UNIT - 2

BANDLIMITED SIGNALLING
UNIT II
BANDLIMITED SIGNALLING
Power Spectra of PAM signals- Inter Symbol Interference- Ideal Nyquist channel-
Raised Cosine Channels- Correlative Coding- Eye patterns- Adaptive Equalization
for Data Transmission
________________________________________________________________________

Contents:
Overview of an bandlimited signal
Objective
PAM introduction
PAM Applications
Power spectra of PAM signal
Introduction of Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
Eye Patterns
Nyquist Pulse Shaping
Raised Cosine (RC) Fall-Off Pulse Shaping
Adaptive Equalization
________________________________________________________________________
Overview:

A bandlimited signal is a deterministic or stochastic signal whose Fourier transform

or power spectral density is zero above a certain finite frequency. In other words, if
the Fourier transform or power spectral density has finite support then the signal is
said to be bandlimited. A bandlimited signal can be fully reconstructed from its
samples, provided that the sampling rate exceeds twice the maximum frequency in
the bandlimited signal. This minimum sampling frequency is called the Nyquist
rate. This result, usually attributed to Nyquist and Shannon, is known as the
Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, or simply the sampling theorem. An
information bearing-signal must conform to the limits of its channel. Generally
modulation is a two-step process. Baseband: shaping the spectrum of input bits to
fit in a limited spectrum. Passband: modulating the baseband signal to the system
RF carrier. Most common baseband modulation is Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM). data amplitude modulates a sequence of time translates of basic pulse is
called PAM. PAM is a linear form of modulation: easy to equalize, BW is pulse
BW. Typically baseband data will modulate in-phase [cos] and quadrature [sine]
data streams to the carrier passband. Special cases of modulated PAM include

– phase shift keying (PSK)

– quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

Objectives:

To study about the Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) in detail.

Explain about the ISI.

Discuss about the Eye patterns.

Describe the methodologies of pulse shaping.

To study about the RC fall off shaping.

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation:

Overview
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the
message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.
Example: A two bit modulator (PAM-4) will take two bits at a time and will map
the signal amplitude to one of four possible levels, for example −3 volts, −1 volt, 1
volt, and 3 volts. Demodulation is performed by detecting the amplitude level of
the carrier at every symbol period. Pulse-amplitude modulation is widely used in
baseband transmission of digital data, with non-baseband applications having been
largely superseded by pulse-code modulation, and, more recently, by pulse-
position modulation. In particular, all telephone modems faster than 300 bit/s use
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). (QAM uses a two-dimensional
constellation).
• PAM is a general signaling technique whereby pulse amplitude is used to
convey the message
• For example, the PAM pulses could be the sampled amplitude values of an
analogue signal
• We are interested in digital PAM, where the pulse amplitudes are
constrained to chosen from a specific alphabet at the transmitter
1.1 PAM Applications:
In practical telecommunication applications, pulse amplitude modulation is a rare
use technology, having been superceded by other techniques such as pulse
position modulation and pulse code modulation. Additionally, a technology called
quadrature amplitude modulation is widely used in telephone modems with a data
transfer rate of more than 300 Kbps. While newer technologies are fast making
their presence known, it should be noted that pulse amplitude modulation is still
useful in the popular Ethernet communication standard. For example, 100BASE-T2
- operating at 100Mb/s - Ethernet medium is using 5 level PAM modulations
running at 25 mega pulses/sec over four wires. Later developments include the
100BASE-T medium which raised the bar to 4 wire pairs, running each at 125 mega
pulses/sec in order to achieve 1000 Mbps data transfer rates, but still with the
same PAM5 for each pair. More recently, PAM12 and PAM8 have gained
consideration in the newly proposed IEEE 802.3an standard for 10GBase-T -- ten
gigabyte Ethernet over copper wire.
1.2 PAM Scheme:

• In binary PAM, each symbol ak takes only two values, say {A1 and A2}
• In a multilevel, i.e., M-ary system, symbols may take M values {A1, A2 ,...
AM}
• Signaling period, T

• Each transmitted pulse is given by

Where hT (t) is the time domain pulse shape
• To generate the PAM output signal, we may choose to represent the input
to the transmit filter hT(t) as a train of weighted impulse functions

• Consequently, the filter output x(t) is a train of pulses, each with the
required shape hT(t)
 Filtering of impulse train in transmit filter
• Clearly not a practical technique so
– Use a practical input pulse shape, then filter to realise the desired
output pulse shape
– Store a sampled pulse shape in a ROM and read out through a D/A
converter
• The transmitted signal x(t) passes through the channel HC(w) and the
receive filter HR(w).
• The overall frequency response is
H(w) = HT(w) HC(w) HR(w)
• Hence the signal at the receiver filter output is

Where h(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of H(w) and v(t) is the noise
signal at the receive filter output
• Data detection is now performed by the Data Slicer

1.3 PAM- Data Detection

• Sampling y(t), usually at the optimum instant t=nT+td when the pulse
magnitude is the greatest yields
 Where vn=v(nT+td) is the sampled noise and td is the time delay required
for optimum sampling
• yn is then compared with threshold(s) to determine the recovered data
symbols

1.4 Synchronization
• We need to derive an accurate clock signal at the receiver in order that y(t)
may be sampled at the correct instant
• Such a signal may be available directly (usually not because of the waste
involved in sending a signal with no information content)
• Usually, the sample clock has to be derived directly from the received signal.
• The ability to extract a symbol timing clock usually depends upon the
presence of transitions or zero crossings in the received signal.
• Line coding aims to raise the number of such occurrences to help the
extraction process.
• Unfortunately, simple line coding schemes often do not give rise to
transitions when long runs of constant symbols are received.
• Some line coding schemes give rise to a spectral component at the symbol
rate
• A BPF or PLL can be used to extract this component directly
 • Sometimes the received data has to be non-linearly processed eg, squaring,
to yield a component of the correct frequency.

1.5 Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

The transmission signal is a discrete PAM:

Where B= {bn} is a stationary random sequence, and bndepends on the

different data formats and T is the symbol duration.
x (t) is a sample function of a random process X(t).

The power spectral of the random sequence B = {bn} is defined as

From (1) and (2), we obtain the psd of the PAM signal x (t) as Follows

Remark:
The results in (1) - (3) illustrate the dependence of the psd SX(f) of the transmitted
signal on
(1) the spectral characteristics of HT(f) of the pulse shape filter and
(2) the spectral characteristics of SB(f) of the pre-coded information sequence.
Conclusion:
Both HT(f) and SB(f) can be designed to control the shape and form of the psd of
the transmitted signal.
Problems:
Determine the psd in (3) where hT(t) is a rectangular pulse shown in Fig.

Fig. A rectangular pulse hT(t) and its energy density spectrum | HT ( f ) |2

Solution.
The Fourier transform of hT(t) is as follows

Where

Hence, we have
Substituting it into (3), we obtain
If the pulse shape is the rectangular pulse T then the psd of the PAM x(t) is given

by

2. Inter-Symbol Interference:
• Figure 1 (a) is the input signal to an ideal minimum bandwidth LPF.
Figure 2 (b) shows the output of LPF that does not introduce any phase
or amplitude distortion. If the LPF is imperfect, the output response
closely resembles Figure 4.25 (c).
• The input signal is a random binary NRZ sequence. The output signal
reaches its full value for each transmitted pulse at the center of each
sampling interval.
• At sampling instants, the signal does not attain always the maximum
value. Ringing tails of several pulses have overlapped interfering with
the major pulse lobe.
• When there is no time delay, the energy in the form of spurious
responses from one pulse appears during the sampling instant of another
pulse. This phenomenon is called Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI).
• ISI is important in the transmission of pulses over circuits with a limited
bandwidth and linear phase response.
• Rectangular pulse won’t remain as rectangular in less than infinite
bandwidth. Narrower the bandwidth, more rounded the pulses. If phase
distortion is excessive, the pulses tilt and affect the next pulse.
 • When pulses from more than one source are multiplexed together, the
amplitude, frequency and phase responses become critical.
• ISI causes crosstalk between channels that occupy adjacent time slots in a
TDM carrier system. Special filters called equalizers are inserted in the
transmission path to equalize the distortion for all frequencies creating
uniform transmission medium reducing transmission impairments. The
four primary causes of ISI are:
1. Timing Accuracies:
 In digital transmission system, the transmitter timing accuracies cause
ISI, if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing
frequencies designed into the communication channel.
 The timing inaccuracies of this type are insignificant. Since the receiver
clocking information is derived from the received signal (with noise),
inaccurate sampling timing mostly occur in receivers than in
transmitters.
2. Insufficient Bandwidth:
 Timing errors are less likely to occur if the transmission rate is well
below the channel bandwidth. (Nyquist bandwidth < Channel
bandwidth)
 When channel bandwidth reduces, ringing frequency also reduces
which results in more ISI.
3. Amplitude Distortion:
 Filters are placed in the communication channel to band limit the signal
and reduce the predicted noise and interference. They are also used to
produce a specific pulse response.
 The frequency response of a channel can not be predicted absolutely.
 When the frequency characteristics of a communication channel depart
from the predicted values, pulse distortion occurs. Pulse distortion
 results when the peaks of pulses are reduced causing improper ringing
frequency in time domain.
 The compensation for amplitude/pulse distortion is amplitude
equalization.
4. Phase Distortion:
 Each pulse is simply the superposition of a series of harmonically related
sine waves with specific amplitude and phase relationships. Phase
distortion occurs when the relative phase relations of the individual sine
waves are altered.
 Phase distortion also occurs when the frequency components undergo
different amounts of time delay while propagating through the
transmission medium.
 Special delay equalizers are placed in the transmission path to
compensate the varying delays thus reducing the phase distortion. Phase
equalizers can be manually adjusted or designed to automatically adjust
themselves to varying transmission characteristics.
3. Eye Patterns:
• The performance of a digital transmission system depends on the ability
of a repeater to regenerate the original pulses.
• The quality of regeneration process depends on the decision circuit
within the repeater and quality of the signal at the input to the decision
circuit.
• The performance of digital transmission system is measured by
displaying received signal on an oscilloscope and triggering the time
base at the data rate. All the waveform combinations are superimposed
over adjacent signaling intervals. Such a display is called Eye pattern or
Eye diagram.
• Eye pattern is a convenient technique to determine the effects of
degradations introduced into the pulses as they travel to the
regenerator.
• Figure 2 shows the test set up to display an Eye pattern. The received
pulse stream is fed to the vertical input of the oscilloscope and symbol
clock is fed to the external trigger input while sweep rate is set
approximately equal to symbol rate.
• Eye pattern (Figure 4.27) is generated by a symmetrical waveform for
ternary signal in which the individual pulses at the input to the
regenerator have a cosine-squared shape.
• In an m-level system, there are m-1 separate eyes. The vertical lines
labeled +1, 0 and -1 correspond to ideal received amplitudes. The
horizontal lines are separated by a signaling interval T corresponds to
ideal decision times. Vertical hairs represent decision time and
horizontal hairs represent decision levels.
• Eye pattern shows the quality of shaping and timing. It also discloses any
noise and errors that is present in line equalization. Eye opening defines
a boundary within which no waveform trajectories can exist under any
code pattern condition.
• To generate pulse sequence without errors, the eyes must be open and
decision cross hairs must be within open area. The pulse degradation
reduces the size of ideal eye. At the center of the eye, opening is 90%
indicating only minor ISI degradation due to filtering imperfections.
• Small degradation is due to the non-ideal Nyquist amplitude phase
characteristics of transmission system.
h
• ISI degradation is ISI = 20 Log where H = ideal vertical opening (cm)
H
and h = degraded vertical opening (cm). Here ISI = 20 Log (90/100) =
0.915 dB.
• The overlapping signals pattern does not cross horizontal zero line at
exact integer multiples of symbol clocks. This impairment is called data
transmission jitter. This jitter has an effect on symbol timing clock
recovery circuit. Excessive effect degrades the performance of
regenerative sections.
4. Nyquist Pulse Shaping
• It is possible to eliminate ISI at the sampling instants by ensuring that the
received pulses satisfy the Nyquist pulse shaping criterion
• We will assume that td=0, so the slicer input is

yn = an h(0) + ∑ ak h((n − k )T ) + vn
k ≠n

If the received pulse is such that

1 for n = 0
h(nT ) = 
0 for n ≠ 0

• Then and so ISI is avoided

This condition is only achieved if

That is the pulse spectrum, repeated at intervals of the symbol rate sums to a
constant value T for all frequencies

Sample h(t) with a train of d pulses at

The spectrum of d(t)=1, therefore

Substituting f=w/2p gives the Nyquist pulse shaping criterion

• No pulse bandwidth less than 1/2T can satisfy the criterion, eg,

Clearly, the repeated spectra do not sum to a constant value

• The minimum bandwidth pulse spectrum H(f), ie, a rectangular spectral
shape, has a sinc pulse response in the time domain,

T for - 1 2T < f < 1 2T

H( f ) = 
0 elsewhere

• The sinc pulse shape is very sensitive to errors in the sample timing, owing
to its low rate of side lobe decay
• Hard to design practical ‘brick-wall’ filters, consequently filters with smooth
spectral roll-off are preferred
• Pulses may take values for t<0 (ie non-causal). No problem in a practical
system because delays can be introduced to enable approximate realisation.

Non-causal response T = 1 s
 Causal response T = 1s
Delay, td = 10s

4.1 Raised Cosine (RC) Fall-Off Pulse Shaping

• Practically important pulse shapes which satisfy the criterion are those with
Raised Cosine (RC) roll-off
• The pulse spectrum is given by

T f ≤ 1 2T − β
 π
H ( f ) = T cos 2 ( f − 1 2T + β ) 1 2T − β < f ≤ 1 2T + β
 4 β
 0 f > 1 2T + β

With, 0<b<1/2T
• The general RC function is as follows,

T f ≤ 1 2T − β
 π
H ( f ) = T cos 2 ( f − 1 2T + β ) 1 2T − β < f ≤ 1 2T + β
 4β
 0 f > 1 2T + β

• The corresponding time domain pulse shape is given by,

 π  
 sin   t 
h (t ) =  T    cos 2 πβ t 

 π    1 − (4 β t )2 

  t 
 T  
• Now b allows a trade-off between bandwidth and the pulse decay rate
• Sometimes b is normalised as follows,
β
x=
(12T )
• With b=0 (i.e., x = 0) the spectrum of the filter is rectangular and the time
domain response is a sinc pulse, that is,

H( f ) =T f ≤ 1 2T

 π  
 sin  t 
h(t ) =    
T
 π  
  t 
 T  

• The time domain pulse has zero crossings at intervals of nT as desired (See
plots for x = 0).
• With b=(1/2T), (i.e., x = 1) the spectrum of the filter is full RC and the time
domain response is a pulse with low sidelobe levels, that is,
 πTf 
H ( f ) = T cos 2   f ≤1 T
 2 
1  2π 
h(t ) = sinc t
 4 2  T 
1 − 2 t 
 T 

• The time domain pulse has zero crossings at intervals of nT/2, with the
exception at T/2 where there is no zero crossing. See plots for x = 1.
 • Pulse shape and received signal, x = 0 (b = 0)

Eye diagram

Pulse shape and received signal, x = 1 (b = 1/2T)

Eye diagram

• The much wider eye opening for x = 1 gives a much greater tolerance to
inaccurate sample clock timing
• The penalty is the much wider transmitted bandwidth
4.2 Probability of Error
• In the presence of noise, there will be a finite chance of decision errors at
the slicer output
• The smaller the eye, the higher the chance that the noise will cause an error.
For a binary system a transmitted ‘1’ could be detected as a ‘0’ and vice-versa
• In a PAM system, the probability of error is, Pe=Pr{A received symbol is
incorrectly detected}
• For a binary system, Pe is known as the bit error probability, or the bit error
rate (BER)
4.2.1 BER
• The received signal at the slicer is
yn = Vi + vn

Where Vi is the received signal voltage and

Vi=Vo for a transmitted ‘0’ or
Vi=V1 for a transmitted ‘1’
• With zero ISI and an overall unity gain, Vi=an, the current transmitted
binary symbol
2
• Suppose the noise is Gaussian, with zero mean and varianceσ v
− v n2
1 2
f ( vn ) = e 2σ v
2πσ v2

Where f(vn) denotes the probability density function (pdf), that is,

Pr{x < vn ≤ x + dx} = f ( x)dx

b
and Pr{a < vn ≤ b} = ∫ f ( x)dx
a

• The slicer detects the received signal using a threshold voltage VT

• For a binary system the decision is
Decide ‘1’ if yn VT
Decide ‘0’ if yn<VT
 For equiprobable symbols, the optimum threshold is in the centre of V0 and
V1, ie VT=(V0+V1)/2

• The probability of error for a binary system can be written as:

Pe=Pr(‘0’sent and error occurs)+Pr(‘1’sent and error occurs)

Pe = P(error | 0) Po + P (error | 1) P1
• For ‘0’ sent: an error occurs when yn VT
– let vn=yn-Vo, so when yn=Vo, vn=0 and when yn=VT, vn=VT-Vo.
– So equivalently, we get an error when vn VT-V0

P(error | 0) = P(vn ≥ VT − Vo )

∞
 V − Vo 
P(error | 0) = ∫
VT −Vo
f (vn )dvn = Q T
 σv 


∞
1 − x2 2
Where, Q( z ) = ∫ e dx
z 2π

• The Q function is one of a number of tabulated functions for the Gaussian

cumulative distribution function (cdf) ie the integral of the Gaussian pdf.
• Similarly for ‘1’ sent: an error occurs when yn<VT
• let vn=yn-V1, so when yn=V1, vn=0 and when yn=VT, vn=VT-V1.
• So equivalently, we get an error when vn < VT-V1

P(error | 1) = P(vn < VT − V1 ) = P(vn > V1 − VT )

 ∞
 V −V 
P(error | 1) = ∫
V1 −VT
f (vn )dvn = Q 1 T
 σv



• Hence the total error probability is

Pe=Pr(‘0’sent and error occurs)+Pr(‘1’sent and error occurs)

Pe = P(error | 0) Po + P (error | 1) P1

 V − Vo   V −V 
Pe = Q T  Po + Q 1 T  P1
 σv   σv 
Where Po is the probability that a ‘0’ was sent and P1 is the probability that a
‘1’ was sent
• For Po=P1=0.5, the min error rate is obtained when,

Vo + V1
VT =
2

• Consequently,

 V −V   h 
Pemin = Q 1 o  = Q  where, h = V1 − Vo
 2σ v   2σ v 
Notes:
– Q(.) is a monotonically decreasing function of its argument, hence the
BER falls as h increases
– For received pulses satisfying Nyquist criterion, ie zero ISI, Vo=Ao and
V1=A1. Assuming unity overall gain.
– More complex with ISI. Worst case performance if h is taken to be the
eye opening
4.2.1.2 BER Example
• The received pulse h(t) in response to a single transmitted binary ‘1’ is as
shown,

Where, h(0) = 0, h(T) = 0.3, h(2T) = 1, h(3T) = 0, h(4T) = -0.2, h(5T) =0

• What is the worst case BER if a ‘1’ is received as h(t) and a ‘0’ as -h(t) (this is
known as a polar binary scheme)? Assume the data are equally likely to be
‘0’ and ‘1’ and that the optimum threshold (OV) is used at the slicer.
• By inspection, the pulse has only 2 non-zero amplitude values (at T and 4T)
away from the ideal sample point (at 2T).
• Consequently the worst case ‘1’ occurs when the data bits conspire to give
negative non-zero pulse amplitudes at the sampling instant.
• The worst case ‘1’ eye opening is thus,
1 - 0.3 - 0.2 = 0.5
as indicated in the following diagram.
 • The indicated data gives rise to the worst case ‘1’ eye opening. Don’t care
about data marked ‘X’ as their pulses are zero at the indicated sample instant
• Similarly the worst case ‘0’ eye opening is
-1 + 0.3 + 0.2 = -0.5
• So, worst case eye opening h = 0.5-(-0.5) = 1V
• Giving the BER as,

 h   1 
Pemin = Q  = Q 
2σ
 v 2σ
 v

Where sv is the rms noise at the slicer input

5. Correlative Coding and Equalization

5.1 Correlative Coding
• For zero ISI, the symbol rate R = 1/T < 2W, the Nyquist rate.
• We may relax the condition of zero ISI in order to achieve R = 2W.
. The schemes which allow a controlled amount of ISI to achieve the symbol rate
2W are called correlative coding or partial response signaling schemes.
The condition for zero ISI is
  Suppose that we design the band - limited signal p(t) to have controlled ISI
at one time instant, i.e., to allow one additional nonzero value in the
samples {p(nT)}
 for example,

 p2(t) has a larger time duration than p1(t);

 P2(f)=F[ p2(t)] has a smaller bandwidth on frequency domain than P1(f)=F[
p1(t)]
 Spectral efficiency is increased by using p2(t).

Note.
The ISI we introduce by using p2(t) is deterministic or “controlled” and, hence, its
effect on signal detection at the receiver can be removed, as discussed below.

(A) Duobinary Signaling (Class I partial response)

The prefix “duo” implies doubling of the transmission capacity of a straight binary
system. Figure 1 shows a duobinary encoder.

Legend in Figure 1:
1) {an}, an € {0,1} with an and an+k being independent for k≠ 0
The sample (bit or symbol) duration is .
 2) {bn}, the NRZpolar, the output of the memoryless precoder (or level
converter)

3) The frequency response of the duobinary encode is given by

which is a cascaded two filters, since we have

4) The filter output yn can be represente d by the sum of the present input
pulse bn and its previous value bn-1
yn = bn + bn-1
 Note that here we consider noiseless channel and m = 1which is from the
following formula:

Notice that

The effect of (3): {bn } , two level {d, -d}, uncorrelated,

{yn } three level {-2d, 0, 2d}, correlated.
5) On the frequency domain, the transfer function of the duobinary
encoder is:
  Since an ideal Nyquist channel of bandwidth B0 = 1/ 2 has transfer function

Then

5) The impulse response corresponding to HI(f) consists of two sinc (Nyquist)

pulses that are time-displaced by T seconds withrespect to each other, which can
be derived as follows.
Note :
The tails of hI(t) decay as 1/|t|2 , which is faster rate of decay than the1/|t|
encountered in the ideal Nyquist cahnnel. Therefore, the ISI due to bit synchroniz
ation error is reduced by the duobinary signaling.

(B). Decoding of the Duobinary Signaling

The original two-level sequence {bn} may be detected from the duobinary- coded
sequence {yn} using a feedback decoder based on Eq. (3). Specifically, let bn
represent the receiver at time t=nT. Then, subtracting the previous estimate bn-1
from yn, we get

5.2 Duobinary Scheme with Precoder

To uniquely determine the source bit in the kth signaling interval, even if an error is
made on the (k-1)th bit, the kth source bit, we introduce the precoding:

where Å is modulo 2 operation.

The precoded sequence {b*n} is given by

where the bar represents the complement of the symbol.

The binary sequence {b*n} is applied to a level converter, producing a
corresponding two- level sequence {bn}, where bn= ±d with sample duration T as
before. Then

(7)
From (4),we have Combining with (6),

From (8) we deduce the following decision rule for detecting the original binary
sequence {an} from {yn} :
if | yn |< d, then symbol an is 1
if | yn |> d, then symbol an is 0
if | yn |= d, randomly guessing an
A useful feature of this detector is that no knowledge of any input sample other
than the present one is required. Hence, error propagatio n cannot occur in the
detector.
Example.
Precoding with memory and duobinary coding.
Consider the binary data sequence 0010110. To proceed with the precoding of this
sequence, which involves feeding the precoder output back to the input, we add
and extra (initialization) bit to the precoding output. This extra bit is chosen
arbitrarily to be 1. Hence, using (4), we find that the sequence {b*n} at the
precoder output is as shown in row 2 of the following table. The polar formart {bn}
of the sequence {b*n} is shown in row 3 of the table. Finally, using (7), we find the
duobinary encoder output has the amplitude levels given in row 4 of the table. To
detect the original binary sequence, we apply the decision rule, given by (A), so,
obtain the binary sequence given in row 5 in the table.

The last row shows that, in absence of noise, the original binary sequence is
detected correctly.

Example 1. Duobinary coding with precoding.

Example 2. Find the error probability of the duobinary signaling in AWGN where
the symbols are equally likely.
Solution.

Since for {ak}, 0 and 1 are equally likely, the output levels 2d each occur with ¼
and the output level 0
occurs with prob. ½ assuming no noise. If the thresholds are set at d, errors occurs
as follows:
If ak = 0, then

We write N = no(kT).
Consequently,

Thus, error occurs when

Remark.
If the factor of 3/2 is ignored, the fraction of F = (4/π)2 amounts to a degradation
in signal-to-noise ratio of 2.1 dB of duobinary over direct binary. That is, to achieve
the same error probability, the transmission power for duobinary must be 2.1 dB
greater than that for direct binary, assuming ideal channel filtering and AWGN.
This is the sacrifice that paid for the smaller bandwidth required by duobinary
signaling.

6. Adaptive Equalization
• Adaptive equalizers compensate for signal distortion attributed to
intersymbol interference (ISI), which is caused by multipath within time-
dispersive channels.
• Typically employed in high-speed communication systems, which do not
use differential modulation schemes or frequency division multiplexing
• The equalizer is the most expensive component of a data demodulator and
can consume over 80% of the total computations needed to demodulate a
given signal
The following quantities are defined for a linear equalizer with a real input signal:
 Equalizer tap coefficient vector:

 Equalizer input samples in the tapped delay line:

 Equalizer output: (Lf = equalizer length)

 Error signal:

where ‘d(k)’ is the desired signal

Minimum Mean-Squared-Error (MMSE) Equalization

 The mean-squared-error cost function is defined as :
 When the filter coefficients are fixed, the cost function can be rewritten
as follows

Where ‘p’ is the cross-correlation vector and ‘R’ is the input signal
correlation matrix
 The gradient of the MSE cost function with respect to the equalizer tap
weights is defined as follows:

 The optimal equalizer taps ‘fo’ required to obtain the MMSE can be
determined by replacing ‘f’ with ‘fo’ and setting the gradient above to
zero:

 Finally, the MMSE is expressed as follows:

Review Questions:
1) What is meant by forward and backward estimation?
2) What are the limitations of forward estimation with backward estimation?
3) How are the predictor coefficients determined?
4) Define adaptive subband coding?
5) What are formant frequencies?
6) What is the bit rate in ASBC?
7) Define Adaptive filter?
8) Define data Signalling Rate.
9) Define modulation rate.
10) State NRZ unipolar format
11) State NRZ polar format.
12) State NRZ bipolar format.
13) State Manchester format.
14) What is an eye pattern?
15) What is the width of the eye?
16) What is sensitivity of an eye?
17) What is margin over noise?
18) What is Inter symbol interference?
19) How eye pattern is obtained?
20) Why do we go for Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure?
21) What is matched filter receiver ?
22) What is maximum likelihood detector.
23) Define antipodal signals.