INTRODUCTION

People of twentieth century are living in a highly sophisticated digital world failed
to accept challenges everytime offered by the Mother Nature. Recent tsunamis tragedy
across the Southeast Asia is the burning example of that which took place at the Indian
Ocean near the Sumatra Island at 6.28 (IST) on the 26th December of 2004. Gigantic
seismic sea waves, triggered by a massive undersea earthquake off Sumatra in Indonesia,
left over incalculable dead and millions of homeless in India, Sri Lanka and Southeast
Asia. Tsunami is not a very common natural hazard in the Indian Ocean unlike the Ring
of fire of Pacific Ocean. Tsunami returned to devastate India after an interval of more
than 60 years. The tsunamis of 1941 and before that, of 1881 were set off by earthquakes
in the Andaman and Nicobar Island.
The Sumatra (3.298°N, 95.779°E) earthquake that recorded 8.9 on the Richter
scale (Source: USGS, Earthquake Hazards Programme, www.earthquake.usgs.gov) had
triggered a tsunami that lashed across the coast of 13 nations from Andaman and Nicobar
to Somalia. India was totally unprepared for the tsunami that hit without any early
warning on 26th December. The tsunami might be a stranger to India, but not the
destruction brought by nature to the country’s eastern coastline, for long used to natural
calamities such as cyclones and torrential rain. A warning of an oncoming tsunami is
more than a matter of detecting that an earthquake has occurred under or near an ocean.
The objectives of this paper are to explain about the nature of the tsunami, cause
of its origin, migration path and possible methods of early warning system and a
guidelines of planning and designing for tsunami to reduce the impact.

What is Tsunami
Tsunami is a Japanese word with the English translation, "harbor wave."
Represented by two characters, the top character, "tsu," means harbor, while the bottom
character, "nami," means "wave." In the past, tsunamis were sometimes referred to as
"tidal waves" by the general public and as “seismic sea waves by the scientific
community. The term "tidal wave" is a misnomer; although a tsunami's impact upon a
coastline is dependent upon the tidal level at the time a tsunami strikes, tsunamis are
unrelated to the tides. Tides result from the imbalanced, extraterrestrial, gravitational
influences of the moon, sun, and planets. The term "seismic sea wave" is also misleading.
"Seismic" implies an earthquake-related generation mechanism, but a tsunami can also be
caused by a nonseismic event, such as a landslide or meteorite impact. Tsunami can be
defined as a wave train, or series of waves, generated in a body of water by an impulsive
disturbance that vertically displaces the water column. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, explosions, and even the impact of cosmic bodies, such as meteorites, can
generate tsunamis. Tsunamis can savagely attack coastlines, causing devastating property
damage and loss of life. Throughout recorded history, tsunamis have caused significant
damage to coastal communities all over the world.
Tsunamis are characterized as shallow-water waves (Water depth ≤ 1/20
Wavelength), with long periods (1 hour) and considerably long wave lengths (above
100km). The speed of the shallow water waves are expressed as

C = (g × d)1/2
Where, c = Speed (m/s)
d= Water depth (m)
g= acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s/s)
Pacific Ocean, where the typical water depth is about 4000 m, a tsunami travels at about
200 m/s, or over 700 km/hr. Because the rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely
related to its wave length, tsunamis not only propagate at high speeds, they can also
travel great, transoceanic distances with limited energy losses. For example, Japan, which
is over 17,000 km away from the tsunami's source off the coast of Chile, lost 200 lives to
this tsunami or in the recent tsunamis the source area is 257km from SSE of Banda Aceh,
Sumatra, Indonesia; 1806 km ESE of Colombo, Sri Lanka; 990km SSE of Port Blair,
South Andaman Island, India; 2028 km SE of Chennai and 2177 km SE of Bhubaneswar.
The wave crests bend as the tsunami travels known as refraction. Wave refraction is
caused by segments of the wave moving at different speeds as the water depth along the
crest varies.
Origin of Tsunami
The key factors responsible for the generation of tsunamis are:
1. Deformation of the seafloor due to tectonic movement (Undersea
Earthquake)
2. Undersea volcanic eruptions that create tremendous force.
3. Meteoric impact disturbing the water from the above.
4. Submarine landslides
1. Earthquake generated Tsunamis
Tsunamis are usually caused by underwater earthquakes. These often occur
offshore at subduction zones (where an oceanic plate gradually subducts beneath a
continental plate). Subsequent stages are given below:
a. Initiation:
Earthquakes are commonly associated with ground shaking that is a result of
elastic waves traveling through the solid earth. However, near the source of submarine
earthquakes, the seafloor is "permanently" uplifted and down-dropped, pushing the entire
water column up and down. The potential energy that results from pushing water above
mean sea level is then transferred to horizontal propagation of the tsunami wave (kinetic
energy). The earthquake rupture occurred at the base of the continental slope in
relatively deep water or Situations can also arise where the earthquake rupture occurs
beneath the continental shelf in much shallower water.
b. Split:
Within several minutes of the earthquake, the initial tsunami is split into a tsunami
that travels out to the deep ocean (distant tsunami) and another tsunami that travels
towards the nearby coast (local tsunami). The height above mean sea level of the two
oppositely traveling tsunamis is approximately half that of the original tsunami. The
speed at which both tsunamis travel varies as the square root of the water depth.
Therefore the deep-ocean tsunami travels faster than the local tsunami near shore.
c. Amplification:
Several things happen as the local tsunami travels over the continental slope.
Most obvious is that the amplitude increases. In addition, the wavelength decreases. This
results in steepening of the leading wave, an important control of wave runup at the coast.
The deep ocean tsunami has traveled much farther than the local tsunami because of the
higher propagation speed.
d. Runup:
As the tsunami wave travels from the deep-water, continental slope region to the
near-shore region, tsunami runup occurs. Runup is a measurement of the height of the
water onshore observed above a reference sea level. Contrary to many artistic images of
tsunamis, most tsunamis do not result in giant breaking waves (like normal surf waves at
the beach that curl over as they approach shore). Rather, they come in much like very
strong and very fast tides (i.e., a rapid, local rise in sea level). Much of the damage
inflicted by tsunamis is caused by strong currents and floating debris. The small number
of tsunamis that do break often form vertical walls of turbulent water called bores.
Tsunamis will often travel much farther inland than normal waves.

Source : http://www4.tpgi.com.au/user/tps-seti/spaced7.htlm

Amplitude is approximately the maximum height of the wave above sea level
when in deep water (see diagram).

Run-up height is the vertical height above sea level of the tsunami at its furthest
point inland. Run-up factor is the run-up height divided by the deepwater wave
amplitude. The run-up factor can vary considerably, depending on local topography and
the direction of travel of the wave.

After runup, part of the tsunami energy is reflected back to the open ocean. In
addition, a tsunami can generate a particular type of wave called edge waves that travel
back-and forth, parallel to shore.
Diagram

2. Tsunamis generated by landslides, volcanic eruptions, and cosmic collisions

A tsunami can be generated by any disturbance that displaces a large water mass
from its equilibrium position. In the case of earthquake-generated tsunamis, the water
column is disturbed by the uplift or subsidence of the sea floor. Submarine landslides,
which often accompany large earthquakes, as well as collapses of volcanic edifices, can
also disturb the overlying water column as sediment and rock slump downslope and are
redistributed across the sea floor. Similarly, a violent submarine volcanic eruption can
create an impulsive force that uplifts the water column and generates a tsunami.
Conversely, supermarine landslides and cosmic-body impacts disturb the water from
above, as momentum from falling debris is transferred to the water into which the debris
falls.
 Major Tsunamis in History

Date Origin Effects Death Toll

June 7, 1692 Puerto Rico Port Royal, Jamaica permanently 2000
submerged
Trench,

Caribbean
November 1, Atlantic Ocean Lisbon destroyed 60000
1755
February 20, Peru-Chile Concepción, Chile destroyed Not Known
1835 Trench
August 8, Peru-Chile Ships washed several miles 10000 - 15 000
1868 Trench inland, Town of Africa Destroyed
August 27, Krakatoa Devastation in East Indies 36000
1883
June 15, Japan Trench Swept the east coast of Japan, 27122
1896 with waves of 100 ft (30.5 m) at
Yoshihimama
December Sicily East coast of Sicily, including 58000
28, 1908 Messina, and toe of Italy badly (including quake
damaged victims)
March 3, Japan Trench 9 000 houses and 8 000 ships 3000
1933 destroyed in Sanriku district,
Honshu
April 1, Aleutian Trench Damage to Alaska and Hawaii 159
1946
May 22, South-central Coinciding with a week of 1500 (61 in
1960 Chile earthquakes. Damage to Chile and Hawaii)
Hawaii
March 27, Anchorage, Severe damage to south coast of 115
1964 Alaska

August 23, Celebes Sea South-west Philippines struck, 8000

1976 devastating Alicia, Pagadian,
Cotabato and Davao
July 12, July 12, 1993 Okushiri Island devastated 200
1993
July 17, Papua New Arop, Warapu, Sissano, and 2200
1998 Guinea, Bismarck Malol Papua New Guinea
Sea Devastated

Source: USGS NEIC PDE catalog; Data are preliminary

 Magnitude 8 and Greater Earthquakes Since 1990

Earthquakes Magnitude 8.0 and Greater Since 1990

Year Month Day Time Latitude Longitude Depth Magnitude Region
UTC (km)
1 1994 06 09 00:33:16.2 -13.841 -67.533 631 8.2 Northern
Bolivia
2 1994 10 04 13:22:55.8 43.773 147.321 14 8.3 Kuril
Islands
3 1995 07 30 05:11:23.6 -23.340 -70.294 46 8.0 Near Coast
of Northern
Chile
4 1995 10 09 15:35:53.9 19.055 -104.205 33 8.0 Near Coast
of Jalisco,
Mexico
5 1996 02 17 05:59:30.5 -0.891 136.952 33 8.2 Irian Jaya
Region,
Indonesia
6 1998 03 25 03:12:25.0 -62.877 149.527 10 8.1 Balleny
Islands
Region
7 2000 11 16 04:54:56.7 -3.980 152.169 33 8.0 New
Ireland
Region,
P.N.G.
8 2001 06 23 20:33:14.1 -16.265 -73.641 33 8.4 Near Coast
of Peru
9 2003 09 25 19:50:06.3 41.815 143.910 27 8.3 Hokkaido,
Japan
Region
10 2004 12 23 14:59:04.3 -50.240 160.133 10 8.1 North of
Macquarie
Island
11 2004 12 26 00:58:49.8 3.259 95.824 10 9.0 Off West
Coast of
Northern
Sumatra

Source:
Deaths USGS
from NEIC PDE
Magnitude catalog;
8 and GreaterData are preliminary
Earthquakes Since 1990

Date Region Magnitude Number

 UTC Killed *
1994 06 09 Northern Bolivia 8.2 10
1994 10 04 Kuril Islands 8.3 11
1995 07 30 Near Coast of Northern Chile 8.0 3
1995 10 09 Near Coast of Jalisco, Mexico 8.0 49
1996 02 17 Irian Jaya Region, Indonesia 8.2 166
1998 03 25 Balleny Islands Region 8.1 0
2000 11 16 New Ireland Region, P.N.G. 8.0 2
2001 06 23 Near Coast of Peru 8.4 138
2003 09 25 Hokkaido, Japan Region 8.3 0
2004 12 23 North of Macquarie Island 8.1 0
2004 12 26 Off West Coast of Northern Sumatra 9.0 135236
Total 135615

Source: USGS NEIC PDE catalog; Data are preliminary

SUMATRA EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMIS IN INDIAN OCEAN AT 26th DECEMBER

 26th December, 2004, very next day of Christmas was a nightmare for the whole
world when the unpredicted raging water of gigantic tsunamis waves roared with a
medieval echo, triggered by submarine earthquake, suddenly rising from the floor of the
Indian ocean and within in a few moment robbed nations of their land, families of their
loved ones and town of their identity. The earthquake, which had its epicenter 257 km
south-southwest of Banda Aceh, Sumatra, measure 8.9 on the Richter scale set off a
series of other earthquakes lasting 12 hours on the 26th of December (from 00:58 to
11:05 UTC), 2004 led to widespread catastrophe particularly in Sri Lanka, India,
Maldives, Indonesia and Thailand with damage also in Malaysia, Bangladesh, Somalia
and Seychelles.

Sequence of this event

Time Tectonic Event

6.29(IST The India plate slips below the Burma plate and pressure build up.
)
6.29(IST Sudden movement of the plates causes earthquake with the magnitude of 8.9
) on the Richter scale off the coast of Aceh province on the Indonesian island
of Sumatra
6.30 A.M Displacement of a part of the ocean floor forces the water upwards. A series
of waves rushes outwards and races across the surface towards the shoreline.
8.38 A.M Quake of 6.1 magnitude felt in the Andaman
9 A.M As it nears the Chennai coast, the tsunami slows down but rises higher. The
wall of water hits the shore with tremendous energy and leaves behind a trail
of destruction.

Wave towards the shore

Land

WATER COLUMN
Figure 1

BURMA PLATE
INDIAN PLATE
Shifting Tectonic
plates
Fig: Schematic diagram of Tsunamis
Epicentre >5.5 miles
below the sea bed

Fig.: Affected areas of Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami, 26th December

hhttp://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2004/12/27/stories/2004122701990100.htm
Geological background behind this Earthquake

The devastating megathrust earthquake of December 26th, 2004 occurred on the

interface of the India and Burma plates and was cause by the release of stresses that
develop as the India plate subducts beneath the overriding Burma plate. The India plate
begins its decent into the mantle at the Sunda trench which lies to the west of the
earthquake's epicenter. The trench is the surface expression of the India-Burma plate
interface.
The tectonics of the region is complex and involves the interaction of the
Australian, Sunda and Eurasian plates in addition to the India and Burma plate. The India
and Australia plates move northeastwards at a rate of about 6 cm/year relative to the
Burma plate. This results in oblique convergence at the Sunda trench. Some of this
oblique motion is accommodated on the right-lateral transform faults and rifts that
separate the Burma and Sunda plates.

Preliminary locations of larger aftershocks following the megathrust earthquake

show that approximately 1000 km of the plate boundary slipped as a result of the
earthquake. Aftershocks are distributed along much of the shallow plate interface and
primarily extend northwards of the epicenter to the Andaman Islands.
 Fig. : Epicentres of Earthquake at 26th December
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqinthenews/2004/usslav/

The world’s largest recorded earthquakes were all megathrust events and occur
where one tectonic plate subducts beneath another. These include: the magnitude 9.5
1960 Chile earthquake, the magnitude 9.2 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska
earthquake, the magnitude 9.1 1957 Andreanof, Alaska earthquake, and the magnitude
9.0 1952 Kamchatka earthquake. As with the recent event, megathrust earthquakes often
generate large tsunamis that can cause damage over a much wider area than is directly
affected by ground shaking near the earthquake's rupture.
 Records of main Sumatra main earthquake and aftershocks

Time (IST) Magnitude(Richter scale) Location

06.28 8.9 Off west coast of North Sumatra
07.18 5.9 Northern Sumatra, Indonesia
07.45 5.8 Andaman Island
07.52 6.0 Nicobar Island
08.04 5.8 Off west coast of North Sumatra
08.06 5.8 Andaman Island
08.21 6.0 Andaman Island
08.29 5.9 Off west coast of North Sumatra
08.38 6.1 Andaman Island
09.51 7.3 Nicobar Island
11.52 5.7 Andaman Island
12.37 5.7 Andaman Island
13.08 5.8 Andaman Island
14.50 6.5 Nicobar Island
15.49 6.2 Andaman Island
16.35 6.3 Andaman Island

SCINERIO AFTER TSUNAMI

Estimation of damages for tsunamis is a big task for any country. Earthquake and
successive tsunamis on December 26, off the west coast of Northern Sumatra, Indonesia,
triggered massive tsunamis that affected several countries throughout South and
Southeast Asia, as well as Somalia, Tanzania, and Kenya in East Africa.
Reports from international media and national government sources indicate that the
earthquake and tsunamis killed more than 81,0005 people in South and Southeast Asia
and East Africa: 45,000 people in Indonesia, 23,015 in Sri Lanka, 10,850 in India, 1,800
in Thailand, between 100 to 300 in Somalia, 90 in Burma, 65 in Malaysia, 55 in the
Maldives, 10 in Tanzania, 3 in the Seychelles, and 2 in Bangladesh. Death tolls continue
to increase as rescue and recovery operations access more remote areas.

NUMBERS AT A GLANCE SOURCE

Indonesia 45,000 deaths AFP, Government of Indonesia,
December 29
Sri Lanka 23,015 deaths, 1 million CNN, December 29
people affected
India 10,850 deaths AFP, December 29
Thailand 1,473 deaths, 3,000 injured AFP, December 29
Somalia 100 to 300 deaths WFP, December 29
Burma 90 deaths CNN, December 29
(Myanmar)
Malaysia 65 deaths CNN, December 29
Maldives 55 deaths, 68 missing, AFP, December 29
17,000 displaced
Tanzania 10 deaths BBC, December 29
Seychelles 3 deaths BBC, December 29
Bangladesh 2 deaths BBC, December 29
Kenya 1 death BBC, December 29

The Threat of Tsunamis to India:

The 26th December, Sumatra earthquake and associated tsunamis that occurred in
Indian Ocean is the most disastrous natural hazard in the India’s recent history. Whole
Eastern coastal areas in Indian peninsula was affected from this huge tsunamis wave
particularly the damage was severe in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and
Andaman & Nicobar Island. Tamil Nadu is the worst affected state of India with over
2,367 people killed as per the latest Government sources. Rescue efforts in
Nagappattinam are hampering because helicopters are unable to land due to the rain. At
least 69 people were killed and 810 are missing after tidal waves wreaked havoc along
the 1,000 km coastline of Andra Pradesh. In Andaman and Nicobar islands, according to
the media the death toll has climbed to more than 3,000. Official government figures are,
however, significantly lower. The situation in Car Nicobar and the Nancowrie group of
islands has not yet allowed rescue teams to reach these places. In Kerala, the toll has risen
to 131.
PLANNING AND DESIGNING FOR TSUNAMIS HAZARD
The toll in India caused by a massive tsunami might have been lower if India had
any well planned early warning system for tsunami. Unlike in the Pacific where over 790
tsunamis have been recorded since 1900, Sunday’s tsunami was just the second to hit
India during the same period. Moreover, not every earthquake under or near the ocean
causes a tsunami. About a dozen earthquakes of over magnitude 5 on the Richter scale
have occurred in the vicinity of the Andaman and Nicobar islands since 1973, including
two greater than magnitude 6.
In 1965, the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of
the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), established the International
Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) in
Hawaii. Three years later, the IOC
formed an International Coordination
Group for the Tsunami Warning System
in the Pacific, with 26 countries in and
around the Paific as its members. The
system issues tsunami information and
warning to over 100 places scattered
across the Pacific.

Source:

At the Pacific tsunamis Warning Center (PTWC) in Hawaii, computer systems

continually monitor data from seismic stations in the United States and abroad and alert
watch-standers whenever a significant earthquake has been detected. It is reported that
there are about 200 seismic observations in the country under various organizations. The
India Meteorological Department has some 58 seismic stations under it, only 17 of which
are digital and networked. Consequently, the NOAA developed the “Deep Ocean
Assessment and Reporting of tsunamis” (DART) gauge. Each gauge has a highly
sensitive pressure recorder installed on the ocean floor. From a depth of 6 km, the
recorder is capable of detecting if the height of the ocean above it changes by just one
cm. This data is transmitted acoustically to a surface buoy that then relays it over satellite
to the warning centre. The NOAA has developed a suite of computer models, collectively
known as the MOST (Method of Splitting Tsunami), which are capable of simulating the
generation of a tsunami, its transoceanic propagations and inundation of dry land.
 In Japan too, “virtual tsunamis” have been pre-calculated for thousands of
possible sources for various magnitudes of earthquake from 6.5 upwards. A
supercomputer sorts these “virtual tsunamis” when an earthquake occurs and makes the
extrapolations necessary when it does not correspond precisely to any one of them.
Sunday’s tsunami swept across the ocean and reached India in just two hours.
Countries who currently receive international tsunami warning have found that they do
not have the emergency response capacity and the necessary communications,
infrastructure. Hence even though a warning may be received, their coastal communities
are still extremely vulnerable. So establishing a reliable and robust tsunami warning
system for India is therefore a substantial undertaking and not only that proper planning
and designing structure for the tsunamis would be the high priority at the present
moment.
 Purpose of the Guidelines and Planning

The purpose of these guidelines is to help coastal communities of India to

understand their tsunami hazards, exposure, and vulnerability and to mitigate the
resulting risk through land use planning, site planning, and building design.

Principle1: Proper understanding of community’s tsunami risk: hazard,

vulnerability and exposure.

Principle 2: Avoid new development in tsunami run-up areas to minimize future

tsunami losses

Principle 3: Locate and configure new development that occurs in tsunami run-up
areas to minimize future tsunami losses

Principle 4: Design and construct new buildings to minimize tsunami damage

Principle5: Protect existing development from tsunami losses through

redevelopment, retrofit, and land reuse plans and projects

Principle 6: Take special precautions in locating and designing infrastructure and

critical facilities to minimize tsunami damage

Principle 7: Plan for evacuation

 Planning for Tsunamis

Principle 1: Proper understanding of community’s tsunami risk: hazard, vulnerability and exposure

Understanding your community’s tsunami hazard,

vulnerability, and exposure to damage is the foundation for
land use and building strategies that can mitigate tsunami
risk. While much remains to be learned about tsunamis,
sufficient knowledge, technical information, and expertise
Initiation
already exist to assess the tsunami hazard and risk in all
coastal communities.
The Nature of Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of long waves generated by a
sudden displacement of a large volume of water. Tsunamis
Split are triggered by submarine earthquakes, submarine
volcanic eruptions, underwater landslides or slumps of
large volumes of earth, meteor impacts, and even onshore
slope failures that fall into the ocean or a bay.
Tsunamis are typically classified as either local or
distant. Locally-generated tsunamis have minimal warning
Amplification
times and may be accompanied by damage resulting from
the triggering earthquake such as ground shaking, surface
faulting, liquefaction, or landslides. Distant tsunamis may
travel for hours before striking a coastline. In the open
ocean, a tsunami may be only a few feet high but can travel
up to 500 miles per hour. As a tsunami enters the shoaling
Runup
A tsunamis is a series of long waveswaters near a coastline, its speed diminishes, its wavelength
generated by a sudden displacement of adecreases, and its height increases greatly. However, the
large volume of water
Source: first wave usually is not the largest. Several larger and
more destructive waves often follow the first one.
 The configuration of the coastline, the shape of the ocean floor, and the
characteristics of advancing waves play important roles in the destructiveness of the
waves. A wave may be small at one point on a coast and much larger at other points.
Bays, sounds, inlets, rivers, streams, offshore canyons, islands, and flood control
channels may cause various effects that result in greater damage than many people would
expect. Unlike earthquake shaking that can be damaging over large areas—hundreds of
square miles is not unusual—tsunamis impact long, low-lying stretches of linear
coastlines, usually extending inland for relatively short distances. Upon striking a coast,
the wave reflects back to sea, and then can return to the coastline as a series of waves
accompanying surge can be deadly. Waist-high surges can cause strong currents that float
cars, small structures, and other debris. Boats and debris are often carried inland by the
surge and left stranded when the water recedes.
The force and destructive effects of tsunamis should not be underestimated. At
some locations, the advancing turbulent wave front will be the most destructive part of
the wave. In other situations, the greatest damage will be caused by the outflow of water
back to the sea between crests, sweeping all before it and undermining roads, buildings,
bulkheads, and other structures. This outflow action can carry enormous amounts of
highly damaging debris with it, resulting in further destruction. Ships and boats, unless
moved away from shore, may be dashed against breakwaters, wharves, and other craft, or
be washed ashore and left grounded after the withdrawal of the seawater.
Exposure to Tsunamis

Coastlines have always been a favored location for human settlements. Because of
the attractiveness of coastal locations and the long gaps between devastating tsunami
events, coastal communities have continued to develop in recent times with new housing,
maritime facilities, and resort developments. As a result, more people and facilities are
threatened by the destructive force of tsunamis.

Understanding the Risk to Your Community

Understanding the tsunami threat is the first step in reducing potential losses.
These guidelines repeatedly stress the importance of compiling and applying good local
tsunami hazard information.
Tsunami risk is a function of three factors:
1) The nature and extent of the tsunami hazard,
2) The vulnerability of facilities and people to damage, and
3) The amount of development or number of people exposed to the hazard.
There is no substitute for having a local evaluation of a community’s hazard,
vulnerability, and exposure. The information will help communities understand the
causes and consequences of a tsunami in order to design specific loss-prevention
measures and programs.
Process for Obtaining Local Tsunami Hazard Information

1) Prepare Tsunami Inundation Studies

The first step in understanding your risk is to estimate the extent
and pattern of your community’s potential tsunami inundation,
tsunami frequency (recurrence interval), and the reliability of the
estimate.
Tsunami studies should include:
• reviewing historic records and describing potential local and
distant tsunami sources
• evaluating potential for ground failures and other geologic effects
• estimating number of waves, their heights, arrival times, and
inundation depths
• calculating water velocities and debris loads
Fig.:
• estimating probabilities of occurrence and levels of certainty

2) Prepare Tsunami Loss Scenario Studies

Knowing the extent and pattern of inundation allows communities to assess the
potential damage such inundation would do to existing development and infrastructure.
Scenario studies based on the results. This will help ensure community and political
acceptance - a key ingredient for establishing effective loss-reduction measures assumed
conditions provide a graphic illustration of what can happen to a community, both during
and after a destructive tsunami. These studies should also address other hazards, such as
local earthquakes, that may cause concurrent damage. Local tsunamis pose unique
problems for emergency planners since the facilities and infrastructure needed for
evacuation may be damaged by the earthquake that triggers the tsunami. Such scenarios
typically assess potential losses to important buildings and structures, transportation
systems, and utility systems. The resulting tsunami loss scenario study will provide the
foundation for reducing potential losses. The most important principle is that the study be
accepted as the best that could have been done within the constraints of funding, time,
and knowledge. Because of the inherent limitations associated with loss studies, it will be
important for all involved to reach consensus on the results. This will help ensure
community and political acceptance–a key ingredient for establishing effective loss-
reduction measures.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has developed a
geographic information system (GIS)-based natural hazard loss estimation methodology,
called HAZUS, that can be adapted to address tsunami hazards in scenario studies.

Strategies for Applying Hazard Information to Reducing Future Losses

Strategy 1: Incorporate Hazard Information into Short- and Long-Term Planning

Processes

One of the best ways to prevent future losses from natural hazards is to ensure the
subject is addressed along with all other issues in short- and long-term comprehensive
planning programs and project reviews. The information should be used to evaluate
major development proposals so that risk mitigation is factored into decisions, approvals,
and permits. Moreover, knowing that such information will be needed, owners and
developers should be required to supply detailed hazards data and mitigation measures as
part of their proposals. Communities should have specific administrative and review
procedures to ensure the effectiveness of this process.

Strategy 2: Use Hazard Information to Build Public and Political Support for
Mitigation Measures
Hazard information, loss estimates, and planning scenarios are powerful tools to
create understanding and commitment to mitigation. They should be used to acquaint the
populace with their exposure and vulnerability, empower them to take precautionary
measures, build political consensus about acceptable risk-reducing policies and programs
and strengthen emergency preparedness and warning programs. Moreover, hazard
information, or procedures for consulting such information, should be included in other
programs and processes affecting current and future development. This will ensure that
risk management becomes a regular part of the decision-making processes leading to
sustainable and more disaster-resistant communities.

Strategy 3: Estimate Reduced Future Losses by Evaluating the Effectiveness of

Loss-Prevention Measures

One of the biggest challenges in preventing losses from natural hazards,

especially for rare events such as tsunamis, is to show that mitigation measures would be
effective. At the community level, the value of mitigation investments can be estimated
by using scenarios and maps to evaluate actions taken to reduce vulnerability and
exposure to

Source:

tsunami hazards. Informed judgments can be made by quantifying the losses that likely
would have occurred if such precautions had not been taken.
Strategy 4: Periodically Re-evaluate Community Vulnerability and Exposure
The tsunami hazard is unlikely to change over time, but communities are
changing constantly. This dynamic process leads to changes in vulnerability and
exposure. Effective long-term tsunami mitigation means that loss studies should be
reviewed and revised periodically—at least every five years—to reflect changes in
development patterns and demographics. Regular review and revision will ensure that the
most current information is applied, and it could help to demonstrate the effectiveness of
loss prevention. Community vulnerability certainly should be re-evaluated following a
disaster or other severe event, perhaps including comparable events in other locations
around the world.

Principle 2: Avoid new development in tsunami run-up areas to minimize future tsunami losses
Tsunami risk can be mitigated most effectively by avoiding or minimizing the
exposure of people and property through land use planning. Development should be
prevented in high-hazard areas wherever possible. Where development cannot be
prevented, land use intensity, building value, and occupancy should be kept to a
minimum.
The Role of Land Use Planning in Reducing Tsunami Risks
Land use planning in communities guides the location, type, and intensity of
development and can, therefore, be used to reduce the community’s exposure to tsunami
hazards.
Process for Implementing Land Use Planning Strategies

The following outlines the steps that can be taken when formulating a community land
use strategy for tsunami risk mitigation.

1) Understand Locational Context

The presence or absence of development within tsunami hazard areas will
determine the type of planning approach that is feasible.
2) Understand Trade-Offs
Mitigation often means making trade-offs between or among competing goals
when dealing with land use planning issues and tsunami hazards. For example, the public
access emphasis in Coastal Zone Management (CZM) programs argues for locating
visitor-serving development along the coastline; yet this access can be at direct odds with
public safety goals for minimizing new development in tsunami inundation areas.

3) Review and Update Existing Safety Element

The existing safety or natural hazards element of the comprehensive plan should
be reviewed to determine if it adequately recognizes tsunami hazards and how the risk is
managed when decisions are made. The following information should be inventoried and
updated, as necessary (see Principle 1):
• technical information such as inundation zones
• loss scenario information
• goals and policies
In addition, it should be recognized that tsunami hazards often overlap other
hazards and that mitigation for other hazardous conditions can assist in mitigating
tsunami risk. Such hazards might include riverine flooding, landslides, coastal erosion,
and earthquakes.
4) Review and Update Existing Land Use Element and Other Plans

The existing land use element, other comprehensive plan elements, and special
plans should be reviewed to determine what changes are needed to address the tsunami
hazard, and be updated as necessary.
Such an update should focus on the location and vulnerability to damage of
existing and planned land uses in the community, including the following:
• residential
• commercial/visitor-serving
• industrial (general)
• industrial (hazardous materials)
• public facilities (transportation and water systems)
• critical facilities and systems (communication, emergency response, electrical power,
water supply, and natural gas systems) consistent with the general plan
5) Review and Update Existing Zoning, Subdivision, and Other Regulations

Existing zoning, subdivision, and other regulations should be reviewed and

updated with an eye toward mitigating future tsunami losses. Requirements for
consistency between the comprehensive plan and zoning and subdivision regulations vary
among the states.
6) Planning for Post-Tsunami Reconstruction

Disasters create the opportunity to eliminate nonconforming uses and reshape

existing patterns of development to minimize future losses.
Specific Land Use Planning Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk
The following are specific recommended land use planning strategies that a
community can use to reduce tsunami risk.
Strategy 1: Designate Tsunami Hazard Areas for Open-Space Uses
The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open-space uses as
agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is recommended as the first land
use planning strategy to consider.
Strategy 2: Acquire Tsunami Hazard Areas for Open-Space Uses
Open-space acquisition has several advantages over strictly regulatory approaches
such as zoning. Acquisition ensures that the land will be controlled by a public agency or
nonprofit entity, and it removes any question about a regulatory taking. The primary
disadvantage to acquisition is cost.
Strategy 3: Restrict Development through Land Use Regulations
In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other land use
planning measures can be used. These include strategically controlling the type of
development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and avoiding high-value and high-
occupancy uses to the greatest degree possible.
Strategy 4: Support Land Use Planning through Capital Improvement Planning
and Budgeting

The capital improvement planning and budgeting process can be used to reinforce
land use planning policies. A major factor in determining future development patterns is
where a local jurisdiction chooses to extend sewer and water lines, roads, and other
public facilities and services
Strategy 5: Adapt Other Programs and Requirements

The safety element of a comprehensive plan and the zoning, subdivision, and
other programs designed to implement the comprehensive plan may contain regulations
that are applicable to tsunami risk mitigation even if tsunami hazards are not mentioned
explicitly.

Principle 3: Locate and configure new development that occurs in tsunami run-up areas to minimize future
tsunami losses

When development is to be sited within a tsunami hazard area, the physical

configu-ration of structures and uses on a site can reduce potential loss of life and
property damage. This includes the strategic location of structures and open space areas,
interaction of uses and landforms, design of landscaping, and the erection of barriers.
The Role of Site Planning in Reducing Tsunami Risk
Within the broader framework of a comprehensive plan, site planning determines
the location, configuration, and density of development on particular sites and is,
therefore, an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.
Process for Implementing Site Planning Strategies

The following outlines the steps that can be taken when formulating a site
planning strategy for tsunami hazard mitigation.
1) Create a Project Review Process that is Cooperative, Comprehensive, and
Integrated
The most effective site planning in coastal areas includes a project review process
that reflects the area’s vulnerability and exposure to tsunami hazards, considers the
broader policy and regulatory context, and is part of a larger mitigation strategy.
2) Understand Local Site Conditions
Local planning officials and project sponsors must develop mitigation strategies
that reflect the character of the site and immediate context. This includes understanding
how tsunamis impact different types of site geography, land uses and building types, and
development patterns. The depth of tsunami inundation, speed of currents, presence of
breaking wave or bore conditions, debris load, and warning time can vary greatly from
site to site. The site analysis phase can be used to establish site plan parameters for
tsunami mitigation.
3) Choose a Mitigation Strategy for the Site
 Many communities work with project sponsors to select a mitigation approach
during the site planning process. Generally, this includes siting solutions that avoid, slow,
steer, or block inundation

Specific Site Planning Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk

There are four basic site planning techniques that can be applied to projects to
reduce tsunami risk:
1) Avoid inundation areas
2) Slow water currents
3) Steer water forces
4) Block water forces

Strategy 1: Avoiding
Avoiding a tsunami hazard area is, of course,
the most effective mitigation method. At the site
planning level, this can include siting buildings and
infrastructure on the high side of a lot or raising
structures above tsunami inundation levels on piers or
hardened podiums

Strategy 2: Slowing
Slowing techniques involve creating friction
that reduces the destructive power of waves.
Specially designed forests, ditches, slopes, and
berms can slow and strain debris from waves. To
work effectively, these techniques are dependent on
correctly estimating the inundation that could occur.

Strategy 3: Steering
Steering techniques guide the force of
tsunamis away from vulnerable structures and
people by strategically spacing structures, using
angled walls and ditches, and using paved surfaces
that create a low-friction path for water to follow.
 Strategy 4: Blocking
Hardened structures such as walls,
compacted terraces and berms, parking structures,
and other rigid construction can block the force of
waves. Blocking, however, may result in amplifying
wave height in reflection or in redirecting wave
energy to other areas.

Mitigation Strategies by Type of Development

1) Infill Housing
In small communities, individual homes and infill housing are the most common
forms of development
2) New Neighborhoods and Subdivisions
To reduce tsunami damage, the layout of new subdivisions in shoreline areas can
include:
• providing maximum spacing between buildings
• elevating buildings above inundation levels
• placing houses behind a tsunami control forest or larger hardened buildings
• siting primary access roads outside inundation areas and secondary access roads
perpendicular to the shore
3) High-Rise Hotels
New hotels in coastal areas are typically multi-level concrete frame structures.
The lower levels of these buildings can be designed for public areas such as lobbies and
support uses (such as parking) for upper level rooms.
4) Resorts
Resort planning can draw on a variety of mitigation methods, including open space and
tsunami forests, elevating or locating structures above estimated inundation levels, and
buffering smaller buildings with larger hotels and waterfront structures.
Principle 4: Design and construct new buildings to minimize tsunami damage
Where buildings are to be constructed in a tsunami hazard area, the design and
construction of the buildings–including construction materials, building configuration,
and tsunami-specific design features–can reduce loss of life and property damage.
The Role of Construction Design in Reducing Tsunami Risk
As discussed under Principles 2 and 3, in areas subject to tsunamis and damaging
run-up, the most effective mitigation technique is to locate new buildings away from
potential inundation areas. Where this is not possible, building design and construction
will play a critical role in the performance of structures in the event of a tsunami.

Performance Objectives
A performance objective for a building depends upon several considerations:
• location of the building and its configuration
(size, shape, elevations, and orientation)
• intensity and frequency of the tsunami hazard selected for design
• structural and non-structural design standards
• choice of structural and finish materials
• reliability of utilities
• professional abilities of designers
• quality of construction
• level of confidence in these factors
Hospitals, fire stations, and schools would be assigned higher performance
objectives than those assigned to tourist accommodations.
Buildings constructed to perform at a safety level
Specific Design and Construction Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk

Strategy 1: Choose Appropriate Design Solutions Based on Expected Tsunami

Effects
Strategy 2: Require Qualified Architects and Engineers to Design Large Buildings
Strategy 3: Inspect Construction to Assure Requirements are Met
 Principle 4: Protect existing development from tsunami losses through
redevelopment, retrofit, and land reuse plans and projects

The challenges in protecting existing development from tsunami losses are many
and complex. For coastal communities that are nearly built out, protecting existing
development may be the only real mitigation option available. However, land uses,
buildings, and infrastructure change over time, creating opportunities to incorporate
tsunami (and other hazard) loss-prevention measures to help make communities less
vulnerable in the future.

Specific Renewal Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk

Strategy 1: Adopt Special Programs and Development Regulations
Strategy 2: Use Redevelopment Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk
Strategy 3: Use Incentives and Other Financial Measures to Support Loss
Prevention
Strategy 4: Adopt and Enforce Special Provisions for the Retrofit of Existing
Buildings
Strategy 5: Require Qualified Architects and Engineers to Design Effective
Measures to Protect Existing Development

Principle 6: Take special precautions in locating and designing infrastructure and

critical facilities to minimize tsunami damage

Certain facilities in a community deserve special attention in the planning and

design process to minimize damage to them. Infrastructure such as transportation systems
for people and goods, and utility systems such as communications, natural gas, water
supply, power generation, and transmission/distribution systems are essential to the
continued operation of a community and need to be functional—or easily and rapidly
repairable—following a disaster
Principle 7: Plan for evacuation
The primary strategy for saving lives immediately before tsunami waves arrive is
to evacuate people from the hazard zone. Two methods are generally available:
• Horizontal evacuation—moving people to more distant locations or higher ground
• Vertical evacuation—moving people to higher floors in buildings
Horizontal evacuation and other emergency response measures are outside the
scope of these guidelines and have been addressed in other publications (see Resources
and Bibliography at the end of the guidelines). Vertical evacuation, however, is addressed
in these guidelines since it is linked to issues of land use, siting, and building design and
construction.

A general framework of an Engineering Structure to reduce the impact of Tsunami

waves:
It is proposed to construct a structure just above the general High Tide Level of the
sea bearing to reduce the impact of Tsunami waves. It may be constructed as
indicated below:
1. Aseries of drill hole to be drilled along the shore at a spacing of 2 m and
depth of 5m.
2. NX size pipe may be embedded within the drill holes extended 5 m depth and
10m above the ground. The pipe may be either grouted at the depth or may
be embedded into the concrete block.
3. the indiviul bar may be fixed tightly by the tie bars spaced at 1m.