Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

www.elsevier.com/locate/finel

Design and analysis of gasket sealing of cylinder head under

engine operation conditions
Chang-Chun Leea , Kuo-Ning Chianga,∗ , Wen-King Chenb , Rong-Shieh Chenb
a Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsin Chu, Taiwan 300, ROC
b Department of Research and Development, China Engine Corporation, Tao Yuan, Taiwan 337, ROC

Received 20 January 2004; accepted 16 December 2004

Available online 7 April 2005

Abstract
To avoid the escaping gas from the engine affecting the overall performance of the engine during operation, both
the proper pre-stressing force of the bolts as well as the gasket design are critical factors in enhancing the efficiency
of the sealing of the gasket. In this investigation, both the distribution of the contact pressure on the gasket, and the
stresses of the cylinder head at different loading conditions, such as cold assembly, hot assembly, cold start, and hot
firing, are explored by numerical calculation based on the finite element method (FEM). The results reveal that the
efficiency of the sealing of the head gasket depends on the pre-stressing force of the hold-down bolts, without taking
into consideration any thermal stresses resulting from the temperature distribution in the cylinder head. However,
the location of maximum contact pressure on the gasket is transformed when the thermal loading is taken into
account. In addition, this research also conducts the parametric analyses for the pre-stressing force of the bolts and
compares the differences between cold assembly and cold start conditions.
䉷 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cylinder head; Gasket; Pre-stressing of bolts; Contact pressure

1. Introduction

Both the design and the development of the automobile engine are complicated processes. To acquire the
best performance of an engine in any operating condition in harsh natural environments, many analytical
tools and experimental methods are used to find the optimum parameters for engine design. However,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 3 574 2925; fax: +886 3 574 5377.
E-mail addresses: knchiang@pme.nthu.edu.tw (K.-N. Chiang), wkchen@china-engine.com.tw (W.-K. Chen).

0168-874X/$ - see front matter 䉷 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.finel.2004.12.007
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1161

numerous measured results point out that the gas escaping from the engine not only affects the output
efficiency of the horsepower substantially, but also pollutes the environment. Therefore, the guarantee
that the assembly between the cylinder head, bolts, and gasket is reliable and effective, through proper
analytical procedures and tests becomes extremely important. Furthermore, the reduction of time and
costs are considered in the development process of a novel engine. The above-mentioned reasons are
critically deciding factors whether the goals of a novel engine being developed are achieved or not. For
solving these foregoing issues, the thermal and structural analyses must be adopted in the engine design
to save the time of actual modifications. In addition, in order to allow for the thermal stresses, which need
to be blended into the structural analysis of the engine, the heat transfer analysis must take place prior
to the structural analysis in order to calculate the results under loading conditions, such as hot firing, hot
assembly, etc.
Due to the interface between the cylinder head and the gasket, as well as the interface between the
cylinder head and the bolts, contact behavior takes place. The FEM used to deal with the contact problem
of surfaces with a complicated geometry of the contact surface is more effective than the boundary
element method. Wilson and Preson [1] provided the solution of a finite element analysis with different
displacements. Furthermore, Chan and Tuba [2] and Ohte [3] further developed the method of Wilson
and Preson, and used this modified method to solve some contact problems. However, the temperature
inside the engine structure is produced through various operating processes and loading conditions.
Consequently, the mechanical problems of thermal contact need to be considered for the gasket sealing
process. The behavior of thermal contact was studied by many researchers in the past. Medhusudana and
Fletcher briefly introduced the forming mechanism and the relative equations of thermal contact. Both
the objective and research direction associated with thermal contact were mentioned in this work [4].
Mijar and Arora [5] reviewed these physical problems in the context of the mechanics of contact. An
explanation of the phenomenon of contact and friction under static steady conditions were emphasized
in his literature. Belytschko and Neal [6] developed the numerical method with the pin ball algorithm to
quickly search the domain of contact. To avoid consuming too much time by continuously tracking the
element to determine whether the contact calculation is incorporated or not under these situations with
both the large displacement and the analytical element that was destroyed, the pin ball algorithm can be
used to simplify the search procedures for contact and estimating the penetration.
Besides the aspect of contact problem, the behaviors of heat conduction between the body of the engine
and the other components are also extensively investigated by FEM. Chyuan proposed a finite element
model of a cylinder structure with a twin-cam 16-valve. They also used an effective calculating method
by using the software of MSC/NASTRAN to predict the thermal and stress/strain analytical results at
various loading conditions and operating environments [7]. Liu et al. [8] made use of the components
computer program (HCC) to analyze the transition of heat transfer for an engine. Their results revealed
that compared to the FEM, the distribution of temperature in the walls of the combustion chamber could
be predicted accurately by the HCC method. The approach that was applied to the actual problems of heat
transfer, such as with the Isuzu engine and the Caterpillar engine showed correct results in comparison
with the experiments.
The pre-stressing force of bolts maintains the efficiency of the gasket sealing between the cylinder
head and the cylinder block. Therefore, the applied approach of the pre-stressing force is significant
for the calculation of the numerical simulation. Montgomery provided six different kinds of approaches
to describe the pre-stressing force of the bolts. The style of solid bolt could be able to perform the
approximate condition was one of these approaches [9]. However, another critical factor that affects
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the sealing efficiency is the behavior of the gasket material. The gasket is made up of multilayers of
adiabatic material. Roub analyzed the response to the non-linear phenomenon of the gasket by means of a
simplified model, with one degree of freedom in the direction of the thickness of the gasket. By using the
analytical element of the ANSYS䉸 software (Solid 185) combined with the curve of the pressure versus
the displacement obtained from the experiment, the demand of the model for memory can be reduced
by a substantial amount [10]. In addition, the problem is identical to the research of Roub. Shoji used
a methodology with axial symmetry to solve the non-linear behavior of a gasket in the direction of its
thickness. The main idea of this literature was to introduce the pre-tension element into the simulation of
the bolted assembly with the other components. Compared with the traditional method, the pre-tension
element has many advantages over the method of controlling the raising and lowering of the temperature
[11]. However, owing to the complicated engine structure and the lack of experimental data on engine
performance, especially of the cylinder head, there is little literature available that fully discusses the
structural analysis of the cylinder head. In this research, the commercial FEM software, ANSYS䉸 , is
introduced into the numerical simulation of the structural analysis. This research is based on contact
theory and thermal stress analysis in order to investigate the efficiency of gasket sealing and stress/strain
behavior of a 2.0 L cylinder head under various loading conditions. Furthermore, the parametric analyses
of the pre-stressing force of bolts between cold assembly and cold start conditions are also discussed in
this work. The results of this research could be regarded as a design reference for the automobile engine.

2. Fundamental theory

2.1. The contact theory

The main focus of this research is to explore the efficiency of gasket sealing. In accordance with
the distribution of contact pressure on the gasket, the location of the minimum contact pressure can be
determined. The possibility of gas escaping is extremely high in the region of the weakest contact pressure.
Generally speaking, penalty methods like the Lagrange multiplier methods and augmented Lagrangian
method are widely used in the mechanical contact finite element simulation. However, the penalty methods
suffer from ill-conditioning that worsens as the penalty values are increased. The Lagrange multiplier
method introduces extra unknowns, and the resulting equation system is not necessarily positive-definite.
The augmented Lagrangian method combines the penalty methods and the Lagrange multiplier methods,
and inherits the advantages of both methods. The variational weak form of the augmented Lagrangian
method on the contact region (
c ) could be expressed as [12,13]:

  
 =  N + 2N d
, (1)

c 2
where  is the Lagrange multiplier,  is the penalty values and N is the interpenetration rate of two contact
bodies. Through the variational calculation, Eq. (1) could be transformed to its relative strong form as
Ma + f int − f ext + GT  + PC d = 0, (2)
Gv
0, (3)
where v refers to the velocity field in both bodies; the Lagrangian multiplier is denoted by , and GT  is the
contact force; the contact stiffness is denoted by PC , and PC d is the contact force (penalty force). The fint ,
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1163

fext and Ma are the internal, external and inertial forces, respectively. Eq. (2) is the governing equation of
the contact finite element computation. Eq. (3) is the inequality constraints which describes the contact
boundary of two contact bodies. The chief benefit of the augmented Lagrange method for the contact
problem is that it provides the robustness and stability for the penalty method, while at the same time
being a simple procedure that does not involve additional equations for the discrete system. To accurately
simulate the contact behavior between the cylinder head and the gasket under various conditions of engine
operation, the augmented Lagrangian method is adopted in the finite element analysis.

2.2. Thermal stresses

Due to the analyses of the operating conditions for the engine, both the hot assembly and the hot firing
are included in this research. Hence, the heat transfer analysis concerning the cylinder head must be
carried out prior to the structural analysis. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the heat
condition equation in the material can be expressed as
j2 T j2 T j2 T
+ + = 0, (4)
jx 2 jy 2 jz 2
where T is the temperature. The temperature distribution in the material can be obtained with appropriate
boundary conditions. From the generalized Hooke’s law, the strain components of the element including
the thermal strains are listed as follows:
x = [x − v(y + z )]/E + 
T ,
y = [y − v(z + x )]/E + 
T ,
z = [z − v(x + y )]/E + 
T ,
xy = xy /G,
yz = yz /G,
zx = zx /G, (5)
where  is the normal stress,  is the normal strain, E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity, v is the
Poisson’s ratio,  is the coefficient of thermal expansion,
T is the incremental temperature, G is the
shear modulus, is the shear stress, and  is the shear strain. After further calculation, the distribution of
the contact pressure on the gasket and the strain/stress deformation of the entire structure can be obtained.

3. Finite element models and analysis procedure

3.1. Finite element models

To establish the analytical methodology of the cylinder head in respect to the structure, the line style
of a gasoline engine, having 4 cylinders and 4 strokes, is adopted in this research. The Pro/E model
provided by China Engine Corporation for investigating the efficiency of gasket sealing is displayed in
Fig. 1. For the convenience of the observation of the distribution of contact pressure on the gasket, only
1 cylinder head is considered in this study. It must be noted that the procedure as described above has
other advantages, including: (a) reduction of the complications of boundary conditions considered in the
1164 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

Fig. 1. Top view of 2.0 L cylinder head.

Fig. 2. The relative dimensions of the 2.0 L 2nd cylinder head (mm).

analytic processes, (b) economizing on the element counts of the finite element analysis. In other words,
the computed time can be shortened substantially.
The relative dimensions of the cylinder head are illustrated in Fig. 2 and in Fig. 4. It should be noted that
the geometric structure of the cylinder head has an obvious difference between the part of the inlet valve
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1165

Table 1
Material properties of each component of the structural analyses
Young’s modulus (Gpa) Poisson’s ratio CTE (ppm/◦ C ) k (W/m-◦ C)

Exhaust valve (214N) 215 0.290 16.8 15.3

Inlet valve (EN52) 90 0.290 13.0 23.4
Cylinder head (Al alloy) 71 0.330 24.0 177.2
Cylinder block (Al alloy) 71 0.330 24.0 177.2
Liner (Cast iron) 107 0.295 11.7 0.0591
Bolt (SCM 435) 205 0.29 11.2 N/A
Gasket Multielastic 0.29 32 1.968E-4

Fig. 3. The relation between pressure and compression in the gasket.

and the part of the exhaust valve. Moreover, the distances between the central line of the combustion
chamber and the location of the bolts are not identical. Table 1 lists the material properties of each
component of the structural analyses in this research. The main body of the cylinder head and the block
are made of aluminum alloy (JIS H 5302, 1990). The material of the exhaust valve is steel (214N, 1960).
The inlet valve is made of a new steel developed since 1960 (EN52, 1970). The pre-stressed bolts are
made of carbon–steel material (SCM 435). At the same time, the internal part of the gasket is in contact
with different components having dissimilar material characteristic (Fig. 3). In this research, both the
structures of the raised part multilayer, referred to as the stopper distribution at the inner ring, and the
body made up by the main body of the gasket are considered. The relative stress/strain curve can be
calculated by means of the curve fitting method. Table 2 displays the multilinear-elastic material property
of the gasket used in the structural analysis.
Furthermore, the software based on the FEM, ANSYS䉸 , is adopted to analyze the 2.0 L cylinder head.
Before the simulation continues, several assumptions are made with regard to modeling the structure of
the cylinder head, and they are: (1) The 4 cylinder heads possess a structural symmetry in their entirety,
hence the 2nd cylinder head removed from the complete model in order to reduce the calculated time and
to set a more simple boundary. (2) For the pre-stressing of the bolts, the construction of a partial block is
needed to look into the efficiency of the gasket sealing. (3) According to the actual dimensions, the full
1166 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

Table 2
Material properties of the gasket

Stopper Body

Stress (MPa) Strain Stress (MPa) Strain

10 0.019 25 0.25
50 0.038 400 0.30
250 0.057
400 0.076

Fig. 4. The relative dimensions of the 2.0 L 2nd block and the bolts (mm).

thickness of the gasket is 0.4 mm except for the raised portion of the stopper at the location of the inner
ring (0.12 mm raised, Fig. 4). In addition, owing to the assumption of the symmetry of the 2nd cylinder
head, only half of the 2nd cylinder head with other interrelated components, such as one inlet valve and
one exhaust valve, are consequently introduced into the structural analysis. Both Figs. 5 and 6 show the
finite element model of half of the 2nd cylinder head after being adequately modified. The element type
used in the analysis is a solid element (Solid 45), and its degrees of freedom are three displacements that
are orthogonal with each other. Moreover, the area-to-area contact pair (contact 174, target 170) has made
use of simulating the contact condition at the interface between the cylinder head and the gasket. When it
comes to the pre-stressing of the bolts, the Pre-tension element (PRETS 179) with one degree of freedom
(the direction of applied force) is adopted to simulate the tightening level in the assembly process of the
engine. However, the locations of the bolts are just at the symmetrical axis of adjacent cylinder heads, so
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1167

Fig. 5. The modeling process of relative components for the 2nd cylinder head of the 2.0 L engine.

Fig. 6. The FEM model for the structural analysis. (a) Other components. (b) Half of the 2nd cylinder head. (c) The full FEM
model of the 2nd cylinder head.

the pre-stressing of the bolts will have an influence on the adjacent cylinder heads. For this reason, half
of the pre-stressing of the bolts is considered to be part of the 2nd cylinder head. The total amount of the
elements and nodes in the FEM model are 32,430 and 17,880, respectively.
1168 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

Fig. 7. The temperature distribution of the main body of the cylinder head at 6,500 rpm.

3.2. Analysis procedure

For the investigation of gasket sealing, the major loading conditions in the process of engine operation
such as cold assembly, hot assembly, cold start, and hot firing, will be considered. However, the effect
of temperature distribution on the main body of the cylinder head should be brought into the boundary
conditions of heat transfer for simulating the operating situations of both the hot assembly and the hot
firing. Therefore, the heat transfer analysis must be performed prior to the structural analysis because of
the demand for observation of the thermal stresses that are generated. The two procedures for the analyses
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

3.2.1. Thermal analysis

Several assumptions concerning both the FEM model and the boundary conditions in the thermal
analysis are as follows: (1) Owing to the fact that the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the gasket
between the cylinder head and the block is extremely small, the gasket material is adopted as being
adiabatic. Because of this assumption, the structure of the engine above the gasket is modeled to be
calculated by finite element analysis. (2) The components such as the bolt, valve guide, valve seat,
and so on, contribute little to the heat transfer of the temperature distribution of the whole cylinder
head. Therefore, besides the inlet valve and the exhaust valve, other components are neglected in the
thermal analysis. Other relative setting data such as heat transfer coefficients (HTC) are obtained from
actual experiments and previous literature [14]. The maximum temperature occurs at the highest operating
speed. Hence, the maximum horsepower output at 6,500 rpm is considered in this research. The analytical
result is indicated in Fig. 7. The maximum temperature appears at the area around the spark plug, and the
next one occurs at the location between two adjacent combustion chambers. The nodal temperature and
other related data, after numerical simulation can be further used as input data in the following structural
analysis.
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1169

Fig. 8. The gas pressure of the 2.0 L engine at different cycle durations at specific operation speeds.

3.2.2. Structural analysis

According to the applied loadings originating from different categories of mechanics, this linear-elastic
analytical procedure could further be divided into three load steps by means of the superposition principle
for simulating various operating processes of the engine. The final results of the structural analysis are
composed of the outputs of these three load steps.
a. Assembly loadings
The major percentage of the loading applied to the engine is the assembly loading. This mainly refers
to the pre-stressing of the bolts, and it plays an important role in preventing gas from escaping from the
internal part of the engine. In other words, in addition to the design of the gasket itself, the efficiency of
the sealing of the gasket depends mainly upon the correctness of the pre-stressing of the bolts. In order to
avoid an insufficient sealing of the gasket, the bolts are pre-stressed in the range of 28–32 kN. In the case
of the assembly loadings, the structure of the whole cylinder is approximately half symmetrical, hence
the structural symmetric planes should have symmetric displacement boundary conditions. In addition,
the displacements of the nodes at the bottom of the block are fixed to avoid the rigid body motion.
b. Thermal loadings
In the case of thermal loadings, the nodal temperatures resulting from the prescribed thermal analysis
are assigned to all corresponding nodes of the FEM model of the 2nd cylinder head in order to calculate the
thermal stress/strain of the cylinder head structure. The boundary condition associated with displacement
is the same as the case of the assembly loadings.
c. Gas pressure
The gas pressure created as a result of the firing of the spark plug is imposed on the surface of the
combustion chamber. However, the magnitude of the gas pressure varies with different durations of
the cycle (Fig. 8). For the steady state analysis, the average gas pressure is introduced into the loading
conditions for the numerical simulation of cold starts and hot firing. In this research, the maximum average
1170 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

gas pressure, 6.7 MPa, produced at a higher speed during the operating process of the engine is expected
to substantially reduce the efficiency of the gasket sealing.

4. Results and discussions

In this research, the location of the weakest contact pressure on the gasket is used to investigate the
efficiency of the gasket sealing. The analytical results under different operating processes of the engine
will be discussed in detail.

Fig. 9. The distribution of the contact pressure on the gasket with raised portion (Pre-stressing of bolt: 48 kN).

Fig. 10. The weakest contact pressure on the gasket at different magnitudes of the pre-stressing force (cold assembly).
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1171

Fig. 11. The distribution of the Y -axial stress for both the main body of the cylinder head and the gasket. (cold assembly) (a)
Isotropic view. (b) Isotropic view (meshed). (c) Isotropic view. (d) Isotropic view (meshed).

4.1. Cold assembly

The gasket sealing of the automobile in a motionless state is considered to be purely without any other
external loading. Therefore, the maximum source of loading in this case is the pre-stressing of the bolts.
In addition, the magnitude of pre-stressing the bolts with regards to dissimilar styles of engine structure
and stroke volume is not identical. For this reason, the parametric analysis for the pre-stressing of bolts
is implemented. The results reveal that the weakest contact pressure on the gasket appears at the raised
location of the inner ring between two adjacent combustion chambers (Fig. 9). This situation results
from the fact that the distance between the bolts and the foregoing location on the gasket is the greatest.
Moreover, the maximum contact pressure on the surface of the gasket at the inlet part is slightly different
from the exhaust part by virtue of the structural asymmetry.
The result for the pre-stressing of the bolts with parametric analysis is shown in Fig. 10. All analytical
results in this case indicate that the weakest contact pressure on the gasket occurs at the same position and
1172 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

Fig. 12. The weakest contact pressure on the gasket at different magnitudes of the pre-stressing force (cold starts).

passes the safety factor of the design criteria (greater than 1.1 times the gas pressure). The contact pressure
decays from 103.25 to 59.12 MPa as the pre-stressing force of the bolt decreases from 64 to 32 kN. It
should be noted that the phenomenon of the efficiency of gasket sealing dependents mainly upon the
magnitude of the pre-stressing force under cold assembly conditions. In addition, the distribution of the
Y -axial stresses of the main body of the cylinder head and the gasket are shown in Fig. 11. The maximum
stress appears in the adjacent region of the gas wall as a result of the irregular geometry in the structure
(101.9 MPa). Moreover, the neighboring regions associated with the location of the bolts are subjected
to compressing stresses (407.7 MPa). However, because of the structural asymmetry, the distribution of
these compressing stresses is slightly different between the inlet side and the exhaust side of the cylinder
head.

4.2. Cold starts

The operating condition of a cold start is simulated by means of the loading composed of both the
assembly loading and the gas pressure. The distribution of the contact pressure on the protruding portion
of the gasket, and the position of the least effective gasket sealing are the same as with the condition of
the cold assembly. According to the results shown in Fig. 12, the rising of the lowest contact pressure
from 39.94 to 70.34 MPa depends on the increase of the pre-stressing force of the bolt. Compared to the
results of the cold assembly situation, the sealing capacity for the gasket diminishes substantially as a
result of the active direction of the gas pressure being opposite to the pre-stressing force of the bolt (Fig.
13). The analytical results also conform to the safety factor in spite of the reduction in sealing capacity.

4.3. Hot assembly

The loadings made up by the pre-stressing force of the bolt and the thermal loading are used to simulate
the state of thermal balance reached by the burst of gas being fired repeatedly. It should be noted that the
 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174 1173

Fig. 13. The comparisons of the weakest contact pressure between the operating conditions of the cold assembly and cold starts.

Fig. 14. The distribution of the contact pressure on the gasket with raised portion (Pre-stressing of bolts: 32 kN).

thermal loading comes from the temperature distribution of the nodal result in the heat transfer analysis.
The analytical result shows that the distribution of temperature in the internal structure of the cylinder head
has an influence on the distribution of the contact pressure on the gasket (Fig. 14). The original position
of the weakest contact pressure during cold assembly and cold starts becomes the maximum point as a
result of the effect of thermal stress. In other words, the proper thermal stress could be used to improve the
efficiency of gasket sealing through our proposed novel design, with relatively few engine components.

4.4. Hot firing

In the hot assembly, the operating process of hot firing is to simulate the moment of the spark plug
firing. Therefore, in this case gas pressure is added into the applied loadings. The distribution of the
1174 C.-C. Lee et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1160 – 1174

contact pressure on the surface of the gasket is almost the same as the condition of the hot assembly
except for the fact that the contact pressure is reduced. However, the sealing capacity of the gasket falls
within the safety factor of the design criteria.

5. Conclusions

In this research, the structural analyses of a cylinder head under various loading conditions are accom-
plished by means of the numerical simulation of finite element analysis. The main results combined with
each analysis concerning the different operating processes of the engine can be separated into two parts as
follow. First, the capacity of gasket sealing mainly depends upon the pre-stressing of the bolts, which are
the source of the maximum external loading on the inner structure of the cylinder head. In addition, the
location of the weakest contact pressure on the raised portion of the gasket can be transferred as a result
of the effect of thermal stress/strain. In this investigation the analytical results indicate that the thermal
stresses provide a positive support for the efficiency of gasket sealing. However, because of the opposite
direction to the pre-stressing applied to the bolts, under the operating conditions with gas, the pressure
will increase the possibility of gas escaping. Therefore, an effective method was proposed to enhance the
sealing capacity of the gasket by increasing the magnitude of the assembly force without exceeding the
material strength of each component in the engine structure. At the same time, the structure of the gasket
in the region of the worst sealing can be improved in the early stages of design. This is especially true for
the raised portion.

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