Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829

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Computational Materials Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/commatsci

On the simulation of austenite to bainite phase transformation

R. Mahnken a,⇑, A. Schneidt a, S. Tschumak b, H.J. Maier b
a
University of Paderborn, Chair of Engineering Mechanics (LTM), Warburger Str. 100, D-33098 Paderborn, Germany
b
University of Paderborn, Lehrstuhl für Werkstoffkunde (Materials Science), Warburger Str. 100, D-33098 Paderborn, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this work we present a macroscopic material model for simulation of austenite to bainite transforma-
Received 24 August 2010 tion accompanied by transformation plasticity (TP), which is an important phenomenon in metal forming
Received in revised form 16 December 2010 processes. In order to account for the incubation time the model considers nucleation of the bainite
Accepted 22 December 2010
phase. When this quantity attains a barrier term, growth of bainite volume fraction is started. The model
Available online 15 February 2011
formulation allows for individual evolutions of upper and lower bainite. Furthermore the experiments of
austenite to bainite phase transformation and the transformation plasticity as a result of bainite phase
Keywords:
transformation and elastic stresses are described.
Bainitic phase transformation
Upper and lower bainite
Ó 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Transformation plasticity

1. Introduction martensite or bainite when subjected to subsequent mechanical

Dual-phase steels (DPS) have gained an increased interest by
industry, as an alternative to traditional hight-strength low alloy
steels. Due to the advantages of formability and weight reduction
applications are most attractive in car industry and aerospace
industry. These metal types consist of a given volume fraction of
higher strength second phase, such as bainite, contained within a
softer matrix, such as ferrite. As a result of this combination, an im-
proved material created with enhanced strength and ductility is
obtained, see e.g. [3].
Achieving these superior material properties is mainly a result
of the production process. In this way, a new hybrid forming pro-
cess has been developed by Steinhoff et al. [17], Weidig et al. [19]
with the goal of improving the functionality. Here the mechanical
forming and the heat treatment allow to adjust the desired phase
distribution in one step. In order to understand and optimize the
influence of the material properties on the workpiece, it becomes
necessary to simulate the entire forming process. Therefore, in this
paper the macromechanical behavior of phase transformation is
investigated, where, being mainly interested in metal forming pro-
cesses, the focus is directed to austenite to bainite phase transfor-
mation of a low alloy 51CrV4 steel.
DPS steels have a microstructure composed of ferrite, bainite
and a dispersion of grains of retained austenite that have been pre-
served when the material is brought to room temperature during
thermal processing (see e.g. Jacques et al. [7,8]). Since the austen-
itic phase is metastable at room temperature, it may transform into
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 5251 602283; fax: +49 5251 603483.
E-mail address: rolf.mahnken@ltm.uni-paderborn.de (R. Mahnken).
and/or thermal loading.
Contrary to martensitic displacive transformation, bainitic
phase transformations are accompanied by diffusion processes.
Two different cases have to be distinguished: For upper bainite
at high temperature there is carbon diffusion into austenite fol-
lowed by carbide precipitation from austenite. For lower bainite
at low temperature there is carbide precipitation in ferrite, fol-
lowed by carbide precipitation from austenite [3,6].
The irreversible phase transformation of austenite to bainite is
characterized by a crystallographic rearrangement on the atomistic
level from the c fcc-structure to the a bcc-structure. On the micro-
scopic level, this results into two mechanisms, a shear deformation
with respect to the habit plane (austenite–bainite interface) and an
expansion normal to the habit plane. To accommodate this trans-
formation, plastic deformations occur on a mesoscopic level within
parts of the austenitic phase that have not transformed, see e.g.
Tjahjanto et al. [18]. On the phenomenological macroscopical level
this effect corresponds to irreversible strains even if the material is
loaded by a stress state less than the yield stress of the softer
phase, see e.g. Fischer et al. [5].
In the past, several macroscopic constitutive models have been
proposed to simulate the complex interactive mechanisms of
phase transformation and plasticity, see e.g. Fischer et al. [5],
Leblond [11], Mahnken et al. [14], Wolff et al. [20], amongst others.
The main purpose of the present work is the development of a
macroscopic model taking into account the main characteristics of
austenite to bainite phase transformation. Contrary to martensitic
transformation bainite transformation is delayed after the cooling
process. This delayed time is denoted as the incubation time,
where typically the growth rate of the second phase in the

0927-0256/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2010.12.032
1824 R. Mahnken et al. / Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829
Time–Temperature–Transformation (TTT) diagram follows a
C-curve in Fig. 1, see e.g. [3,6]. Following [6] in the present work
the incubation time is related to the process of nucleation. Due
to the asymmetric C-curve in Fig. 1, we consider two different cases
related to upper and lower bainite separately.
The kinetics of upper and lower bainite is further investigated
for certain assumptions, by introducing evolution equations for
each case. If nucleation of the bainite phase equals a barrier term
at the incubation time, the volume fraction of bainite evolves. Both,
the evolution for nucleation of the bainite phase and the volume
fraction of bainite are dependent on the chemical energy and a
hardening variable, thus acting as driving forces. The evolution
equation for volume fraction of bainite has been introduced in
[6] on the basis of an empirical argument. To the authors’ knowl-
edge, its derivation on the basis of driving forces and individual ap-
proaches for upper and lower bainite has not been given in the
literature before.
The structure of the paper is as follows: Section 2 presents
experiments and experimental results for austenite to bainite
phase transformation. The focus of the experiments is the transfor-
mation plasticity for the bainitic transformation. Section 3 intro-
duces a material model. The derivatives with respect to the
variables of this function render the driving forces. From these
quantities we use the chemical part and the hardening part for
evolution of nucleation of the bainite phase and the volume frac-
tion of bainite. Furthermore an example on the numerical simula-
tion of bainitic phase transformation is presented and verification
of the constitutive equations is succeeded by simulating the exper-
imental data.
2. Experiments on bainitic phase transformation
The material used in this study is a low alloy 51CrV4 steel from
a single production batch. This guarantees only minor-sample-to-
sample variations in the chemical composition, which is crucial
to obtain a good repeatability of the experiments. For the phase
transformation experiments precisely machined thin-walled hol-
low specimens with an outer diameter of 10 mm and a wall thick-
ness of only 1 mm are utilized (Fig. 2a). This provides for a
homogeneous electrical resistance within the gauge section of
the specimens and thus allows for heating up the samples within
15 s to a temperature as high as 1050 °C via direct current heating
with only negligible temperature gradients in axial and diametral
direction. Gas quenching is used for cooling down the specimens
Fig. 1. Time–Temperature–Transformation diagram [51CrV4] with temperature h⁄ corresponding to the shortest incubation time t⁄ of bainite, Data sheet 1.8159 Dörrenberg
Edelstahl GmbH [22].
to the subsequent isothermal bainitic phase transformation tem-
perature of 340 °C. Since the nozzles used for gas quenching are
uniformly distributed around the specimen the temperature gradi-
ent during cooling is also kept small due to the homogeneous air-
flow. In addition, the custom-built test rig utilizes a servohydraulic
test frame with an axial as well as a diametral extensometer
(Fig. 2) [9].
Especially during forging temperature and stress gradients are
unavoidable. Since both, the temperature – especially the austeni-
tization temperature [10] – and the stresses superimposed during
the phase transformation affect the transformation behavior, mod-
eling of the overall process requires a solid data base, which allows
for distinguishing between the influence of the different parame-
ters on the phase transformation kinetics. Since the focus of this
study lays on the influence of different stress states, i.e. superim-
posed compressive or tensile stresses, on the isothermal bainitic
phase transformation behavior, the austenitization treatment is
kept constant for all experiments. The austenitization treatment
chosen simulates the temperature evolution in one specific volume
element of an actual forging process (Fig. 3) [16], where the tem-
perature reaches 1050 °C within 15 s and is kept constant for the
next 10 s. Since a bainitic microstructure is desired at the end of
the transformation, the specimens are cooled down following the
aforementioned austenitization treatment to a given temperature
of 340 °C. A 30 min hold at this temperature resulted in a complete
bainitic microstructure at the end of the phase transformation. At
the isothermal holding temperature stresses ranging from
140 MPa to +140 MPa are applied and kept constant throughout
the transformation in order to determine the influence of the dif-
ferent stress states on the isothermal bainitic phase transformation
behavior. In order to make sure that no strains due to the superim-
position of elastic strains falsify the resulting values, the axial as
well as the diametral strain values are set to zero when the given
stress level superimposed during the phase transformation is
reached.
Fig. 4 shows the evolution of axial and diametral strains
throughout the isothermal bainitic phase transformation. When
the superimposed stress level increases from 140 MPa to
+140 MPa the axial strains at the end of the transformation also in-
crease from 0.8% to +2.8% (Fig. 4a). For the diametral strains at
the end of the transformation a decrease in strain value from
+1.6%, when a stress of 140 MPa is superimposed to 0.7% for a
superimposed stress of +140 MPa is observed (Fig. 4b). The differ-
ence in maximum strain value for diametral and axial strains at the
 R. Mahnken et al. / Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829 1825

L R

gas quenching

Fig. 2. Phase transformation for low alloy steel: (a) Schematic of the testing equipment and (b) photography of the experimental rig: 1. specimen, 2. power supply line, 3. gas
quenching and 4. extensometer [1].

Case 1, upper bainite: Firstly, we concentrate on the formation of

upper bainite with temperature h > h⁄ in Fig. 1. We let r
denote the radius of a nuclei in a homogenized sense. The
following evolution equation is proposed for its growth:
h > h : r_ ¼ exp ½K 1u Z þ K 2u h ½ev  þ K 3u  K 4u Q ; ð1Þ
where
Q
1: Z ¼ q0 ðh0  hÞ ;
h0 ð2Þ
2: Q ¼ Q 0 ð1  exp½bev Þ þ Hev :
In this way the evolution equation is formulated in terms of the
chemical force Z and the isotropic hardening stress Q with material
parameters Q0, H and b. Q⁄ is the activation energy, h0 is the equilib-
Fig. 3. Schematic of temperature and stress loading with respect to time and
rium temperature, and h⁄ is the temperature corresponding to the
resulting volume change due to phase transformation.
shortest incubation time t⁄ in Fig. 1. Furthermore, K1u, K2u, K3u, K4u
are constants. Eqs. (1) and (2) can be combined as

Q
end of the transformation reveal a strong tension–compression h > h : r_ ¼ exp K 1u q0 ðh  h0 Þ þ K 2u h ½ev  þ K 3u
h0
asymmetry as shown in Fig. 5. 
K 4u ðQ 0 ð1  exp½bev Þ þ Hev Þ : ð3Þ
3. Modeling of bainitic phase transformation
A further reformulation yields
3.1. Nucleation of bainite phase  
h  h ½ev 
h > h : r_ ¼ a2u exp  exp½b2u ev ; ð4Þ
Bu
In contrast to the martensitic displacive transformation, bainite
phase transformations are accompanied by diffusion processes. where
Two different cases have to be distinguished: For upper bainite 1 1
at high temperature there is carbon diffusion within the austenite 1: ¼ K 2u ¼ K 1u q0 Q  ;
Bu h0
followed by carbide precipitation from austenite. For lower bainite
at low temperature there is carbon diffusion into austenite and car-
2: a2u ¼ exp½K 1u q0 Q  þ K 3u  K 4u Q 0 ; ð5Þ
bide precipitation in ferrite, followed by carbide precipitation from 3: b2u ¼ K 4u H;
austenite, [3,6]. As can be observed in the schematic Time– 4: Q 0 exp½bev  ! 0:
Temperature–Transformation (TTT) diagram in Fig. 1, transforma-
In Eq. (5.4) we have neglected the influence of the nonlinear hard-
tion is delayed after the cooling process. This delayed time is
ening term on the nucleation formation, which is a reasonable
known as the incubation time. In Fig. 1 h⁄ denotes the temperature
assumption for large inelastic strains ev.
corresponding to the shortest incubation time t⁄. Following [6] it
Case 2, lower bainite: Secondly, we concentrate on the formation
may be dependent on the inelastic strain ev, such that h⁄ = h⁄[ev].
of lower bainite with temperature h < h⁄ in Fig. 1. In this
Fig. 1 shows that the typically growth rate of the second phase in
case the following evolution equation is proposed for its
the TTT-diagrams follows a C-curve.
growth:
Following [6] in the present work the incubation time is related
to the process of nucleation. To this end, two different cases related
h < h : r_ ¼ exp ½K 1l Z  K 2l h ½ev  þ K 3l  K 4l Q ; ð6Þ
to upper and lower bainite are considered separately:
1826 R. Mahnken et al. / Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829

Fig. 4. Evolution of strain during the isothermal bainitic transformation at 340 °C depending on the stress state present, (a) evolution of axial strain and (b) evolution of
diametral strain.

where K1l, K2l, K3l, K4l are constants. With a similar procedure as for 3.2. Evolution of volume fraction of bainite
upper bainite, Eq. (6) is reformulated as
  Following [6], when the radius of a bainite particle r is greater
 h  h ½ev  than a barrier term r⁄, the volume fraction of bainite, denoted by
h < h : r_ ¼ a2l exp exp½b2l ev ; ð7Þ
Bl z, is formed.
In our approach it is related to the chemical driving force Z, and
where following [6] to an activation energy G⁄. Furthermore, as men-
tioned in [6], the position relative to h⁄ in Fig. 1 is also of impor-
1 1 tance. In this way the following evolution equation is proposed:
1: ¼ K 2l ¼ K 1l q0 Q  ;   n
Bl h0 G r  r 
2: a2l ¼ exp½K 1l q0 Q  þ K 3l  K 4l Q 0 ; ð8Þ z_ ¼ exp K 5 Z þ K 6 h ½ev   ð1  zÞc ; ð10Þ
Rh r
3: b2l ¼ K 4l H;
4: Q 0 exp½bev  ! 0:

The evolution Eqs. (4) and (7) for nucleation of bainitic phase for an
asymmetric C-curve in the TTT-diagram in Fig. 1 can be combined
as
 
jh  h ½ev j
r_ ¼ a2 exp  exp½b2 ev ; ð9Þ
B

and where B = Bu for h > h⁄, B = Bl for h < h⁄, a2 = a2u = a2l and
b2 = b2u = b2l are material parameters.
The evolution Eq. (9) has been introduced in [6] on the basis of
an empirical argument. To the authors’ knowledge, the derivation
of this relation on the basis of driving forces and individual
approaches for upper and lower bainite has not been given in the Fig. 5. Axial and diametral strain values at the end of the isothermal bainitic
literature before. transformation for various superimposed stress levels.
 R. Mahnken et al. / Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829 1827

where K5, K6, n and c are constants and R is the universal gas A proposal is given by Denis [4] as
constant.
df ðzÞ
The notation hxi = x for x > 0, hxi = 0 for x 6 0 ensures, that vol- 1: f ðzÞ ¼ ð2  zÞz ) 2: f 0 ðzÞ ¼ ¼ 2ð1  zÞ: ð17Þ
dz
ume fraction evolves only if the bainite radius r reaches the critical
value r⁄. The minus sign in front of K5 takes into account, that Z is In Fig. 5 we recall experimental data for the maximum values of TP
negative. Using Eq. (2.1) for the chemical driving force, Eq. (10) re- strain versus the hold stress. The diagram shows a nonlinear depen-
writes as dence of both quantities, which cannot be accounted for by a single
  n scalar parameter Ktp for the TP strain rate tensor in Eq. (15). There-
Q G r  r 
z_ ¼ exp K 5 q0 ðh0  hÞ þ K 6 h ½ev   ð1  zÞc : ð11Þ fore, following Mahnken et al. [14] we use a linear dependence of
h0 Rh r Ktp on the von Mises stress as
As mentioned in [6] the corresponding time at r = r⁄ is the incuba- K tp ½rv  ¼ K tp1 þ K tp2 rv : ð18Þ
tion time. The term 1  z serves as an upper barrier function and en-
sures that the bainite volume fraction varies from 0 to 1. A further
reformulation yields 4. Parameter identification and simulation of experiments
  
 n
h ½ev   h 
G r  r 
z_ ¼ A5 exp exp  ð1  zÞc ; ð12Þ Incubation time: The experiments explained in Section 2 above
B1 Rh r are used for parameter identification of the constitutive equations
where in Section 3. To this end, firstly the parameters representing the
nucleation of bainite phase (incubation time) in Eqs. (9) and (14)
1 1 are calculated by least squares minimization of the function
1: ¼ ¼ K 5 q0 Q  ;
B1 K 6 ð13Þ
1 in
2: A5 ¼ exp½K 5 q0 Q  : f ðjÞ ¼kt ðjÞ  tin k ! min;
2 ð19Þ
 T  
where tin ¼ t in in
1 ðjÞ; . . . ; t ndt ðjÞ ;
ti n ¼ tin in T
1 ; . . . ; t ndt ;
Remark.

1. In [6] the following results for the critical value r⁄ and the free
energy of the new bainite phase G⁄ are obtained:
Exp
Temperature [°C]

A1 h0 Dh0:5  A3 h20 Dh1:5 Sim

r ¼ 
; G ¼ ð14Þ 500
hDhQ  þ A2 h0 ev rv ðDhQ  þ A4 h0 ev rv Þ2
where A1, A2 and A3 are material constants, Dh = h0  h is the und-
400
ercooling and rv is the von Mises stress.
2. The evolution Eq. (13) has been introduced in [6] on the basis of
an empirical argument. To the authors’ knowledge, the deriva- 300
tion of this relation on the basis of driving forces has not been 0 20 40 60 80 100
given in the literature before. (Incubation) Time [s]

Fig. 6. Time–Temperature–Transformation (TTT) diagram.

3.3. Transformation plasticity strain tensor

As mentioned before transformation plasticity (TP) describes

the effect of plastic deformations during phase changes, if the ther-
mal and/or mechanical induced stress is less than the yield stress
of the softer phase. A well known formulation for the TP strain rate
tensor is given as (see Leblond [11], Besserdich [2], Fischer et al.
[5])
3
e_ tp ¼ K tp rdev f 0 ðzÞz_ ; ð15Þ
2
where rdev is the deviatoric part of the stress tensor. Furthermore z
is the volume fraction of bainite satisfying 0 6 z 6 1, such that z = 0
and z = 1 are the conditions for pure austenite and pure bainite,
respectively. In Eq. (15) f(z) is a saturation function satisfying
1: f ðz ¼ 0Þ ¼ 0; 2: f ðz ¼ 1Þ ¼ 1: ð16Þ
Fig. 7. Evolution of volume fraction of bainite phase, isothermal at 340 °C.

Table 1
Material parameters for a low alloy 51CrV4 steel.

jit: A1 [] h0 [°K] h⁄ [°K] a2 [s1] Bu [°K] Bl [°K]

3.8568E+04 850 826 3.3931E03 0.11294E+03 0.20539E+03
jev: A5 [] B1 [°K] n [] c [] A3 [] Q⁄ []
3.3245E04 26.44 22.65 1.66 0.1E03 3.0843E+05
 1  h i
jtp: K tp1 MPa 1
K tp2 MPa2

0.76243E04 0.47E06
1828 R. Mahnken et al. / Computational Materials Science 50 (2011) 1823–1829
Fig. 8. Strain-time curves for different stresses, transformation plasticity.
with the nonlinear optimization code Generalized Reduced Gradi-
ent (GRG2) of Microsoft Excel Solver [21]. tin(j) and t in represent
simulation and experimental data, respectively, ndt is the number
of experimental data for the incubation time [t(r = r⁄)]. The final re-
sults for the parameter set jit are summarized in Table 1, and Fig. 6
depicts the comparison of experiment and simulation for the incu-
bation time of bainite phase versus temperature.
Evolution of bainite phase: In a further step on identification we
give attention to the experimental results for the volume fraction
of bainite phase versus time. To this end we calculate the mini-
mum of the least squares function
1
f ðjÞ ¼ kzðjÞ  zk ! min;
2 in future developments we will combine the model for bainitic
where
z ¼ ½z1 ðjÞ; . . . ; zndz ðjÞT ; z ¼ ½z1 ; . . . ; zndz T ;
with a Simplex Nelder algorithm, see e.g. Press et al. [15], Mahnken
[12]. The final results for the parameter set jev are summarized in
Table 1, and Fig. 7 depict the comparison of experiment and simu-
lation for the evolution of bainite phase versus time.
Transformation plasticity: In the next step on identification we
concentrate on the experimental results of Fig. 8 for the tempera-
ture and stress controlled tests. On the basis of axial strains a least
squares functional is formulated, which expresses the difference of
simulated and experimental data (see e.g. Mahnken [12]):
1
f ðjÞ ¼ keðjÞ  ek ! min;
2
where
e ¼ ½e1 ðjÞ; . . . ; ende ðjÞT ; e ¼ ½e1 ; . . . ; ende T ;
where nde is the number of experimental data for the strains. Sev-
eral trial and error steps were employed during the optimization
procedure in order to overcome local minima, thus rendering
parameters Ktp1 and Ktp2 in Eq. (18). The resulting good agreement
between experimental and simulated data is observed in Fig. 8.
5. Summary
In this contribution, experimental results and a macroscopic
model of austenite to bainite phase transformation has been pre-
sented with the effects of transformation plasticity (TP) for a low
alloy 51CrV4 steel. The experiments were adapted to the hybrid
forming process with rapid austenitization at 1050 °C. Furthermore
we illustrate the transformation plasticity effect as a consequence
of stresses. The experimental results were used in order to explain
and calibrate the material model. Due to the asymmetric incuba-
tion time curve (C-curve in Fig. 1), we developed an evolution
equation for nucleation of the bainitic phase on the basis of driving
forces and individual approaches for upper and lower bainite. Fur-
thermore, the evolution equation of volume fraction for bainite
was derived on the basis of driving forces. The good agreement be-
tween experimental and simulated data on bainite phase transfor-
mation shows the capability of the proposed model.
The intention of the current project is directed to simulate the
complete hybrid forming process described in Steinhoff et al.
[17]. Here the mechanical shaping and the heat treatment are
accomplished for adjustment of the desired phase distribution in
one step. In this respect, the phase transformation austenite to
bainite is a small part of the hybrid forming process. Therefore,
phase transformation, described in Section 3, with the proposed
ð20Þ approach for phase transformation integrated within a thermody-
namic concept proposed in Mahnken and Schneidt [13]. This will
allow the simulation of a complete hybrid forming process at large
deformations with different kinds of phase transformation.
Acknowledgement
This paper is based on investigations of the collaborative re-
search center SFB/TR TRR 30, which is kindly supported by the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG).
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