IB/AP Psych Vocabulary

1. Research and Experiments

Independent Variable- the experimental factor that is manipulated; he variable whose effect is
being studied.

Dependent Variable- the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable hat may change
in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Control (Condition)- the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental
condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Confounding Variable- a variable that cannot be controlled for and can have an impact on the
dependent variable.

Target Population- a population from which a sample of participants in psychological research is

drawn.

Sample- a small part of something intended as representative of the whole

Stratified Sample- the population is divided into strata and a random sample is taken from each
stratum

Matched Pairs- concerned with measuring the values of the dependent variables for pairs of
subjects that have been matched to eliminate individual differences and that are respectively
subjected to the control and the experimental condition

Experimenter Bias- bias introduced by an experimenter whose expectations about the outcome of
the experiment can be subtly communicated to the participants in the experiment

Double Blind- an experimental procedure in which neither the subjects of the experiment nor the
persons administering the experiment know the critical aspects of the experiment

Demand Characteristic Placebo- an innocuous or inert medication; given as a pacifier or to the

control group in experiments on the efficacy of a drug

Mean- the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing
by the number of scores.

Median- the middle score in a distribution.

Mode- the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Positively Skewed- tail of a curve extends to the right.

Negatively Skewed- tail of a curve extends to the left.

Social Desirability Scale- describes the tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will be
viewed favorably by others

2. Biology/ Evolutionary

All or Nothing Principle- Involving either complete success or failure, with no intermediate
result.

Electrochemical Process- A chemical change accompanying the passage of an electric current,

especially as used in the preparation of commercially important quantities of certain chemical
substances.

Axon- the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages
pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Dendrite- the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct
impulses toward the cell body.

Myelin Sheath- a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fivers of many neurons; enable
vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the
next.

Terminal Button- receive the message transferred down the axon, store them in their synaptic
vesicles and are responsible for then secreting these transmitter substances.

Synaptic Gap- The minute space between the cell membrane of an axon terminal and that of the
target cell with which it synapses.

Refractory Period- a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another
orgasm.

Acetylcholine- a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction.

Dopamine- a monoamine neurotransmitter found in the brain and essential for the normal
functioning of the central nervous system

Endorphins- “morphine within”- natural, opiate- like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and
to pleasure.

Serotonin- has various functions, including the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, muscle
contraction, and some cognitive functions including memory and learning. Modulation of
serotonin at synapses is thought to be a major action of several classes of pharmacological
antidepressants.

Nervous System- the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the
nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

SAME (sensory/afferent, motor/ efferent)- Afferent neurons take information from the senses to
the brain. Efferent neurons take information from the brain to the rest of the body.

Central Nervous System- the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous
system to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System- the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands
and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic
division calms.

Somatic Nervous System- the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s
skeletal muscles.

Sympathetic Nervous System- the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the
body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System- the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the
body, conserving its energy.

Spinal Reflex- a feedback mechanism that controls increasing muscle tension by causing muscle
relaxation before tension force becomes so great it may damage the muscle.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)- an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that

sweep across the brain’s surface.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)- a visual display of brain activity that detects where a
radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

CAT (Computed Tomography Scan)- a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles
and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows
us to see structures within the brain.

Medulla- the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons- connect the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain and are involve in facial
expressions.
Cerebellum- the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary
movement and balance.

Thalamus- responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending
them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain.

Hypothalamus- controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal,
hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.

Amygdala- is vital to our experiences of emotion.

Hippocampus- is vital to our memory system.

Cerebral cortex- surface of the brain that’s densely packed with neurons.

Corpus- The corpus callosum is a massive bundle (body) of myelinated nerve fibers connecting
the two cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal Lobes- large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain behind
the eyes.

Parietal Lobes- Contain the sensory cortex.

Occipital Lobes- interpret messages from our eyes.

Temporal Lobes- process sound sensed by our ears.

Adrenal Glands- produce adrenaline, which signals the rest of the body to prepare for fight or
flight.

Ovaries and Testes- produce sex hormones.

Pituitary- the master gland of the endocrine system; located at the base of the brain.

Down Syndrome- a congenital disorder caused by having an extra 21st chromosome; results in a
flat face and short stature and mental retardation.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome- a condition in which males have an extra X sex chromosome.

Turner Syndrome- a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex
chromosomes is absent.

3. Sensation and Perception

Sensation- the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and
to the brain.

Perception- the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought
to the brain by the senses.

Transduction- changing physical energy into electrical signals (neural impusles) that can make
their way to the brain.

Cocktail Party Effect- the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a
mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations.

Pupil- The opening in your eye that allows light to enter. The light then hits your neural receptors
which transforms the stimulus into neural impulses which can be interpreted by your brain
(mainly, the occipital lobe).
Iris- the part of the eye that gives you those beautiful blue (or whatever color) eyes that you
have. Specifically it is a ring of muscle tissue that not only forms the colored portion of the eye
around the pupil, but also is responsible for controlling the size of the pupil opening.

Lens- The human eye is made of several layers and components. Behind the cornea, iris, and
pupil sits the lens (it is directly behind the pupil) which actually changes shape as you try to
focus on something. When you try to focus on something the lens changes shape (called
accomodation) and then focuses the incoming light onto the back of the eye (the retina) which
send the information on to be processed by the brain.

Retina- The retina is the area in back of the eye that contains your rods and cones. Rods help you
detect movement while cones help you see color. Both of these receptors transfer light into
electrical impulses so that your brain can interpret them.

Optic Nerve- The optic nerve is one of the twelve cranial nerves. The optic nerve is behind the
eyeball and transmits visual information to the brain.

Blind Spot- Visual information travels along the optic nerve in the eye before it begins its
journey to the brain for processing. There is a certain spot on the optic nerve that does not have
any receptor cells (the area where the optic nerve leaves the eye), and, as a result, can't receive
information. The result is the blind spot.

Feature Detectors- The ability to detect certain types of stimuli, like movements, shape, and
angles, requires specialized cells in the brain called feature detectors. Without these, it would be
difficult, if not impossible, to detect a round object, like a baseball, hurdling toward you at 90
miles per hour.

Opponent Process Theory- A theory suggested by Solomon where emotional reactions to a

stimulus are followed by opposite emotional reactions. This theory may explain why stunt people
enjoy their work. First the individual will feel intense anxiety before performing a stunt and then
the person will receive an opposite reaction of relief after the stunt is completed. The theory also
postulates that repeated exposure to the stimulus will cause less of an initial reaction and a
stronger opposing reaction. This may explain why drugs, such as opiates, give diminishing
returns after prolonged use yet the effects of withdraw become more intensified and unpleasant.

Frequency- Frequency is the number of complete wavelengths (also known as cycles) that occur
within a specific time. A wave with high frequency means it occurs more rapidly or often and is
also considered shorter. Frequency is used to measure all sorts of wavelengths, such as light
waves, sound waves, and brain waves.

Cochlea- The cochlea (from the Greek word meaning "snail") is a bony, spiral-shaped, fluid-
filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves travel and trigger nerve impulses. The
cochlea looks very much like a snail and is a vital component in hearing. Nerve impulses that
send auditory signals to the brain for interpretation are sent from it.

Frequency Theory- This theory of how we hear sounds states that there are pulses that travel up
the auditory nerve, carrying the information about sound to the brain for processing, and that the
rate of this pulse matched the frequency of whatever tone you are hearing exactly. We thus hear
the tone because the pulse traveling up the auditory nerve matches the actual tone. Essentially,
we are getting a copy of the real sound.

Kinesthetic Sense- Imagine this...you drive into a parking lot, get out of the car, and start to walk
toward your destination. You decide to cut through a bunch of parked cars and notice that some
of them are close together, so when you get to them, you have to turn and adjust your body in
order to get through the tight spaces. The reason you are able to sense whether you can fit, what
type of movements you need, how to adjust your body position, etc., is because you have
kinesthetic sense, or an ability to sense body position and the movement of muscles, tendons, and
joints.

Absolute Threshold- This is a term that many students have a difficult time understanding, but
it's not as complex as it might seem. One formal definition is that absolute threshold is the
smallest intensity of a stimulus that has to be present for the stimulus to be detected. Let's use an
example to clear this up. Think of an electric burner on a stove. Imagine turning that burner on
and then placing your hand directly on it. At first you won't feel much heat because is takes time
for the burner to heat up. But at some point it will get hot enough for you to detect…meaning,
there is some temperature that is just hot enough for you to notice it. This isn't the point at which
you get burned, but the point at which it is just hot enough for you to detect the presence of the
heat.

Just Noticeable Difference- The Just Noticeable Difference (JND), also known as the difference
threshold, is the minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50 percent of the
time. For example, let's say I asked you to put your hand out and in it I placed a pile of sand.
Then, I add tiny amounts of sand to your hand and ask you to tell me when you notice any
change in the overall weight. As soon as you can detect any change in the weight, that difference
between the weight of the sand before I added that last bit of sand and the amount of sand after I
added it, is the just noticeable difference.
Top-down Processing- Top-Down Processing is also known as "large chunk" processing and
states that we form perceptions (or focus our attention) by starting with the larger concept or idea
(it can even be the concept or idea of an object) and then working our way down to the finer
details of that concept or idea. If you're the type of person who learns new ideas and concepts (or
forms impressions) by starting first with the high-level aspects and then working your way down
to the fine details, then you're a top-down processor.

Bottom-up Processing- Bottom-up processing is also known as "small chunk" processing and
suggests that we attend to or perceive elements by starting with the smaller, more fine details of
that element and then building upward until we have a solid representation of it in our minds.

Similarity- Similarity is one type of "grouping rule" that we, as humans, follow in an effort to
make sense of our basic sensations and the world around us. We follow these very specific rules
unconsciously, but they are very important for our everyday survival. One grouping principle or
rule is "similarity" which refers to the tendency for humans to group together objects or stimuli
that seem similar to each other.

Continuity- Continuity is a Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states people have a
tendency to group stimuli into continuous lines and patterns. For example, when you see geese
flying south for the winter, they fly in a formation that, to us, looks like a big "V".

Closure- Closure is a Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that explains how humans fill
in visual gaps in order to perceive disconnected parts as a whole object.

Visual Cliff Experiment- The Visual Cliff is a test given to infants to see if they have developed
depth perception.

Relative Size- Relative size is a perceptual clue which allows you to determine how close objects
are to an object of known size.

Retinal disparity- Each eye receives a slightly different perspective or image, however, a person
does not see two separate images. The images overlap in the center, and the brain connects these
together into one seamless view. Thus, Retinal Disparity is the difference between the visual
images that each eye perceives because of the different angles in which each eye views the
world. Retinal disparity is important for depth perception.

Convergence- In order to perceive depth properly, your eyes must move slightly inward or
converge. In so doing, people are able to determine if objects are close to them or far away.

Conscious- Consciousness refers to our awareness of our own mental processes, such as our
thoughts, feelings, and sensations. It is possible that we are the only beings on this planet that
have this type of self awareness or level of consciousness and the ability to introspect, or look
inward and examine these processes.
Hypnosis- Hypnosis is a temporary state of heightened relaxation and suggestibility during
which some (not all) people are able to become so focused that they experience imaginary
happenings as if they were real. Hypnosis is not some trans-like, magical state in which people
will engage in behaviors that are completely against their "normal, non-hypnotized" will.

Circadian Rhythm- Circadian rhythms are what people often refer to as your body's internal,
biological clock. The typical human circadian rhythm occurs on a cycle of approximately 24
hours. However, the clock is not really functioning on time, but on body temperature. It is just
that body temperature fluctuates on somewhat of a regular type of schedule, and so many people
often believe that the circadian rhythms are time oriented instead of body temperature oriented.

REM Cycle- There are two types of sleep, REM and NREM (non-REM). REM, which is also
known as paradoxical sleep, stands for Rapid Eye Movement and occurs in cycles every 60-90
minutes throughout your sleep period. This means that every 60-90 minutes you enter a REM
stage during which you have rapid eye movements and your muscles become almost paralyzed
(this is why it's called paradoxical sleep - the rest of your body is active but your muscles are
inactive).

Insomnia- Insomnia is a type of sleep disorder in which the person has trouble in one of the
following areas of sleep- falling asleep, staying asleep throughout the night, or waking up to
early and not going back to sleep. Insomnia is not as common as people often like to think.

Narcolepsy- a sleep disorder where the affected individual falls asleep without warning. A
person with narcolepsy can fall asleep while driving or while filming their family on vacation.

Sleep Apnea- Sleep Apnea is a sleep disorder in which the person's muscles become so relaxed
that the airways become blocked and the person has trouble breathing and actually stops
breathing momentarily). These people tend to snore a lot.

Night terrors- A disorder that interrupts your sleep. Individuals wake overcome by fear and an
increased heart and respiratory rate. Unlike nightmares, night terrors do not occur in REM and
there is no recollection of a bad dream.

Manifest Content- According to Freud, our dreams are important and meaningful in
understanding the causes of our problems, hidden issues, and painful issues we can't face during
wakefulness. Freud identified two types of content in our dreams; latent content and manifest
content. Manifest content is all the parts of the dream that we remember (the actual content). It's
not the stuff we associate with our dreams, but the actual story lines of the dreams.

Latent Content- According to Freud, dreams have two types of content, each of which contains
different meanings to the dreams. One of these type of content is latent content, which is the
underlying, more hidden, but true meaning of a dream (as opposed to the manifest content).
Freud believed that the latent content was somehow censored by the subconscious which was a
way to protect us from the real meanings of the dreams.
Information Processing- The Information Processing Model is a framework used by cognitive
psychologists to explain and describe mental processes. The model likens the thinking process to
how a computer works.

Tolerance- Although there are a few different ways to define and use this term, in this case we
are talking about tolerance as it relates to drugs. When you take medications or drugs your body
begins to get used to the drug. As a result, you may need to take more and more of it in order to
get the same effects. This reduced effect of the drug is tolerance - your body is getting used to the
drug causing a reduction in its effectiveness. In some cases, psychologists require patients to go
without medications or take breaks from their medications (drug holidays) in order to reduce
tolerance and maintain its effectiveness.

Withdrawal- When an organism (does not have to be a human; can be another type of animal)
becomes addicted to a substance, and then they are prevented from having that substance for an
extended period of time, they go through a period of withdrawal. This period of withdrawal
involves feelings of discomfort and distress. For example, a person addicted to cocaine may
experience long periods of nausea, vomiting, cold sweats, headaches, mood swings, and other
very uncomfortable feelings. Both physiological and psychological aspects are involved in
withdrawal.

Stimulants- Stimulants are drugs that arouse or excite the nervous system and speed up bodily
processes.

Depressants- a drug which reduces central nervous system activity, by enhancing

the effects of the neurotransmitter GABA; in large doses, depressants can cause
coma and even death

Hallucinogens - a psychoactive drug that induces hallucinations or altered sensory

experiences

Opiates - A medication or illegal drug that is either derived from the opium poppy,
or that mimics the effect of an opiate; they depress the activity of the central
nervous system and reduce pain

5. Learning
Classical Conditioning:

CS- (conditioned stimulus) a stimulus which by repeated pairings with an

unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

CR- (conditioned response) a response to a previously neutral stimulus which has

become a conditioned stimulus by repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

UCS- (unconditioned stimulus) a stimulus which elicits a reflexive (unconditioned)

response
NS- (neutral stimulus) a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other
than provoking attention; as conditioning proceeds, the neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus

Trace conditioning- the neutral stimulus is presented an instant before the UCS
(most effective)

Simultaneous conditioning- the NS and UCS are presented at the same time

Backwards conditioning- the UCS is presented before the NS (does not work)

Extinction- the CS becomes the NS again because it stops causing a response

Spontaneous Recovery- after extinction occurs, if we pair the NS with the UCS one
time, it will be relearned

Generalization- when we confuse the CS with something similar (door bell like
regular bell)

Discrimination- when we learn not to react to a similar CS

Pavlov’s dogs- a classical conditioning experiment carried out by a Russian

psychologist names Pavlov; he taught his dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell
USC: meat
UCS: drool
NS: bell
CS: bell
CR: drool
USC =UCS
NS = nothing
NS + UCS = UCR
Repeat again and again
Ring bell without meat and they drool
Bell is now CS, drool is now CR

Higher Order Conditioning- using a previously taught CS to train for a new response

Premack Principle- if we rank everything from most favorable to least, anything

higher on the list can be used as a reinforcer

Taste aversions (Garcia Effect)- occurs when a subject associates the taste of a
certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance; we
learn to avoid those foods; in the Garcia effect, Dr. John Garcia gave rats sweet
water and then radiation, causing them to get sick; the rats who were exposed to
radiation chose to drink tap water instead of the sweet water

Operant Conditioning:
Law of Effect- (Thorndike) all behavior has a consequence; positive behavior
continues, negative behavior stops

Skinner box- experiment which includes a cage that has a bar or pedal on one wall
that, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to release a food pellet into the cage;
an animal in put inside and accidently presses the pedal; the animal learns that the
food falls out and does it again and again; the operant (the behavior occurring just
before the reinforcer) is the pressing of the pedal, and the reinforcer is the food

Reinforcement- anything that increases a behavior

Positive reinforcement- adding something good after the behavior

Negative reinforcement- removal of something bad when they do the behavior we

want

Punishment- adding something bad after a behavior, causing it to stop

Omission- removal of a positive after a behavior

Shaping- the process of creating a new behavior by rewarding the steps up to a final
complicated behavior

Chaining - involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form

a complex behavior

Types of Reinforcers
Primary- things we do not have to learn are good/bad (food, comfort, violence)

Secondary- things that we have to learn are good/bad (getting As, Gucci)

Generalized- can be used to obtain primary and secondary reinforcers (money)

Token Economy- worthless items that can be exchanged for something of value at
only a certain location (god stars)

Continuous reinforcement- every single occurrence is rewarded/punished; learning

(+) happens the fastest; extinction (-) happens the fastest

Partial reinforcement- a contingency of reinforcement in which reinforcement foes

not follow every response

Fixed ratio- set amount of behavior before reinforcement

Fixed interval- set amount of time before reinforcement

Variable ratio- random amount of behaviors before reinforcement

Variable interval- random amount of time before reinforcement

Fixed vs. Variable- set vs. random

Ratio vs. Interval- behavior vs. time

Instinctive Drift- (preparedness) (Lorenz) out biology affects the rate at which we
learn things

Prepared- behaviors that we are “wired” to learn (brain set up that way)

Counter Prepared- behaviors that we are wired not to learn (ex. to dislike your
mother)

Unprepared- no bias either way; neutral

Cognitive Shift:

Observational Learning- (Albert Bandura) shows that we can learn by seeing others
getting rewarded/punished

Bobo dolls- an experiment carried out by Albert Bandura; kids who watched an adult
playing with a doll and then getting punished would not play with it

Latent Learning- (Tohlman) learning sometimes occurs without reinforcement or

even knowing that we are learning

Tohlman’s experiment: half of the rats were allowed to wander the maze without
reinforcement; the other half stayed in cages; when reinforcement started, the ones
allowed to wander learned quicker

Abstract Learning- we develop rules that govern reinforcement; we think, we do not

just react

Insight Learning- (Kohler’s Apes) sometimes we can solve problems though a mental
trial and error and without reinforcement; a type of learning that uses reason,
especially to form conclusions, inferences, or judgments, to solve a problem

Kohler’s Apes: an experiment conducted by Kohler; bananas were placed outside of

reach of a cage of apes; through trial and error, they were able to use a stick to get
the bananas

6. Cognition

Memory:

Information Processing Model- a term used to describe the mental functions which
occur between stimulus and response
Sensory - involving or derived from the senses

Short term memory- (STM) the component of memory which handles retention over
relatively brief intervals of up to approximately 15 seconds

Long term memory- (LTM) the component of memory which is involved with
retention over relatively long periods (hours, days, weeks, or longer)

Selective Attention- out brain is being overwhelmed with billions of pieces of

information; we are only aware of the things we choose to pay attention to

Chunking- combining items so they only count as one in STM

Mnemonic devices- memory and/or learning aid

Maintenance rehearsal- the retention of material in STM by mean of rote repetition

Elaborate rehearsal- by attaching meaning to something we are trying to learn, it

makes it easier to access it later (LTM)

Types of Long Term Memory

Episodic memory- portion of LTM which contains personal experiences, organized

according to where and when events happened, such as what happened on your
last birthday

Procedural memory- portion of LTM which stores “how-to) information; things we can
physically do even though we can’t tell you how we do it (texting without looking)

Semantic memory- portion of LTM which involves general knowledge of the world
(including language)

Declarative memory- (explicit memory) random facts and trivia

Eidetic memory- photographic memory

Recognition- accessing memories with cues (help); ex. matching with word bank

Recall- accessing memories without cues; ex. fill in the blank

Serial Positioning Effect- if given a list, we are more likely to remember the
beginning and end of it and forget the middle

Recency- more likely to remember the end

Primacy- more likely to remember the beginning

Tip of the Tongue - an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be
recalled

Flash Bulb Memory- an emotional or important event that goes directly to LTM; we
will always remember it in vivid detail

Cue Dependent Coding- our memories overlap; uncovering one memory could
trigger others

State Dependent Memory- we are more likely to access a memory if we are in the
same emotional state as when we learned it

Context Dependent Memory- we are more likely to access a memory if we’re in the
same place as were we learned it

Interference- when a similar memory keeps us from accessing another one

Retroactive Interference- losing old information because new information is getting

in the way

Proactive Interference- losing new information because old information is getting in

the way

Mere Exposure - the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more we will tend to
like it

Language:

Phonemes- simplest units of sound

Morphemes- simplest units of sound with meaning

Babble- we make random sounds and are rewarded for the ones that occur in our
culture

Telegraphic Speech- simple one or two word sentences that convey meaning

Overgeneralization- “goed”, “wented”, “bes”; grammar rules don’t apply

Language Acquisition- we all have an innate ability to learn language (critical

period)

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- (Benjamin Wharf) our vocabulary shapes our

thinking

Problem Solving:
Algorithm- slow and boring way of solving problems that, if done correctly, is always
right

Heuristic- “rule of thumb”; cutting corners that leads to quicker answers, but that is
sometimes wrong

Mental Set- when we look at a problem a certain way, it is difficult for us to change
our views

Functional fixedness- the idea that an item can only be used for its expressed
purpose

Framing- presenting information in a way that makes it look more or less favorable

Convergent thinker- tries to narrow down to a single correct answer; everything else
is wrong

Divergent thinker- multiple correct answers measured in percentages of correctness

7. Motivation and Emotion

Motivation:

Drive Reduction Theory- if our needs are not being met, it creates a state of tension
that must be reduced

Arousal Theory- we all need different levels of activity to feel normal

Incentive Theory- we are motivated by rewards and punishments

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- part of the humanistic branch of psychology; if given

the opportunity, we will all make decisions that allow us to build self esteem and
become a complete person

Our needs from greatest to least:

Biological Needs- food, water, sleep

Safety- shelter; we cannot move on to friendship and self esteem if we are living in
fear

Belongingness- we must feel like we are a part of something

Self Esteem- belief in oneself

Self Actualization- we become so confident in whom we are that we no longer need

others to boost our self esteem

Eating:
Lateral Hypothalamus- tells us to eat

Ventromedial Hypothalamus- tells us to stop eating

Set Point Theory- each fat cell tries to maintain its normal level of fullness

Internal factors of eating- eating because we are hungry and need sustenance

External factors of eating- eat for other reasons (bored, depressed, lunchtime)

Bulimia- binge and purge; sometimes will maintain their weight

Anorexia- falling below 80% of your normal body weight by dramatically cutting
calories; irrational belief about what they should and do look like

Achievement:

Intrinsic Motivation- internally motivated; we do it because we feel like it is the right

thing to do and it feels good to do it

Extrinsic Motivation- externally motivated; motivated by rewards or to avoid

punishment

Theory X- tries to motivate by using extrinsic techniques

Theory Y- tries to motivate by using intrinsic techniques; often taken advantage of

Incentive Theory- motivated by rewards and punishments

Approach-Approach- deciding between two good things; choosing one costs us the
other; “opportunity cost”

Approach-Avoidance- choosing whether or not to do something that has both a pro

and a con

Avoidance-Avoidance- forced to choose between two options, both of which are bad;
“choosing the lesser of two evils”

Multiple- several options all have pros and cons

Emotion:

James-Lange- emotions are feelings which come about as a result of physiological

changes, rather than being their cause; physiological then emotional

Cannon-Bard - suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them;
emotional then physiological
Schachter 2 Factor - theory that views emotion as having two components (factors):
physiological arousal and cognition. According to the theory, "cognitions are used to
interpret the meaning of physiological reactions to outside events."

Stress and Health:

Daily Stress- short term stress composed of daily hassles; stress that lasts 24 hours

Life Changing Stress- more significant and difficult stress; can last up to 6 months

Social Readjustment Scale- any change in our life, good or bad, results in stress

General Adaptation Syndrome- (Hans Seyle) describes the body’s short term and
long term reaction to stress

Alarm- signal that there is a threat; immediate reaction; “fight or flight”

Resistance- our body activates to overcome the problem; sympathetic nervous

system

Exhaustion- after the prolonged resistance period, our chemicals are depleted; we
get sick

8. Developmental Psych
Nature- genetics and biologics made you the way you are; everything that happens
before you are born is the reason you are the way you are

Nurture- the way you are brought up and everything that happens after you are
born made you the way you are

Cross Sectional Study- a study of development that brings in kids of different ages
and tests them to compare how they’re different (takes one day); the con is that
there are personal differences

Longitudinal Study- a study of development that follows the same group around
over many years to see how they change (eliminates individual differences because
it includes the same people); the con is that it takes a very long time

Teratogens- any outside chemical that affects the baby while in the womb (ex.
alcohol)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- happens when a mother drinks alcohol while her baby is in
the womb; effects include shrunken heads and lower mental functioning

Reflexes:
Rooting- any touch near a baby’s mouth causes them to turn towards it (feeding
purposes)

Sucking- it is a reflex for babies to suck (also for feeding purposes)

Grasping- it is a reflex for babies to grasp things

Moro- when frightened, babies will extend their arms and legs out and then curl up
into a ball

Babinski- if you rub the bottom of their foot, the baby’s toes will spread apart and
extend

Senses: hearing vs. sight for babies- sight is the last sense to develop; they can
hear in the womb

Parenting:

Attachment –the relationship we form with our parents early in life will impact our
behavior and how we handle relationships the rest of our lives

Harlow’s Monkey’s- monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth and were
given fake mothers; half were given a wire mom that provided food, while the other
half got a cloth mom that did not provide food; the monkeys with the cloth mom
formed an attachment; this show that touch and comfort is the number one factor in
attachment

Ainsworth (strange situation)- Mary Ainsworth; kids were put into a room with
strangers; when they were distracted, the mothers left; psychologists studied their
behavior when the kids realized their moms were gone and when they returned

Secure- the kids that were distressed when mom was gone, but easily comforted
when she came back; as adults, they will form normal relationships

Avoidant- the kids that may have been distressed when mom left; but they all
ignored her return; as adults, they will be emotionally closed off and will struggle
forming relationships

Anxious (disorganized)- the kids that were distressed when mom left and then
rotated between pick me up, put me down when she returned; as adults, they will
be extremely needy

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian- have rules for the sake of rules; no explanation, no negotiation; as

adults, the kids will struggle with decision making if mom and dad aren’t there to
tell then what’s right and wrong
Authoritative- enforce rules, but they are explained and negotiated; most effective

Permissive- have little to no rules; don’t enforce the ones they have; as adults, the
kids will struggle with authority figures

Stage Theories:

Psychosexual Development - The concept of psychosexual development, as

envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth century, is a central element in his sexual drive theory, which posits that,
from birth, humans have instinctual sexual appetites (libido) which unfold in a series
of stages

Oral- conflict focuses on putting things in your mouth; we are not born with a super
ego; mom acts as super ego during the first stage; if the id is not satisfied, we
develop oral fixation

Anal- conflict focuses around potty training and going to the bathroom; failure to
resolve the stage could result in…

Anal Retentive- extremely neat and organized

Anal Expulsive- unorganized and messy

Phallic- the id’s focus moves towards the reproductive organs

Oedipus/Electra Complex- we become attracted to our opposite sex parent

Latency- sexual feelings are repressed

Sublimation- psychic energy is redirected into socially acceptable outlets; positive,

useful way to deal

Genital- at puberty, the id’s focus goes back to sex and adds aggression

Psychosocial Stages- (Eric Ericson) believes major conflict is between how we

operate within our social network; no fixation, we either develop positive or
negative trait and movie on

Trust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Cognitive Development:

“socks pulled over cold feet”- stages of cognitive development

Sensory Motor (0-2)- focuses on learning to control our bodies

Object Permanence- knowledge that an object exists even though we can’t see it

Preoperational (2-6)- focuses on learning language

Egocentrism- unable to understand others’ perspectives; believe the world is seeing

through their eyes only

Concrete (6-12)- focus on learning logic and simple math

Conservatism- idea that an object’s volume doesn’t change just because the shape
or size does

Formal- sophisticated thinking

Hypothetical Thinking- able to understand impossible situations and complicated

ideas

Assimilation- placing something new in a pre-existing schema (4 legged animal =

doggy)

Accommodation- creation of a new schema to correct an improper assimilation

(“that’s a dog!”, “no, that’s a cow”, “oh…”)

Moral Development:

Kohlberg and Moral Development

Pre-Conventional- for little kids, right or wrong is determined by “am I gonna get in
trouble?”

Conventional- right or wrong is determined by the laws of society and how behavior
is viewed

Post-Conventional- higher moral reasoning; what you individually think is right

Getting Old:

Decremental Model of Aging- as we get older, things start to break down (physically
and mentally)

Ageism- in American, most people would rather die than get old and feel the effects
of getting old
Death and Dying “DABDA”- the death and grief cycle

Denial- initial reaction is that it is not true

Anger- once we realize it is happening, we’re going to blame people and get mad

Bargaining- try to get out of the situation by bargaining; once we realize it won’t
work, we go into…

Depression- intense sadness; if we are able to make it through this stage, it lead
to…

Acceptance- ready to move on

Alzheimer’s- a degenerative, age-related disease that impairs an individual's

cognitive ability (mainly memory)