haunts
of Grendeland his dam, and of the stormysea in the Breca
episode. When the natural world is the poet's subject,the
emphasisis usuallyon its grimmer and morehostileaspects:
night,coldness,storm,waste. In generalit is aliento thepeople,
whosepleasuresare associatedwiththe hall, shutofffromthe
worldout there.The pleasuresofthe outdoorsare notunknown
(cf.864ff.),but theyhaveno significant partin thepoem. The
social world,the civilizedworld,is distinctly inside.
The hostilityofthenaturalworldand itsinherently anti-social
aspects are embodied in Grendel. He is above all a creatureof
the night,a walkerof the darkness(" sceadugenga "-703), he
who bides in darkness (87) and theblack nights(167); he is the
greatestof the night'sevils ((" nihtbealwamaost"-193). All of
his destructive actionsare perpetrated at night;duringthe day
H1rothgar and his courtsafelyoccupyHeorot. Grendeldwellsin

JohnHalverson 599
 thefensand moors: he is the" mearcstapa,
thewasteland, se be
moras heold/ fenond foesten " (103-104); he comes " of more"
(710) and goes on fenhopu" (764). This is evidentlynormal
"
formonstersaccordingto the laconic observationof the Cotton
Gnomesthat a " Iyrs sceal on fennegewunian/ ana innanlande"
(42-3) .5 Grendeltoo is " an " (100) , an " angenga" (165, 449)
who bitterlyopposes society:
Swa rixode ond wit rihtewan,
ana wibeallum, ob Paetidelstod
husa selest. (144-6)
He is not only alone, he is alien, an " ellorgast,"a spiritfrom
elsewhere(807, 1349), as is his mother (1617, 1621). He is de-
privedof joy (721, 1275) like his progenitorCain, who fledthe
joys of men and dwelledin the wasteland (" mandreamfleon,/
westenwarode"-1264-5). Grendel'sabode is a " wynleaswic"
(821); the mereis in a joyless wood (1416). Moreover,he hates
the joys of men:
Da se ellengaest earfotlice
Pragegelolode, se De in Pystrumbad,
NPethe dogoragehwam dreamgehyrde
hludnein healle. (86-9)
It is the great hall with its sound of human convivialitythat
vexes this monsterof the outer darkness and rouses him to
terribleaction. He is called enemyof the Danes and of Hrothgar
(146 if.) and he surelyis, but Heorot itselfis the targetof his
attacks,forHeorot embodiesthe achievementof civilization;its
size,appearanceand prominenceseem to flauntthat achievement
in the face of a hostileworld. It enragesGrendel,who,livingin
solitude,darknessand silenceand knowingno joy, embodiesthe
"fearsomeworldoutside."
The most terrifying characteristicof Grendeland his dam is
theircannibalism.They are loosely assimilatedto the Christian
demonologicaltradition,but Grendelhas his closest analogue in
Glamr of Grettissaga,who is a draugar,a voracious revenant.
Fear of the dead and the fear of being eaten, both primitive
anxieties,are embodiedin the draugar and in Grendeland his
mother;theyfindnearlyuniversalexpressionin folkmythology.
Such fearsarise fromthe conditionof the real world;or if more
f Blanche Colton Williams,OnomicPoetryin Anglo-Saxon(New York, 1914).

600 The Worldof" Beowuif"

deeplyimbeddedin thehumanpsyche,theyareat leastactivated
and amplified
by theconditionof theworld.
IV
The contrastand conflictof two worlds-insideand outside,
the worldof man and the worldof monsters, the worldof order
and the worldof chaos--constitute the basic philosophical and
psychological structureof Beovuif. On one side is the world
enclosedby the wallsofHeorotand presidedoverby Hrothgar.
It is a man-madeworld,its construction requiring cooperative
labor,artand technology; in it menspeakand act rationally and
accordingto custom;thereis about it a senseof materialand
socialform.It is a worldthatrepresents theimposition oforder
and organization on chaoticsurroundings. The resultsof this
orderingare (temporarily) security, lightand warmth.It is a
sociallycollectiveworld,wherethe pleasuresof human com-
panionshipcan be enjoyedin the feastingand drinking, in the
sharingoftreasure, in talking, in theplayingoftheharpand the
reciting ofold tales.
The worldout there-cold,dark,and cheerless-isdominated
by the imageof fensand moorshauntedby the two monsters,
solitarycreatureswhocannotparticipate in thejoy of thecom-
munityand who savagelyhate its existence.As Hrothgaris a
maker,theyare destroyers. Becausetheirworldis withoutform,
it is withoutsecurity and withoutpleasure.It is silent,frighten-
ing,monstrous. This is the worldrepresented by themerewhen
the heraldingblast of the trumpetdisturbsits waterysilence,
maddening themonsterserpents, whocan bear thesoundof the
hornno morethanGrendelthesoundofharps.
This polaropposition of worldsis so fundamental thatit gives
an inevitable,fatal qualityto the critical
conflictof Beowulf, the
strugglebetweenthe civilizedworldand the worldout there,
whichbeginswiththeinvasionofHeorotby Grendel.No reason
is givenforGrendel's rageagainstHeorot;it is sudden,gratuitous,
and irrational.It wouldseem (thoughit is not an obligatory
inference) thatGrendelhas beenaroundforsometime;it is the
buildingofHeorotthatenrageshimand goadshimto his depre-
dations. Preciselydirectedand motivated,his attack is not
againstthe Danes as such but againstthe greathall,or rather
whatthe hall standsforand makespossible: theestablishment
ofhumanorderwithitsconsequent pleasures.Thoughhe rejoices

JohnHcaverson 601
in slaughter as he goes to seek his dwelling(124-5), stillhis
motiveis notsimplydietary, forapparently everyone staysoutof
Heorotafterdark,whichseemsall thatis required to avoidbeing
eaten (138-42).Presumably Grendel couldfindhisvictimssome-
placebesidesHeorot,buthe doesn't.His essentialpurpose,then,
mustbe whatin facthe accomplishes:he emptiesthehall. He
breaksdownthedoorsto thislittleenclosedworld,putsout the
light,lets in the cold, and, himselfthe embodiment of chaos,
presidesin darkness over Heorot, the construct of order.
So tooHrothgar's and woeovertwelveyears
constantaffliction
seemto be due as much to this fact as to actual loss of life.
His greatachievements arebeingnegatedbythemonster, andnot
onlytheDanes suffer but theprecarious statusof civilization as
well. The resolution of this impasse,the " brightremedy " of
whichtheDanes despair,comesfromacrossthesea.
V
WhenBeowulfhearsof Hrothgar's peril,he takesno thought
ofhisaction,but responds instantly(194-9201).It is his natural
function,as it were,to restoreorderwhereit has beenupset. The
Danes areotherwise nothing to him. Heorotis polluted, theonce
brightcenterplungedintodarkness, the enclosure ofcivilization
brokendown. The atmosphere of the land of the Danes is one
of gloom,hopelessness, and stasis;Danish societyhas beenren-
deredimmobile desperate.In sharpest
and contrast to thismurky
atmosphere, theintroduction ofBeowulfintothepoemis accom-
paniedby the flashand rattleof armor,the freshsea air,the
bustleofactivity;all thatBeowulfand his mendo is alivewith
purpose,direction and hope. As HerbertG. Wrightsays," the
landingofBeowulfand hisfollowers is thesignalfortheirradia-
tionof the scenewitha floodof brilliantlight."" The ship is
readied,themenchosenand armed.Theyset sail,quicklycross
thesea, and land. Actionis all, and directedunswervingly to a
singleend. It is urgentand purposive. The speed of the voyage,
thesea wind,beginimmediately to cleartheatmosphere (217 f.).
Beowulf'sfirst announced goalis to seekoutthewar-king overthe
sea (199f.), andhisprogress is single-mindedly in thatdirection,
straightto theking,and whenhe is at lastin theking'spresence,
" " Good and Evil; Lightand Darkness;Joyand Sorrowin Beowulf,"R. E. S., n. s.,
VIII (1957), 5.

602 BeowufT
The Worldof "
he comesinstantlyto the point. He has heardof the Grendel
affair;he wouldcleanseHeorot," Heorotfaelsian " (432). Again
thehall is thecenterofthenarrative structure.Beowulf'sroleis
thatof civilization'schampion, theherowhorestores orderwhen
it has been weakenedor destroyed.Whatis wrongin Denmark
is not so muchthat Grendelterrifies the people but that the
greathall stands"idel ond unnyt."WhenBeowulffinallysuc-
ceedsin destroying themonsters, Heorotoncemorebecomesthe
centerofwarmth, lightandcompanionship, and thehero'smission
is accomplished.
In thelast partofthepoem,Beowulf'sroleis muchthe same,
and the situationsand incidents are also parallelto thoseof the
firstpart. The crisiswhichtheherois calleduponto deal with
is the depredationof a solitarymonsterof the night,now a
dragon.Like Grendel'slair,the dragon'sbarrowis an " uncub"
place. Like Grendel, thedragonhatesand humiliates men. Like
Grendel, thedragondirectshiswrathat thedwellings ofmen,and
his terrorsareknownfarand wide. To Beowulf,again,thecrisis
is made known(2324;cf. 194-5). His ownhall," bolda selest,"
is consumedby fire.AndlikeHrothgar, he is filledwithsorrow.
But as he had donein thepast,he actsinstantly and purposefully
(2337ff.;cf.198f.).
The patternof significant eventsis quitelike thatof the first
part. A monster ofthenightwhoembodiesall thatis hostileand
terrifyingabout the worldout therethreatensto annihilatethe
constructed humanworldof" brighthouses."The hero,respond-
ing to this crisiswithspeed and purpose,assumesthe role of
defender and restorer ofcivilization.The significantdifference
is
in theoutcomeofthehero'sbattle,forin hisfinalstruggle against
the destructive forcesof the worldoutside,Beowulfis himself
destroyed.

VI

The resultoftheconflict betweentheconstructed, rationalized

humanworldand the chaotic,frightening worldout thereis not
reassuring.The victoriesof Beowulfare greatones,but theyare
temporary; the threatremains,and the entirepoemis haunted
by the visionof ultimatedestruction.The lifeof man and the
worksofmanarefleeting and doomed.The Christian consolation
of salvationhas no significantpart in Beowulf,nor even the

JohnHailverson 603
1oethianconsolationof the largerview;it is something rather
closerto thenorthern Ragnarokthatis implied.
The workof man par excellenceis Heorot,and in one breath
the poet describesits construction
and anticipatesits ruin.
Sele hlifade
heahond horngeap; heabowylma bad,
latan liges; ne woeshitlengeDa gen,
Poatse ecghete a:umsweoran
aefterwaelnibe woecnanscolde. (81-5)
It has been justly observedthat in the second part of Beowulf
"there is a constantpreoccupationwithdeath." When Beowulf
goes to his finalbattle,he is sad in spiritand readyfordeath,his
fate very near. He remembersthe tragedy of Herebeald, the
deathsof Haethcynand Hygelac. Earlierthereis the elegyof the
last retainer,later Beowulf'sdeath. The generalizationis almost
as trueforthe firstpart of the poem. The Finn episode is fullof
death and griefover death. Beowulf goes to both his struggles
withthemonstersfullyconsciousof the nearnessof death. In his
firstspeech to Hrothgarhe outlines in grimdetail his possible
defeat,and makes an oral will,endingwiththe Stoic observation
" Gaye a wyrdswa hio scel." He does almost exactlythe same
thingbeforehe plungesinto the mere to fightGrendel'smother.
The climax of Hrothgar's" sermon" is a mementomoni. The
death of AEschereis dwelledon extensively.
The same fate awaits families,dynasties and nations. The
ending of Beowulf is dominated not only by the death and
funeralof the hero but also by the gloomy expectationsof
Wiglaf and his messenger: there will be no more receivingof
treasure,no more land rightswhen the far-awayprinceslearn
of the death of Beowulf and the " domleasan dad " of his men
(2884 if.). The elegiac vision of the poem has been eloquently
stated by Tolkien: " we look down as if froma visionaryheight
upon thehouseofman in the valleyof the world. A lightstarts-
lixtese leoma ofer land fela-and thereis a sound of music; but
the outer darknessand its hostileoffspring lie ever in wait for
the torchesto fail and the voices to cease. Grendelis maddened
by thesoundofharps."8 Beowulf,Hrothgar,Heorot,theachieve-
7Ibid.,9.
8 J. R.R. Tolkien," Beowulf: The Monstersand the Critics,"Proceedingsof the
BritishAcademy,1936,p. 277.

604 The Worldof "Beowulf"

ments of civilizationconstitutea brave and defiantintrusionof
human orderinto the formlessness of the outside world. But it
is a doomed enterprise, formorethan a temporaryestablishment
is as yet beyondthe capacityofthe struggling societyrepresented
by the poem.
The same contrastof worldsand a similarpessimismabout the
enduranceofman's worksare abundantlyevidentelsewherein the
body of Old English elegiac and heroic poetry. The Seafarer,
The Ruin, Deor, Maldon and the FinnsburgFragmentmaintain
this fatalistic atmosphere. The Wanderer,with its poignant
lament for the lost king,the lost hall, the cruel path of exile,
could be a sequel to Beowulf: " Swa kes middangeard/ ealra
dogragehwamdreosetond feallee" (62-3).
The prevalenceof such an attitudeis not fortuitous;it reflects
a state of mind and conditionsof life behind the poetry. For
whetherwe referto the approximatelysixth-century background
of Beowulf (the time of the historicalHygelac) or the approxi-
matelyeighth-century milieuof the writingdown ofthe poem,we
have to do witha productionof the northernDark Ages. In the
earlierperiod,it is hardlynecessaryto demonstratethe wretched
and precariousstate of civilization. As for the eighth-century
English background,much as may be said admiringlyof the
cultural efflorescences of Northumbriaand Mercia, their " bril-
liance " is highlyrelative. The age of Bede and Bonifacewas also
the age of AEthelbald,barbarianand dissolutetyrant,murdered
by his own bodyguard. The learningof the periodwas a matter
of Latin scholarshipand theologicalcommentary, not knowledge
of the externalworld. The evidenceof the gnomicsayings,spells,
saints'lives and the chroniclespointsto a prevalenceofcredulous-
ness and superstitionand fear. How could it be otherwise?
Every burgeoningof civilizedlifehad to contendnot only with
the encroachmentand resistanceof naturebut also withhuman
destructiveness. It was an age of violence. Boniface was
murderedby heathens.Bede's monastery, and theentirenorthern
culture,were annihilatedin a moment. It would be surprising,
under such circumstances,to find much optimism about the
durabilityof the works of man or much skepticismabout the
supernatural.
The pathos of much Old English poetry,especiallyBeowulf,
is based on themes of isolation, exile, and the dissolutionof
social order. The propheciesat the end of Beowulfconcernthe

John Halverson 605

break-up of Geatishsociety.Thereis a recurring senseofyearn-
ing forsocial stabilityand materialdurability:a dynastythat
willnot be destroyed by feudand war,a hall that willnot be
consumedby fireor ravagedby monsters.The way to stability,
thepoemseemsultimately is through
to suggest, closersocialties
and greatercommoneffort.This is implicitin the treow-ethic,
but conflicts
withheroicindividualism.
The old socialidealsare all reaffirmedin the end,thoughthe
ofBeowulfas a kingare not altogether
responsibilities the same
as his duties as a warrior.When he learns of the dragon's
Beowulfat firstguiltilyfearshavinggone" oferealde
visitation,
riht."What this" ancientlaw" comprises becomesclearin his
dyingapologia:
Ic on eardebad
maegesceafta, heoldmintela,
ne sohtesearonit6as, ne me sworfela
aba on tnriht. Ic beeseallesmaeg
feorhbennum seoc gefeanhabban;
fortamme witanne bearf Waldendfira
moriorbealomaga, Donneminsceaceb
lif of lice. (2736-43)
He has not transgressed the old law, then;he has lived up to the
code, protectinghis people, true to his oaths, faithfulto his
kinsmen. His fame secure,he can die content. That the tradi-
tional contractual obligations take precedence even over the
lord'scommandsis a directimplicationof the contrastingactions
of Wiglafand the other retainers.They had all been expressly
forbiddenby Beowulf to take part in the struggle (2529-35).
Nevertheless,when in spite of this order Wiglaf comes to
Beowulf's aid, the poet commendshim: " swylc sceolde secg
wesan" (2708). Likewise,Wiglaf'sdenunciationof the deserters
(2684-91) is presented as just, though they " only obeyed
orders." It is the poet who calls them " treowlogan,"beliersof
theirtrust. Wiglafrecalls the obligationimposed by Beowulf's
liberality;in returnforhis giftsit was theirduty to supporthim
at need. But he threwaway his giftson them. Once more the
importance-and weakness-of treowas the foundationof social
orderis demonstrated.
Wiglafalso makes a bold, but just, criticismof Beowulfhim-
self:

606 The World of "Beowulf

 ' Oftscealleorlmonig anes willan
wr&cadreogan, swa us gewordenis.
Ne meahtonwe gelaeran leofneDeoden,
riceshyrde rmed mnigne,
PDethe ne grette goldweardDone.... (3077-81)
We recallthat Hygelac had long beforetriedto dissuadeBeowulf
fromthe Grendeladventure,but then Beowulf was not a king.
His death would have been an enormouspersonal loss, but it
would not have meant the disintegration of the Geatish nation,
as it does now. The king has greaterresponsibilitythan the
warrior. Wiglaf,by his implicitmodificationof the heroicideal
of purelyindividualaction,hintsat the idea of the precedenceof
the group and the officeover the individual, and thus looks
forwardto a redefinedrelationshipbetweenhero and community
that emergeslater in the middleages.
The Dark Ages period is an heroicage, the time of the indi-
vidual hero. Everythingdepends on "the will of one man." In
the west, the order and cultureof civilizationare momentsof
historyassociatedwithsinglepowerfulmen: Clovis,Offa,Penda,
Charlemagne,Alfred. Their kingdomsrise, flourishbriefly,and
decline with the deaths of their creators. When we speak of
civilizationin this period, we speak of one or two generations
only. It is the great men who, by force of personalityand
militarycapacity, alone keep togetherthe fabricof civilization,
and when they die the orderthey have establishedsoon disinte-
grates. Inevitablyperhaps,for the kingdomis an extensionof
a personality,the kingan extensionof the father.He carvesout a
patrimony,the realm is private property. But durable order
depends on depersonalization,that is, on the establishmentof
institutions;and the Dark Ages sufferfroman excess of indi-
vidualism. In an altogetherpersonalisticera, the centerof order
is conceivable only as a person. One cannot yet say, "The
king is dead, long live the king," but only," Beowulfis dead-
what will happennow?" The abstractions" king,"" state' have
not yet taken on a lifeof theirown.
Old English poetry is infusedwith a sense of mortalityand
mutability.There was no lack of awarenessthat lifeis shortand
hard. But there is also, as a kind of compensation,a naive
cherishingof artifacts: the old treasuresthat survive through
time and can be handed down across the generations. The
supremeartifactis the house of man, Heorot, wherethe world's

John Halverson 607

vicissitudes are transcended in a momentof humancollectivity.
But it is a dream.The monsters of the nightinvadethe hall,
the dragon seizes the treasure.If the herorestores thehall and
treasure,it is onlyforthemoment, forhistime.
Men had learnedto createorder,but nothowto makeit last.
The onlyway to do thatis by commoneffort.The churchhad
thevisionofa unitedChristendom, butno independent capacity
to realizeit. Monasticism, moreover, was the dominantform
of religiouslife;and withits mood of contemptus mundiand,
beforeCluny,its centrifugal organization, it was not movingin
thedirection ofsocialunity.Secularsociety, however, was taking
the firststepstowardssuch a goal in the extensionof kinship
loyaltiesto largergroups,the beginnings of feudalcontractual-
ism. One of the weaknesses of early feudalism comesfromits
sourcein thefamily:it remainspersonaland individual;loyalty
is owedto a man,notto an office or institution.
The code of loyalty,personalor impersonal, is implicitlyand
potentially a meanstowardsocialunity;it expresses theintentof
cooperation.Why does it fail? Because of individualism.The
" cowardice"of the retainersis simplyan expressionof the
priorityoftheindividualoverthegroup.Wiglafseemsdimlyto
see thedilemma,the gloryand the curseof individualism. The
retainers werenot legallyculpable for not coming to Beowulf's
aid; theydid only what they were told to do. Yet Wiglaf's
denunciation and his evocationof theloyaltycode are right,for
thesavingoftheirsocietyrequiresthecooperative effortthatthe
code contemplates.He also sees the limitationsof individual
heroism.Beowulf, thegreatestofheroes,is lovedand reveredby
hisnephew, buttheheroicsolutionis notalwaysthebestsolution.
It is notBeowulf'spridethatbringsabouttheultimatecatastro-
phe,butprecisely hisheroism.He is nota victimofegoinflation;
he simplycannotsee otheralternatives to his ownway. He is a
victimoftheheroicmilieu;he is moldedgloriously and inflexibly
by his world.
of California
University
Santa Cruz, California

608 The Worldof "Beowulf"