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BIOL 1020 - CHAPTER 2 LECTURE NOTES
3. decay rates are statistical averages, and are used for measuring time passage in many areas of science (carbon dating,
etc.)
4. the radiation emitted upon decay (alpha, beta, and/or gamma) can be used as a tool for experiments; can also be used
medically; has other uses and dangers (nuclear power, nuclear bombs, radiation poisoning, etc.)
5. radiation can cause mutations in DNA, can interfere with cell division
E. electrons occupy orbitals surrounding the nucleus and move at the speed of light
1. because ATOMS are electrically neutral the number of electrons an atom has always equals the number of protons
2. electrons can exist at different energy levels, which correspond to orbitals
• the further away an orbital carries an electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy level of the electron
• electrons with similar energies make up an electron shell
3. the outer electron(s) are known as the valence electron(s); collectively, they occupy the valence shell
4. the chemical properties of an atom are largely determined by the valence electrons
F. the science of chemistry mostly involves study of how electrons move about the nucleus, store energy, and determine
chemical properties of substances as a result
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BIOL 1020 - CHAPTER 2 LECTURE NOTES
2. structural formula - shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule
• examples:
water H─O─H
carbon dioxide O═C═O
molecular oxygen O═O
C. the number of units of a substance are described using the mole
1. molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule
2. since the actual mass of an atom is extremely small, it is convenient in the real world to work with a large number of
atoms at the same time
3. The amount of a substance that in grams has the same number as the atomic mass is a mole
4. Thus, water has molecular mass 1+1+16 = 18; a mole of water has a mass of 18 g
5. The mole is simply a conversion factor from the small scale of atomic mass units to the more familiar gram scale
• the factor represents the number of units (molecules or atoms) in a mole
• this factor, called Avogadro’s number, is 6.02 x 1023 atoms or molecules
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BIOL 1020 - CHAPTER 2 LECTURE NOTES
3. a single electron pair shared = a single covalent bond
4. double and triple covalent bonds are also possible
5. carbon forms 4 covalent bonds
6. covalent bonds give molecules definite shapes
• the shared atomic orbitals require definite spatial arrangements that depend on the atoms involved in the bond
7. covalent bonds can be nonpolar (equal sharing of electrons) or polar (unequal sharing of electrons)
• polar bonds result if one nucleus holds a stronger attraction on the electron pair
• molecules with polar bonds (polar molecules) have regions with partial charges
F. ionic bonds
1. when an atom gains or gives up one or more electrons, it is called an ion
• cations - ions that have lost one or more electrons; have a positive charge
• anions - ions that have gained one or more electrons; have a negative charge
the suffix –ide indicates an anion
2. polyatomic ions can also form
• covalently bound atoms that lose or gain electrons or protons
• only polyatomic ions can lose or gain protons
• polyatomic cations = positive charge; polyatomic anions = negative charge
3. an ionic bond is formed by the attraction between a cation and an anion
4. an ionic compound is a substance held together by ionic bonds
• ionic compounds dissociate into individual ions when dissolved in a polar substance, such as water
• hydration – surrounding the ions with the ends water molecules with the opposite (partial) charge
G. hydrogen bonds
1. weak interactions involving partially (+) charged hydrogen atoms
2. the interaction is with another atom with a partial (-) charge
3. can be within the same (large) molecule, or between molecules
4. hydrogen bonds are common and important in living things
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BIOL 1020 - CHAPTER 2 LECTURE NOTES
• water forms hydrogen bonds
• because they are weak, hydrogen bonds are relatively easy to manipulate
• collectively, hydrogen bonds can be very strong – they hold together the two strands of DNA, for example
H. In aqueous systems (such as living organisms), the effective relative bond strengths are:
covalent bond > ionic bond > hydrogen bond
D. double arrows of equal lengths ( ) indicate equilibrium reactions (reactions proceeding simultaneously at equal
rates in both directions)
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
E. Sometimes, different lengths of double arrows are used to indicate which direction is favored
4 Fe + 3 O2 2 Fe2O3
2. during the process iron atoms (Fe) become iron ions (Fe3+):
4 Fe 4 Fe3+ + 12 e-
3. therefore, we can say that iron atoms were oxidized to produce iron ions above
4. on the flip side, the oxygen atoms gain electrons; we can say that the oxygen is reduced in the reaction:
3 O2 + 12 e- 6 O2-
E. oxygen is the most common oxidizing agent (hence the general term oxidation)
F. in biological systems, typically molecules are oxidized and reduced
1. very important in many processes such as photosynthesis, respiration
2. electrons are less easily lost from molecules than from atoms
• molecules typically will lose the equivalent of a complete hydrogen atom when oxidized
• this means that both a proton and an electron are removed from the oxidized molecule and may be added to the
reduced molecule
• thus, counting charge changes is not sufficient for analyzing redox reactions – look for movement of electrons in
redox reactions involving biological molecules
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