International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 342–351 342

Original article
Nutritional quality of African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell
1822): a positive criterion for the future development of the
European production of Siluroidei

Rui Rosa,1* Narcisa M. Bandarra & Maria Leonor Nunes

Departamento de Inovação Tecnológica e Valorização dos Produtos da Pesca, IPIMAR, Avenida de Brası́lia, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal
(Received 21 October 2005; Accepted in revised form 23 February 2006)

Summary The aims of this study were to evaluate the nutritional quality (proximate composition, amino and fatty acid
profiles, cholesterol and mineral contents) of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and determine the effect of
different cooking methods (grilling, boiling and frying) on biochemical composition. Frying produced the
highest water loss and fat gain (P < 0.05). Frying also affected the fatty acid composition significantly
(P < 0.05), increasing oleic (18:1n-9) and linoleic (18:2n-6) acid contents. The major essential amino acids
were arginine and lysine, and the limiting was the sulphur amino acid methionine. The changes in the
cholesterol and mineral contents (K > P > Na > Mg > Ca > Zn > Fe > Cu > Mn) and nutrient-
recommended dietary intakes are discussed and several indices (chemical score, amino acid score, essential
amino acid index, biological value, nutritional index, retention values, atherogenic index, thrombogenic
index and hypercholesterolaemic potential) are presented. The valorisation of these products may stimulate
the development of aquaculture production and consumers’ interest in Europe.
Keywords African catfish, biochemical composition, cooking effects, nutritional value.

2003; Ali & Jauncey, 2005). Nevertheless, their growth

Introduction
In Europe, as in many other parts of the world, the
increasing demand for fishery products continues to
stimulate the further development and growth of both
marine and freshwater aquaculture (FAO, 2005). How-
ever, catfish (Siluroidei) farming in Europe is not as
widespread as in other regions, because of the weak
consumer response, which limits the effectiveness of
promotional campaigns and continued producer interest
(Varadi et al., 2001). An opposite situation occurs in the
United States, where this industry is the leading sector of
freshwater aquaculture and it is the fifth most consumed
fish (0.36 kg per capita edible weight) (USDA, 2005).
The catfish species have been of interest to producers
because of their fast growth rates and efficient feed
conversion (Hecht et al., 1996; Hargreaves & Tucker,
*Correspondent: Fax: +(401) 8744256;
e-mail: rrosa@etal.uri.edu
This article was orally presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of
WEFTA, Antwerp, Belgium, 19–22 September 2005.
1
Present address: Biological Sciences Center, University of Rhode
Island, 100 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
potential depends on environmental factors such as
optimum temperature, water quality or nutrients (Mat-
ter et al., 2004).
The fast growing African catfish Clarias gariepinus
(Burchell 1822) is propagated in Africa (mainly South
Africa and Nigeria) and in Europe and has been
promoted in Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. Dur-
ing the last decade, the intensive culture of C. gariepinus
has also propagated in Southeast Asian countries,
including the production of many interspecific hybrids
(Khan et al., 2002).
African catfish processing by filleting (90% of pro-
duction) gives added values to the fish and facilitates
marketing (Proteau et al., 1996). As the nutritional data
are still incomplete for the African catfish C. gariepinus,
the present study gives a comprehensive characterisation
of the biochemical composition (proximate chemical
composition, energy, amino acids, fatty acids, choles-
terol and mineral contents) of the fillets of this silurid
species. During cooking, chemical and physical reactions
take place, which improve or prejudice the food nutri-
tional value (e.g. digestibility is increased as a result of
protein denaturation in food but the content of thermo-
labile compounds, fat-soluble vitamins or polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids is often reduced). Therefore, the present

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01256.x
 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
343 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al.
study also evaluates the effect of several cooking meth-
ods (boiling, frying and grilling) on the nutritional value
of catfish. Nutrient-recommended dietary intakes are
discussed and several indices [chemical score (CS), amino
acid score (AAS), essential amino acid index (EAAI),
biological value (BV), retention values (RVs), athero-
genic index (AI), thrombogenic index (TI) and hyper-
cholesterolaemic potential] are presented.
Material and methods
Sample preparation and cooking
The specimens of C. gariepinus were reared in catfish
farms and purchased from a retailer market at
Ijmuiden, Holland. A total of ten fish with a mean
weight of 2052 ± 294 g was provided. Fish were
beheaded, eviscerated and the bones and skin
removed. The fillets were randomly divided into five
groups (each group with two fillets). As the fillet
composition differs in the various parts of the fillets,
the fillets of each group were divided into smaller
parts, which randomly received the four different
treatments (raw, boiling, frying and grilling). Prior to
cooking, the products were washed, drained and salted
in the following way: (1) boiled fish – addition of
1.5% of salt to the cooking tap water (100 C during
7 min; relation fish/water – 1:2); (2) fried or grilled
fish – spiked with 1.5% salt, and after 15 min the salt
was partially removed. Regarding frying, fillets were
previously coated in wheat flour and fried in vegetable
oil [mainly consist of linoleic acid (LA), 18:2n-6, and
oleic acid, 18:1n-9] during 5 min with an initial
temperature of 180 C. Grilling was done in an
electrical grill for 5 min with the thermostat tempera-
ture set at 350 C. After cooking, the products were
homogenised and the biochemical analyses were done
in the five pooled groups (quintuplicate).
Proximate chemical composition and energy content
Moisture, protein, fat and ash content were determined
according to AOAC procedures (1998). Moisture con-
tent was determined by constant weight drying in an
oven at 100 C, protein levels by a modified Kjeldahl
method, using the value 6.25 as a conversion factor of
total nitrogen content to protein, fat content using the
Soxhlet extraction method with ethyl ether and ash
determination was performed in a muffle furnace at
550 C to constant weight.
The energy content was estimated according to FAO
(1987) report and calculated as proteins – 4.27 kcal g)1
wet weight; lipids – 9.02 kcal g)1 wet weight; carbohy-
drates – 4.11 kcal g)1 wet weight (1 kcal ¼ 4.184 kJ). In
this study, the carbohydrate fraction was subestimated
as it only quantified the glycogen content.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007
Amino acid analysis
In order to determine the total amino acid (TAA)
profile, proteins were hydrolysed with 6 N hydrochloric
acid (containing 0.1% phenol) in an MLS-1200 Mega
Microwave System (Milestone, Bergamo, Italy), at
800 W, 160 C for 10 min. The hydrolysis was per-
formed under inert and anaerobic conditions to prevent
oxidative degradation of amino acids. The hydrolysates
were filtered and dissolved in sodium citrate buffer, pH
2.2. It is noteworthy that with this hydrolysis procedure
tryptophan was not determined. Amino acids were
separated by ion exchange liquid chromatography in an
automatic analyser, Biochrom 20 (Amersham Bioscienc-
es, Little Chalfont, UK), equipped with a column filled
with a polysulphonated resin (250 · 4.6 mm), using
three sodium citrate buffers – pH 3.20, 4.25 and 6.45
(Amersham Biosciences, Little Chalfont, UK) – and
three different temperatures (50, 58 and 95 C). The
detection of amino acids was done at 440 and 570 nm
after reaction with ninhydrin (Amersham Biosciences,
Little Chalfont, UK). Amino acids were identified by
comparison of their retention times with those of specific
standards (Sigma, Sintra, Portugal) and quantified with
the software EZChromTM Chromatography Data
System, vers. 6.7. (Scientific Software Inc., Cambridge,
UK) using norleucine (Sigma) as internal standard.
The CS and AAS were determined using the Block &
Mitchell (1946) method and FAO/WHO/UNU (1985)
scoring pattern, respectively. The EAAI for the sum of
essential amino acids (EAAs) was determined using Oser
(1951) method.
The BV was calculated using the formula of Oser
(1959): BV ¼ 1.09 (EAAI) ) 11.7, and the nutritional
index (NI) was calculated with the formula of Crisan &
Sands (1978): NI ¼ (EAAI · % protein)/100.
Fatty acid analysis
The determination of fatty acid profile was based on the
experimental procedure of Lepage & Roy (1986)
modified by Cohen et al. (1988). The fatty acid methyl
esters were analysed in a CP 3800 Varian gas Chroma-
tograph (Varian Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA), equipped
with an autosampler and a flame ionisation detector.
The separation was carried out with helium as carrier
gas in a DB-Wax Polyethylene Glycol Column (Agilent
Technologies, S.L., Madrid, Spain) (30 m · 0.25 mm
i.d.) programmed to start at 180 C for 5 min, heating at
4 C min)1 for 10 min and hold up at 220 C for
25 min, with a detector at 250 C. A split injector
(100:1) at 250 C was used. Fatty acid methyl esters
were identified by comparison of their retention time
with those of chromatographic Sigma standards.
The AI and TI were calculated according to Ulbricht
& Southgate (1991) equations: AI ¼ (12:0 + 4 ·
 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al. 344

P P
14:0 + 16:0)/[ MUFA + PUFA (n-6) and (n-3)],
where MUFA are the monounsaturated fatty acids and
PUFA the polyunsaturated fatty acids. The 12:0 was not
detected in the samples and therefore not taken into
account forP the calculations;PTI ¼ (14:0 + 16:0 +
18:0)/[0.5
P · MUFA + 0.5 · PUFA (n-6) + 3 ·
PUFA (n-3) + (n-3)/(n-6)].
Cholesterol analysis
The quantification of cholesterol content was based on
the experimental procedure of Naemmi et al. (1995)
modified by Oehlenschläger (2000). It was analysed in a
Hewlett Packard 5890 Gas Chromatograph (Palo Alto,
CA, USA) and the separation was carried out with
helium as carrier gas in a column HP5 (30 m · 0.5 mm
i.d.). The temperatures of the oven, injector and detector
were 280, 285 and 300 C, respectively. Cholesterol was
identified and quantified by comparison with a pure
standard (Sigma) from which a calibration curve was
prepared. The cholesterol-saturated fat index (CSI) was
determined according to Connor et al. (1986) as follows:
CSI ¼ (1.01 · g of SFA 100 g)1 of wet weight) +
(0.05 · mg of cholesterol 100 g)1 of wet weight), where
SFA are the saturated fatty acids. The cholesterol index
(CI) was calculated according to Zilversmit (1979)
equation: 1.01 · (g of SFA 100 g)1 of wet
weight )0.5 · g of PUFA 100 g)1 of wet weight) +
(0.06 · mg of cholesterol 100 g)1 of wet weight).
Mineral analyses
Phosphorus was analysed by UV–visible spectropho-
tometry according to ISO/TC 34/SC6 N371 (1991). All
the other minerals were measured by flame atomic
absorption spectrometry (in a Varian Spectr AA 55B,
Varian Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA) after dry ashing,
according to Official Methods of Analysis (AOAC,
1995) and Jorhem (2000).
Nutrient retention values
True RVs were calculated using the following formula
(USDA, 2002): RV (%) ¼ [(nutrient content per g
of cooked food · g of food after cooking)/nutrient
content per g of raw food · g of food before
cooking)] · 100.
Statistical analysis
Biochemical data were analysed using an anova when
comparing multiple groups (k > 3). Normality and
homogeneity of variances were verified by Kolmogorov–
Smirnov and Bartlett tests, respectively. Having
demonstrated significant differences among the groups
with anova, Tukey test was used to establish what those
differences were (Zar, 1996).
Results and discussion
Proximate chemical composition and energy
The proximate chemical composition of the catfish fillets
(in raw and cooked forms) is showed in Table 1. All
cooking methods resulted in a significant water loss
(P < 0.05), being the highest obtained with frying.
Fried fish had the highest fat gain (P < 0.05), which is
due to the oil penetration after water is partially lost by
evaporation. Consequently, frying provided a signifi-
cantly higher RV of fat (Table 3; P < 0.05), which
resulted in a higher energy retention (P < 0.05). It is
also noteworthy that by using wheat flour to cover fried
fish there is an addition of carbohydrates to the cooked
fillet, which was reflected in the total sum of the
proximate composition (97%, contrary to 99% for
the rest of the treatments).
Protein and ash contents also varied significantly
between treatments (P < 0.05), with the highest values
observed in the grilled product. These differences also
resulted from water loss and, consequently, the energy
content of the cooked forms was higher (P < 0.05). The
protein RVs for boiling, frying and grilling had a value
around 100% (P > 0.05) confirming that this nutrient is
not susceptible to cooking losses but only to a concen-
tration effect (caused by moisture loss). The water loss
and higher organic content in the cooked fish in relation
to the raw fish are in accordance with the findings
of other studies in fish products (Gall et al., 1983;

Table 1 Proximate chemical composition

(% wet weight), energy (kJ 100 g-1 wet Raw Boiled Fried Grilled
weight) and cholesterol content (mg 100 g wet
Moisture 75.68 ± 0.58a 71.08 ± 0.59b 63.32 ± 2.16c 65.76 ± 2.04c
weight) of raw and cooked forms of catfish,
Protein 16.80 ± 0.44a 21.14 ± 0.51b 21.82 ± 1.64b 24.28 ± 1.99c
Clarias gariepinus
Fat 5.70 ± 0.16a 5.90 ± 0.60a 9.30 ± 1.75b 6.88 ± 1.11a
Ash 1.00 ± 0.00a 1.20 ± 0.00b 2.30 ± 0.21c 2.62 ± 0.23d
Energy 457.90 ± 26.57a 600.34 ± 20.04b 740.81 ± 70.95c 693.43 ± 43.87c
Cholesterol 11.04 ± 0.43a 14.23 ± 1.59b 13.82 ± 2.43ab 19.84 ± 1.01c

Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows represent significant differences
(P < 0.05).

 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007
345 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al.

Castrillón et al., 1997; Wu & Lillard, 1998; Garcı́a-Arias Table 3 True nutrient (proximate chemical composition, cholesterol
et al., 2003a, 2004; Gokoglu et al., 2004; Kalogeropo- and amino acids) retention values (%) for cooked catfish, Clarias
ulos et al., 2004). gariepinus

Boiled Fried Grilled

Amino acids a b
Moisture 74.74 ± 0.63 64.29 ± 2.40 64.01 ± 2.33b
Table 2 shows the amino acid profile of raw and cooked Protein 100.17 ± 2.65 99.78 ± 6.86 106.37 ± 7.09
catfish. In all products, the quantitatively most import- Fat 82.45 ± 9.10a 125.25 ± 22.90b 88.73 ± 12.74a
ant EAA were, by order of decreasing magnitude, lysine, Ash 95.50 ± 0.00a 176.71 ± 16.30b 192.96 ± 16.79b
Energy 104.49 ± 4.03a 124.58 ± 13.51b 111.92 ± 10.58a
leucine and arginine; in relation to non-EAAs (NEAA),
Cholesterol 107.57 ± 5.18a 98.60 ± 15.16a 132.46 ± 6.14b
the major were glutamic acid, aspartic acid, alanine,
Essential amino acids (EAA)
glycine and proline. TAA, EAA and NEAA contents Threonine 108.00 ± 3.72a 118.34 ± 6.54ab 120.48 ± 4.69b
varied significantly between treatments (P < 0.05) and Methionine 108.58 ± 3.73 106.78 ± 10.04 109.34 ± 6.79
the highest values were observed in grilling, followed by Isoleucine 108.85 ± 4.17 120.22 ± 5.45 119.47 ± 5.22
frying. The amino acid RVs were also higher in these Leucine 108.08 ± 3.79a 120.95 ± 6.14b 120.51 ± 3.71b
cooking processes (Table 3). The ratio of EAA and Phenylalanine 109.09 ± 4.24 118.79 ± 7.50 117.48 ± 2.98
NEAA varied between 0.97 and 0.99, which reveals that Valine 110.92 ± 4.51 123.01 ± 4.79 122.38 ± 6.43
this species is well balanced with respect to EAA and Lysine 104.89 ± 3.28a 118.58 ± 4.86b 118.46 ± 4.99b
may be considered as a food source of high-quality Histidine 108.84 ± 5.24 120.25 ± 9.71 117.64 ± 7.03
Arginine 110.24 ± 3.90a 122.50 ± 5.05b 121.34 ± 5.90b
protein. The CS, AAS, EAAI, BV and NI are showed in P
EAA 108.23 ± 3.76a 119.65 ± 5.93b 119.30 ± 4.81b
Table 4. These values are similar to those found in the
Non-essential amino acids (NEAA)
literature (if the same standards were considered) Aspartic acid 109.56 ± 5.85a 120.94 ± 4.82b 122.29 ± 4.83b
(Iwasaki & Harada, 1985; Garcı́a-Arias et al., 2003b). Serine 108.69 ± 3.92 118.55 ± 6.75 121.70 ± 5.07
The CS suggested that the first limiting amino acid was Glutamic acid 106.62 ± 4.17a 122.08 ± 4.95b 120.41 ± 4.61b
methionine and the second isoleucine. In fact, the Glycine 113.76 ± 12.15 128.71 ± 9.16 127.76 ± 13.61
sulphur-containing amino acids are generally found to Alanine 115.50 ± 9.20 128.68 ± 7.18 126.93 ± 7.30
be primarily limiting in shellfish and fish meal (Acton & Tyrosine 108.18 ± 2.95 116.39 ± 8.26 118.61 ± 3.68
Proline 110.85 ± 11.51 103.69 ± 24.64 125.08 ± 22.25
P
NEAA 109.60 ± 4.45a 120.54 ± 2.06b 122.60 ± 6.56b
P
TAA 108.92 ± 4.08a 120.09 ± 3.93b 120.95 ± 5.63b
Table 2 Total amino acid profile (% wet weight) raw and cooked
forms of catfish, Clarias gariepinus Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows
represent significant differences (P < 0.05).
Amino acids Raw Boiled Fried Grilled

Essential (EAA)
Threonine 0.63 ± 0.06a 0.86 ± 0.09b 0.97 ± 0.12b 1.03 ± 0.11b Rudd, 1987). It is worth noting that the cooked forms
Methionine 0.35 ± 0.04a 0.48 ± 0.05b 0.49 ± 0.08b 0.52 ± 0.06b had slightly higher values for the other calculated indices
Isoleucine 0.64 ± 0.06a 0.88 ± 0.09b 1.01 ± 0.11b 1.04 ± 0.12b (EAAI, BV, NI) than the raw product. Therefore, these
Leucine 1.27 ± 0.13a 1.72 ± 0.16b 2.00 ± 0.23b 2.08 ± 0.24b cooking processes do not seem to induce losses in the
Phenylalanine 0.68 ± 0.07a 0.93 ± 0.09b 1.05 ± 0.12b 1.08 ± 0.12b protein nutritional quality.
Valine 0.79 ± 0.09a 1.09 ± 0.11b 1.26 ± 0.14b 1.31 ± 0.17b
Lysine 1.49 ± 0.12a 1.96 ± 0.18b 2.29 ± 0.23b 2.39 ± 0.27b
Histidine 0.39 ± 0.04a 0.53 ± 0.07b 0.60 ± 0.06b 0.62 ± 0.08b Fatty acids
Arginine 0.94 ± 0.08a 1.30 ± 0.13b 1.50 ± 0.15c 1.55 ± 0.19c
P The fatty acid profile of raw and cooked catfish is
EAA 7.17 ± 0.69a 9.75 ± 0.95bc 11.17 ± 1.26c 11.62 ± 1.35c
Non-essential (NEAA)
showed in Table 5. There were no significant differences
Aspartic acid 1.51 ± 0.17a 2.07 ± 0.19b 2.38 ± 0.29bc 2.50 ± 0.28c in the SFA fraction between treatments (P > 0.05),
Serine 0.56 ± 0.06a 0.77 ± 0.07b 0.87 ± 0.11b 0.93 ± 0.11b neither in the most predominant fatty acids, e.g. palmitic
Glutamic acid 2.22 ± 0.22a 2.97 ± 0.27b 3.53 ± 0.37c 3.64 ± 0.44c acid (16:0) (P > 0.05). Nonetheless, the second major
Glycine 0.73 ± 0.01a 1.04 ± 0.12b 1.22 ± 0.11b 1.26 ± 0.15b SFA, stearic acid (18:0), revealed a significant increase in
Alanine 0.90 ± 0.13a 1.29 ± 0.13b 1.49 ± 0.15b 1.54 ± 0.21b frying (P < 0.05), which significantly affected its RV
Tyrosine 0.56 ± 0.04a 0.76 ± 0.07b 0.85 ± 0.10b 0.90 ± 0.09b (Table 6).
Proline 0.75 ± 0.03a 1.04 ± 0.10b 1.00 ± 0.20b 1.27 ± 0.19b With respect to the MUFA fraction, it varied signifi-
P
NEAA 7.22 ± 0.66a 9.95 ± 0.96b 11.34 ± 1.34bc 12.04 ± 1.47bc
cantly between the raw and cooked products (P < 0.05),
EAA/NEAA 0.99 ± 0.01 0.98 ± 0.00 0.98 ± 0.03 0.97 ± 0.01
P because of the significant increase of the most common
TAA 14.39 ± 1.36a 19.69 ± 1.91bc 22.51 ± 2.60c 23.66 ± 2.82c
MUFA – oleic acid, 18:1n-9 (P < 0.05). Consequently,
Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows the RVs of total MUFA and 18:1n-9 were also
represent significant differences (P < 0.05). significantly higher (P < 0.05) in fried fish (Table 6).

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007  2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al. 346

Table 4 Chemical score (CS), amino acid score (AAS), essential amino acid index (EAAI), biological value (BV) and nutritional index (NI) of
catfish, Clarias gariepinus

Egg patterna FAO/WHO/UNU 1991b Egg ratioc (log10)

Amino acid Raw Boiled Fried Grilled Raw Boiled Fried Grilled Raw Boiled Fried Grilled

Threonine 73.40 79.12 87.15 83.07 110.53 119.14 131.24 125.09 1.87 1.90 1.94 1.92
Methionine 36.29 39.32 38.94 37.20 84.05 91.08 90.19 86.16 1.56 1.59 1.59 1.57
Isoleucine 60.75 66.03 73.25 68.23 136.48 148.33 164.55 153.27 1.78 1.82 1.86 1.83
Leucine 85.66 92.32 103.82 97.02 114.48 123.37 138.74 129.65 1.93 1.97 2.02 1.99
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 74.51 80.86 87.94 82.68 116.97 126.94 138.05 129.79 1.87 1.91 1.94 1.92
Valine 68.24 75.50 84.12 78.50 133.56 147.77 164.64 153.64 1.83 1.88 1.92 1.89
Lysine 126.72 132.74 150.66 141.20 152.50 159.75 181.32 169.93 2.10 2.12 2.18 2.15
P
CS AAS EAAI (anti log /7)
36.29 39.32 38.94 37.20 84.05 91.08 90.19 86.16 70.82 76.53 83.69 78.73
BVd 65.49 71.71 79.53 74.12
NIe 11.00 15.16 17.35 18.00

a
According to method described by Block & Mitchell (1946).
b
Scoring pattern of FAO/WHO/UNU (1985).
c
According to method described by Oser (1951).
d
According to method described by Oser (1959).
e
According to method described by Crisan & Sands (1978).

The linoleic acid (LA) (18:2n-6), EPA (20:5n-3) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6n-3) were the dom-
inant PUFA. However, only the 18:2n-6 increased
significantly with frying (LA: P < 0.05; EPA/DHA:
P > 0.05). LA gain was reflected in the PUFA, n-6 and
total FA contents (P < 0.05) and their respective RVs
(Table 6). The consequent decrease in n-3/n-6 ratio
(P < 0.05) is in agreement with previous reports (Sán-
chez-Muniz et al., 1992; Echarte et al., 2001).
Fish long-chain n-3 PUFA, especially EPA and DHA,
are hypotriglyceridemic and are important in the
prevention of human cardiovascular and inflammatory
diseases (Lands, 1986). In order to measure the propen-
sity of the catfish diet to influence the incidence of
coronary heart disease, the AI and TI were calculated
(Table 7). The AI varied significantly between the
treatments (P < 0.05) and found lower in the fried
samples (because of oil absorption), but the TI did not
(P > 0.05). The AI values obtained in the catfish were
lower than those in other animal foods, such as lamb
(Salvatori et al., 2004), rabbit (Dal Bosco et al., 2001),
beef, pork, cod, sardine (Paul et al., 1980; Pérez-Llamas
et al., 1998), anchovy, mackerel, mussel (Kalogeropou-
los et al., 2004), sea bass (Krajnovic-Ozretic et al., 1994)
and gilthead sea bream (Trigari et al., 1997), similar to
chicken (Paul et al., 1980) and other finfish foods,
namely red porgy (Rueda et al., 1997), sharpsnout sea
bream (Rueda et al., 2001) and tuna (Paul et al., 1980),
and higher than squid (Kalogeropoulos et al., 2004),
penaeid shrimps and Norway lobster (Rosa & Nunes,
2004). Values of TI were lower than those reported by
Paul et al. (1980), Pérez-Llamas et al. (1998), Kaloge-
ropoulos et al. (2004), similar to those from Rueda et al.
(2001) and higher than those obtained by Rosa & Nunes
(2004).
With respect to dietary intakes for n-3 fatty acids and
their consumption in Western countries, numerous
official committees of nutrition and scientific societies
such as the International Society for the Study of Fatty
acids and Lipids have proposed recommendations for
n-3 PUFA intake to cover human requirements
throughout life (Galli, 2000; Simopoulos et al., 2000).
For example, for the linolenic acid (a-LNA; 18:3n-3),
the precursor of the n-3 series, the recommended daily
intake is 1.6 and 2.2 g day)1 for adult males and
females, respectively, and for DHA is 100–200 and
120–240 mg day)1 . The consumption of 100 g of catfish
products may contribute 3–4% and 5–7% of the
recommended daily a-LNA intake for females and
males, respectively, and 240–290% and 290–350% of
the recommended DHA for females and males, respect-
ively.
It is worth noting that the estimated daily intake of
n-3 PUFA in Western countries varies largely, but is
often under the recommended intakes (Alessandri et al.,
2004). The mean a-LNA intake rarely reaches the
recommended values (Meyer et al., 2003) and the mean
DHA intake mainly depends on fish consumption,
which can differ greatly between countries (Welch et al.,
2002). The latter may well cover recommended values in
countries with fish-eating habits, like Portugal.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol content varied significantly (P < 0.05)
between raw and cooked products (Table 1); the highest

 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007
347 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al.

Table 5 Fatty acid composition (mg 100 g

Fatty acids Raw Boiled Fried Grilled wet weight) of raw and cooked forms of
catfish, Clarias gariepinus
14:0 202.75 ± 12.83 218.62 ± 25.68 209.34 ± 49.74 255.55 ± 50.79
15:0 21.01 ± 1.30 22.60 ± 2.63 21.60 ± 4.70 26.06 ± 5.02
16:0 1069.59 ± 32.58 1121.11 ± 135.46 1495.15 ± 664.03 1314.46 ± 275.41
17:0 16.25 ± 0.38 16.43 ± 2.15 16.94 ± 3.48 19.71 ± 3.37
18:0 283.67 ± 24.00a 292.41 ± 51.90ab 400.85 ± 86.36b 341.30 ± 66.87ab
19:0 9.00 ± 0.86 10.38 ± 0.89 10.28 ± 2.40 12.72 ± 3.49
20:0 9.41 ± 0.19 9.41 ± 0.72 15.48 ± 3.00 10.25 ± 1.44
P
Saturated 1611.67 ± 43.40 1690.97 ± 207.79 2169.64 ± 790.19 1980.05 ± 401.94
Iso 14:0 7.55 ± 0.64 7.91 ± 1.02 7.37 ± 1.62 8.89 ± 1.44
Iso 16:0 2.79 ± 0.24 3.23 ± 0.60 2.90 ± 0.71 4.57 ± 2.38
Anteiso 16:0 5.18 ± 0.15 5.47 ± 0.68 5.13 ± 1.24 5.83 ± 1.56
P
Branched 15.52 ± 0.87 16.62 ± 2.18 15.40 ± 3.44 19.30 ± 3.69
16:1n-7 252.08 ± 9.91 264.07 ± 30.22 255.92 ± 60.71 313.10 ± 63.72
17:1n-8 5.18 ± 0.15 5.33 ± 0.52 4.81 ± 1.16 6.15 ± 1.10
18:1n-9 842.39 ± 52.64a 853.35 ± 131.29a 1707.79 ± 313.91b 947.98 ± 202.25a
18:1n-7 134.77 ± 5.44 140.04 ± 14.20 158.60 ± 32.79 165.76 ± 26.36
20:1n-9 156.72 ± 6.15 152.93 ± 13.94 150.36 ± 32.57 174.70 ± 27.22
20:1n-7 9.73 ± 0.63 9.43 ± 1.08 9.78 ± 2.60 10.75 ± 1.61
22:1n-11 107.53 ± 5.23 97.46 ± 7.54 93.36 ± 23.21 107.26 ± 13.38
22:1n-9 13.04 ± 0.58 6.85 ± 6.27 13.06 ± 3.13 7.37 ± 6.81
P
Monounsaturated 1521.45 ± 54.08a 1529.46 ± 178.23a 2393.67 ± 458.42b 1733.08 ± 311.73a
16:3n-3 10.05 ± 0.55 10.08 ± 1.22 10.31 ± 2.42 11.69 ± 2.09
16:4n-3 20.59 ± 0.54 23.08 ± 3.02 22.80 ± 5.96 28.40 ± 4.93
18:2n-6 541.32 ± 17.25a 612.12 ± 71.97a 2582.39 ± 413.88b 679.46 ± 107.99a
18:3n-6 10.36 ± 0.73 10.17 ± 1.69 10.83 ± 2.64 10.93 ± 1.07
18:3n-3 83.83 ± 2.42 87.39 ± 9.62 89.51 ± 20.71 104.95 ± 18.65
18:4n-3 65.09 ± 3.39 68.04 ± 5.98 67.09 ± 15.26 83.26 ± 14.41
20:4n-6 24.63 ± 1.55 26.93 ± 2.33 27.63 ± 5.45 32.48 ± 5.46
20:3n-3 7.87 ± 0.43 4.74 ± 4.34 3.27 ± 4.61 1.83 ± 4.10
20:4n-3 42.96 ± 1.47 43.33 ± 4.80 43.09 ± 9.83 51.01 ± 8.04
20:5n-3 295.74 ± 15.53 310.64 ± 30.08 315.78 ± 67.32 379.03 ± 56.69
22:4n-6 17.08 ± 1.02 16.87 ± 2.41 16.90 ± 4.55 20.05 ± 2.13
22:5n-6 6.83 ± 3.86 5.17 ± 4.76 3.55 ± 4.46 5.50 ± 5.02
22:5n-3 88.95 ± 4.89 88.69 ± 7.25 94.21 ± 22.67 106.08 ± 15.47
22:6n-3 572.79 ± 29.78 587.12 ± 46.89 612.02 ± 136.82 697.84 ± 81.11
P
Polyunsaturated 1788.07 ± 69.81a 1894.37 ± 149.62a 3899.38 ± 691.53b 2212.51 ± 306.08a
P
(n-3) 1187.86 ± 51.71 1223.11 ± 104.89 1258.07 ± 280.32 1464.10 ± 196.78
P
(n-6) 600.21 ± 18.19a 671.26 ± 74.32a 2641.31 ± 424.86b 748.42 ± 111.93a
(n-3)/(n-6) 102.40 ± 3.74ab 98.35 ± 13.91b 40.78 ± 10.38c 122.80 ± 18.74a
Total 4936.70 ± 136.99a 5131.41 ± 531.83a 8478.09 ± 1834.15b 5944.94 ± 1004.71a

Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows represent significant differences
(P < 0.05).

values were observed in the grilled product. Conse-
quently, cholesterol RV for grilling was rather high
(P < 0.05), a phenomenon for which there is no ready
explanation (Table 3).
According to the American Heart Association, at
least two servings of fish per week are recommended
to confer cardioprotective effects (Krauss et al., 2000).
As the hypercholesterolaemic–atherogenic potential of
the food lies in its cholesterol and fatty acid compo-
sition, the CSI and CI were determined (Table 7). The
first index may be used to compare different foods
(Connor et al., 1986), while CI expresses the relative
effect of individual portions of foods on the serum
cholesterol of an average individual (Zilversmit, 1979).
In the present study, the CSI and CI varied signifi-
cantly between treatments (P < 0.05) and the highest
values were attained in the grilled products. Although
the grilling values were unexpected, frying has been
reported to increase the cholesterol levels in fish food
(Ewaida, 1993; Echarte et al., 2001). The CSI and CI
results are comparable with those referenced in the
literature (Connor et al., 1986; Sánchez-Muniz et al.,
1992; Kalogeropoulos et al., 2004). As the dietary
cholesterol intake should be limited at £300 mg per
day (AHA – American Heart Association, 2005),
the consumption of 100 g of catfish products may
contribute 42–60% of the recommended maximum
cholesterol intake.

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007  2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al. 348

Table 6 True fatty acid retention values (%) for cooked catfish, Clarias Minerals
gariepinus
In Table 8, the mineral profiles of raw and cooked
Fatty acids Boiled Fried Grilled catfish are presented. The mineral concentration in
descending order was K > P> Na> Mg > Ca>
14:0 86.08 ± 11.52 79.95 ± 21.64 93.24 ± 19.83
Zn> Fe> Cu> Mn. In fact, as in other fish and
15:0 86.02 ± 12.64 79.56 ± 19.81 91.60 ± 17.91
16:0 83.56 ± 11.32 107.84 ± 49.95 90.21 ± 16.62
shellfish products (Sidwell et al., 1978; Oehlenschläger,
17:0 80.57 ± 11.44 80.09 ± 16.32 89.29 ± 14.65
1997), potassium was the major mineral and signifi-
18:0 81.75 ± 9.64a 108.05 ± 18.56b 88.27 ± 13.57a cant differences between treatments were detected
19:0 92.94 ± 15.78 89.52 ± 27.47 103.81 ± 23.26 (P < 0.05). The highest concentration of this element
20:0 79.68 ± 7.54a 126.46 ± 25.24 80.14 ± 10.67 and consequently the highest RV (P < 0.05) were
obtained in the grilled products ) 5063.53 mg kg)1 wet
P
Saturated 83.58 ± 10.98 103.51 ± 38.49 90.23 ± 16.44
Iso 14:0 83.61 ± 10.24 75.85 ± 20.15 87.24 ± 15.82 weight (Table 9). It is worth noting that the recommen-
Iso 16:0 92.38 ± 17.32 80.21 ± 18.69 119.71 ± 54.23 ded dietary allowance (RDA) of this mineral is 3500 mg
Anteiso 16:0 84.26 ± 10.99 76.16 ± 18.56 82.81 ± 20.88 (HWN, 2005). Recent studies have found that an
P
Branched 85.38 ± 11.56 76.51 ± 17.82 91.79 ± 17.71
increase in the intake of potassium with calcium and
16:1n-7 83.61 ± 11.60 78.29 ± 20.11 91.46 ± 17.86
17:1n-8 82.14 ± 9.72 71.32 ± 17.21 87.38 ± 13.77
magnesium decreased the blood pressure, therefore
18:1n-9 80.52 ± 10.06a 155.76 ± 27.31b 82.59 ± 14.55a
reducing the risk of hypertension and stroke (Reddy &
18:1n-7 82.86 ± 9.89 90.41 ± 18.52 90.50 ± 13.04 Katan, 2004). The mechanism is not, as yet, established,
20:1n-9 77.83 ± 8.67 73.60 ± 15.29 81.97 ± 10.93 although a suggested possibility for the potassium’s
20:1n-7 77.33 ± 10.01 76.73 ± 18.47 81.40 ± 10.91 hypotensive effect lies in the rennin–angiotensin–
22:1n-11 72.26 ± 6.45 66.46 ± 14.77 73.47 ± 8.37 aldosterone system (Suter, 1999; Fang, 2000). This
22:1n-9
P
40.91 ± 37.63 77.24 ± 19.33 42.24 ± 39.06 mineral may also be associated with the prevention of
Monounsaturated 80.05 ± 9.48a 120.81 ± 22.65b 83.68 ± 12.87a osteoporosis by maintaining the bone mineral density
16:3n-3 80.10 ± 11.02 78.98 ± 19.15 85.44 ± 12.18 (New et al., 2000).
16:4n-3 89.26 ± 12.00 84.98 ± 21.92 101.73 ± 18.61
The next quantitatively most important minerals were
18:2n-6 90.17 ± 12.14a 366.08 ± 54.64b 92.53 ± 15.20a
18:3n-6 77.87 ± 9.63 80.61 ± 20.88 77.66 ± 4.30
phosphorus and sodium. Their levels were also signifi-
18:3n-3 83.13 ± 10.69 82.09 ± 19.38 92.12 ± 15.30
cantly affected by cooking methods (P < 0.05). The
18:4n-3 83.50 ± 10.38 79.39 ± 18.69 94.35 ± 16.40 highest RVs (P < 0.05) were observed in grilled and
20:4n-6 87.21 ± 8.36 86.35 ± 16.82 97.54 ± 18.57 fried products (Table 9). In relation to the former,
20:3n-3 46.82 ± 43.09 32.11 ± 45.43 17.71 ± 39.59 according to Oehlenschläger (1997), there is a relation
20:4n-3 80.38 ± 9.73 76.95 ± 17.23 87.26 ± 11.45 between fat and phosphorous contents. Lean fish species
20:5n-3 83.69 ± 8.33 82.00 ± 16.69 94.83 ± 17.07 contain usually lower values than fatty species. The
22:4n-6 78.43 ± 8.64 75.32 ± 16.80 86.52 ± 8.43 RDA is 1000 mg (HWN, 2005), and regarding its
22:5n-6 29.53 ± 40.45 16.26 ± 32.12 32.99 ± 45.38 possible therapeutic uses it has been recommended for
22:5n-3 79.51 ± 7.40 81.08 ± 18.52 87.61 ± 9.26
the treatment of arthritis, stress and tooth/gum disor-
22:6n-3 81.68 ± 7.08 81.89 ± 16.74 89.95 ± 11.65
P
Polyunsaturated 84.44 ± 7.98a 167.33 ± 27.78b 91.26 ± 13.32a
ders (Fang, 2000). The daily intake of sodium should be
P
(n-3) 82.04 ± 7.77 81.24 ± 17.17 90.94 ± 13.10
lower than 2400 mg (HWN, 2005). Typically, an
P excessively high intake of sodium is much more likely
(n-6) 89.15 ± 11.23a 337.75 ± 51.16b 91.90 ± 14.05a
Total 82.80 ± 9.29a 131.87 ± 28.41b 88.59 ± 13.91a than deficiency. This element is the main cation in
extracellular fluid and acts in the body’s acid–base
Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows balance and in the transmission of nerve impulses. The
represent significant differences (P < 0.05). Na/K ratio was always below 1.0, which is interesting
from the point of view of nutrition, as ratios higher than
1.5 have been related to the possible incidence of
Table 7 Atherogenic (AI), thrombogenic (TI), cholesterol-saturated
hypertension (Nutinf, 2005).
fat index (CSI) and cholesterol (CI) indices of the raw and cooked
The fourth mineral most abundant in fish muscle was
forms of catfish, Clarias gariepinus
magnesium and its content also varied between cooking
Raw Boiled Fried Grilled methods (highest values in the grilled products;
P < 0.05). The RDA is 400 mg (HWN, 2005). In the
AI 0.57 ± 0.02a 0.58 ± 0.02a 0.36 ± 0.08b 0.59 ± 0.04a human body, this mineral is found mostly in the bone.
TI 0.33 ± 0.01 0.33 ± 0.02 0.33 ± 0.08 0.33 ± 0.02 On the contrary, it is a component of more than 300
CSI 2.18 ± 0.06a 2.42 ± 0.16ab 2.88 ± 0.81ab 2.99 ± 0.44b
enzymatic reactions, necessary for neuromuscular trans-
CI 1.39 ± 0.05a 1.61 ± 0.09b 1.05 ± 0.55ab 2.07 ± 0.30b
mission and in addition is required for cell metabolism,
Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows protein and nucleic acid synthesis (Weisinger & Bellorin,
represent significant differences (P < 0.05). 1998; Saris et al., 2000).

 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007
349 Nutritional quality of African catfish R. Rosa et al.

Table 8 Mineral content (in wet weight) of the

Raw Boiled Fried Grilled raw and cooked forms of catfish, Clarias
gariepinus
P (g per 100 g) 0.18 ± 0.01a 0.19 ± 0.00a 0.25 ± 0.02b 0.26 ± 0.02b
K (mg kg)1) 3014.43 ± 187.19a 3570.38 ± 280.12a 4371.12 ± 314.69b 5063.53 ± 340.45c
Na (mg kg)1) 406.34 ± 97.24a 1656.06 ± 316.39b 3843.81 ± 566.87c 4583.4 ± 322.13d
Mg (mg kg)1) 237.85 ± 16.01a 303.30 ± 30.07b 324.76 ± 22.50bc 357.22 ± 28.49c
Ca (mg kg)1) 46.65 ± 11.68a 67.68 ± 26.11a 110.96 ± 19.55b 66.48 ± 17.41a
Fe (mg kg)1) 5.42 ± 0.70 6.42 ± 0.87 9.08 ± 4.98 8.08 ± 2.03
Zn (mg kg)1) 10.74 ± 0.82 10.33 ± 1.97 11.03 ± 1.71 11.77 ± 1.92
Cu (mg kg)1) 0.36 ± 0.02a 0.43 ± 0.03ab 0.46 ± 0.06b 0.50 ± 0.07b
Mn (mg kg)1) 0.11 ± 0.01a 0.16 ± 0.02ac 0.41 ± 0.07b 0.18 ± 0.03c

Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows represent significant
differences (P < 0.05).

Table 9 True mineral retention values (%) for cooked catfish, Clarias (P < 0.05). This mineral plays an essential part of
gariepinus proper bone and cartilage formation and in glucose
metabolism, and the RDA is 2–5 mg (HWN, 2005).
Minerals Boiled Fried Grilled

P (g per 100 g) 84.63 ± 3.26a 105.76 ± 6.60b 104.97 ± 6.24b Conclusions

K (mg kg)1) 91.11 ± 3.33a 111.57 ± 8.02b 121.44 ± 6.72b
Na (mg kg)1) 370.26 ± 120.72a 765.38 ± 271.22b 930.88 ± 167.36b The results of this study reveal the high nutritional
Mg (mg kg)1) 101.93 ± 13.11 104.97 ± 4.75 110.78 ± 8.29 quality of catfish products and, consequently, they are
Ca (mg kg)1) 120.78 ± 50.39a 192.24 ± 53.38b 108.26 ± 28.65a valuable protein, lipid and mineral sources to human
Fe (mg kg)1) 96.16 ± 21.73 132.04 ± 80.39 113.41 ± 41.02 diet. Concomitantly, the present study also revealed that
Zn (mg kg)1) 76.08 ± 9.73 78.62 ± 8.04 80.80 ± 13.14 the different cooking procedures have a significant effect
Cu (mg kg)1) 96.17 ± 6.91 99.50 ± 8.48 104.03 ± 19.84
on their biochemical composition, primarily frying. The
Mn (mg kg)1) 117.05 ± 13.52a 296.02 ± 35.12b 125.05 ± 20.47a
use of this species in diets on regular basis should be
Values are the mean ± SD. Different superscript letters within rows valuable, especially if it replaces foods of animal origin
represent significant differences (P < 0.05). with high fats. Dietary fats associated with an increased
risk of cardiovascular diseases include trans fats and
saturated fats, while polyunsaturated fats are known to
Regarding calcium, the highest values were attained in be protective. The favourable Na/K ratio (below 1.0) is
the fried products (110.96 mg kg)1; P < 0.05). The also very important in terms of human health, as dietary
RDA for this element is 1200 mg (HWN, 2005). Like sodium is associated with elevation of blood pressure,
catfish, other fish products are not usually a good source while dietary potassium lowers the risk of hypertension
of Ca with the exception of canned fish, which enables and stroke. Additionally, the nutritional quality of
soft bones to be eaten safely. A deficiency in calcium and catfish should be a positive criterion for the future
magnesium has been associated with an increased risk of development of the European production of Siluroidei.
hypertension (Paolisso & Barbagallo, 1997; Nutinf,
2005).
Acknowledgments
Concerning the other minerals analysed, only iron and
zinc did not vary significantly with the cooking proce- This study was supported by the project ‘Consumer
dures (P > 0.05). The RDA for these elements are Driven Development of Innovative Tailor-Made Sea-
15 mg and 15–19 mg, respectively. Such values indicate food Products (with Functional Components from Plant
that catfish is a good source of these elements. Iron is an or Marine Origin) to Improve Health of Consumers
essential nutrient that carries oxygen and forms part of (CONPROD)’ under the Integrated Project SEA-
the oxygen-carrying proteins and zinc is an essential FOODplus, granted by European Union (Contract no.
constituent in a number of enzymes, including RNA and 506359–2003).
DNA polymerases.
Relatively to copper, the highest value was attained in
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