Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
DOI 10.1007/s11244-010-9457-0
ORIGINAL PAPER
Biodiesel: Current Trends and Properties
Gerhard Knothe
Published online: 13 April 2010
Ó GovernmentEmployee: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research 2010
Abstract Biodiesel, an alternative to petroleum-derived
diesel fuel, is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of vegetable
oils and animal fats. Several current issues affecting bio-
diesel that are briefly discussed include the role of new
feedstocks in meeting increased demand for biodiesel and
circumventing the food versus fuel issue, biodiesel pro-
duction, as well as fuel properties and their improvement.
Keywords Biodiesel
Fatty esters
Fuel properties

Algae
Genetic modification
Microbiology

Vegetable oils
1 Introduction
The search for alternative and renewable sources of energy
to diminish the dependence on fossil fuels has caused fuels
derived from biological sources to be increasingly scruti-
nized and utilized. Biodiesel [1, 2], defined as the mono-
alkyl esters of vegetable oils or animal fats [3] and derived
from these feedstocks by transesterification, is probably the
most commonly used biofuel as a replacement for petro-
leum-derived diesel fuel (petrodiesel).
Commonly biodiesel has been obtained from commod-
ity vegetable oils such as soybean, rapeseed (canola), palm,
and sunflower oils. The observations that such oils can
replace only a few percent of the petrodiesel market and
that biodiesel from these feedstocks is more expensive than
petrodiesel (unless subsidized in some form) have resulted
G. Knothe (&)
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research,
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA
e-mail: gerhard.knothe@ars.usda.gov
123
in the search for additional feedstocks. Among the addi-
tional feedstocks are animal fats (for example, beef tallow)
[4, 5] and used cooking or frying oils [6, 7]. Although these
feedstocks have more favorable economics due to lower
costs, their supply does not suffice to solve the availability
problem. Besides the issues of supply and economics, in
recent years the food versus fuel issue has gained attention,
i.e., that a potential source of food (edible vegetable oil)
should not be used for fuel purposes due to effects on food
prices and land-use change. While this issue is complex, it
has provided significant incentive to the search for addi-
tional feedstocks not affected by this issue. Some potential
feedstocks of interest in this connection are algae [8–11]
and jatropha [12–14].
Regardless of the feedstock, all biodiesel fuels need to
meet the specifications in standards such as ASTM D6751
[3] and EN 14214 [15]. Also, some of the technical prob-
lems such as poor cold flow and oxidative stability prop-
erties can affect biodiesel from any feedstock. Therefore,
the issue of fuel composition of biodiesel, i.e. the mono-
alkyl esters largely comprising this fuel, is very significant
as technical problems may counteract any solutions to the
social and economic aspects mentioned above. Therefore,
this article briefly summarizes the need for additional
biodiesel feedstocks taking aspects of technical viability as
expressed by fuel properties into consideration.
2 Discussion
2.1 Sources and Availability
The use of vegetable oils as a source of energy to power
diesel engines is not a new concept. Indeed, it is almost as
old as the diesel engine itself. At the 1900 World
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
Exposition in Paris, a diesel engine operated on peanut oil
as reported by Rudolf Diesel, the inventor of the engine
that bears his name, himself [16, 17]. The background was
that the French Government at the time was interested in
providing its tropical colonies with a local source of energy
[16, 17]. The theme of energy independence, especially for
the colonies of European countries but also to some extent
in Brazil, China, India and elsewhere, can be observed in
numerous literature sources from the 1920s to the late
1940s concerned with vegetable oils as fuels [18]. A fuel
meeting the current definition of biodiesel was also pro-
duced and tested during this time with a Belgian patent
dating from 1937 appearing to be the first report on bio-
diesel [19]. Reports from 1942 deal with this subject in
more detail, especially the use of ethyl esters of palm oil
[20, 21]. The biodiesel discussed in these reports was
produced by acid catalysis. During what may be termed the
‘‘age of petroleum’’, research on alternative and renewable
energy sources was largely dormant until the energy crises
of the 1970s and early 1980s led to a revival of interest in
this area. The first report of biodiesel from ‘‘modern’’ times
appears to date from 1980 [22, 23]. The conditions for
base-catalyzed production of biodiesel, which is also the
basis of its commercial production, were established a few
years later [24]. It is important to note that the major reason
for using biodiesel instead of the neat vegetable oils is its
reduced viscosity, which is close to that of petrodiesel. The
viscosity of vegetable oils, approximately an order of
magnitude higher than that of petrodiesel, can lead to
operational problems such as engine deposits.
Besides extensive research in the area of biodiesel in
recent times, standards for a commercial biodiesel product
have been developed around the world. Especially the
European standard EN 14214 [15] and the American
standard ASTM D6751 [3] have found attention as
guidelines for standards elsewhere. Emphasis was origi-
nally placed on commodity oils such as rapeseed (canola),
soybean, palm and sunflower oils for biodiesel production
due to their relatively large production volume. On the
other hand, this large production volume is connected to
the fact that these oils are largely used for physiological
purposes such as human nutrition and food preparation.
With the expanding interest in and production of biodiesel,
some production expansion of these oils was dedicated to
fuel production. This production expansion has raised
concerns about the effect on the price of food, what is
termed land-use change (agricultural production for the
sake of producing biofuels on previously virgin land or
change of already existing agricultural production from
food to fuel use) and accompanying carbon footprint,
which has especially affected palm oil [25, 26], as well as
other issues such as increased use of fertilizer and nitrous
oxides emissions from agricultural production as discussed
715
especially for rapeseed (canola) [27]. However, the use of
soy-based biodiesel was reported to lead to a reduction of
greenhouse gases by 41–57% [28, 29], with algae-based
fuels possibly faring even better [30], but another study
stating that the total environmental balance is not clear
[31]. Also, the issue of land-use change appears to be more
complex than simple changing of land use for the sake of
producing biofuels. This is exemplified by soybeans, which
yield about 20% oil as potential source for biodiesel and
80% protein, which can be used as animal feed. Thus,
should soybeans indeed be grown for their oil content, an
excess of soy protein should result, making animal nutri-
tion and production less expensive with potentially corre-
sponding effects on consumption of animal products by
humans and negating effects of the demand for fuel. Fur-
thermore, a question that has found little to no attention in
the literature is if population growth, accompanied by an
increasing need for food and fuel as well as by increasing
urbanization, is the major and ultimate driving force for
any land-use change.
In any case, increasing focus is currently being placed
on potential sources of biodiesel that avoid the food versus
fuel issue (the food versus non-food use of vegetable oils
appears to exist only for fuels use as no concerns have been
raised about other non-food products), i.e., inedible oils.
Besides used cooking or frying oils, several sources of
triacylglycerol-containing materials have achieved promi-
nence in this area, most notably jatropha oil [12–14] and
algae [8–11]. Other characteristics of jatropha that are
being promoted in this connection are that it can grow on
marginal lands, not competing with other crops, and
requires only little maintenance, while in the case of algae,
the potentially high yield per unit of land is being pro-
moted. However, the properties of biodiesel derived from
jatropha may be problematic under some conditions (see
text below) while problems with algae include growth,
isolation and harvesting as well as overall economics. Even
these additional sources will not suffice to replace all pet-
rodiesel fuel. And besides the economic, social and polit-
ical issues mentioned above, it must be considered that the
properties of the fuels obtained from the various feedstocks
ultimately play a significant role if there will be sustained
interest in the use of biodiesel from these feedstocks. Thus
the economic and other issues discussed above are inex-
tricably intertwined with the marketability of a fuel based
on its properties.
2.2 Commercial Biodiesel Production
Biodiesel production has increased significantly worldwide
in the last decade. In the United States, estimated biodie-
sel production increased from 2 million gallons (=7.56
million liters; approximately 6,700 metric tons) in
123
716
2000–700 million gallons (=2.646 billion liters; approxi-
mately 2.33 million metric tons) in 2008, with the greatest
production increase occurring in the last few years [32]. In
June 2009, production capacity in the United States was
given as 2.69 billion gallons (approximately 10.17 billion
liters; approximately 8.97 million metric tons) [32]. In
Europe (EU countries), estimated biodiesel production
increased from 1.065 million metric tons in 2002–
7.715 million metric tons in 2008 [33]. The largest bio-
diesel producer in the EU and the world is Germany with
an increase in biodiesel production from 450,000 metric
tons in 2002–2.819 million metric tons in 2008. France as
the second largest biodiesel producer in the EU increased
biodiesel production from 366,000 metric tons in 2002–
1.815 million metric tons in 2008. The third largest pro-
ducer in the EU, Italy, expanded biodiesel production from
210,000 metric tons in 2002–595,000 metric tons in 2008.
Biodiesel production capacity in the EU for 2009 is esti-
mated at 20.909 million metric tons, 5.2 million thereof in
Germany, 2.505 million in France, 3.656 million is Spain,
1.91 million in Italy, and 1.036 million in The Netherlands
[33]. Besides these examples, biodiesel production has
increased significantly in other countries around the world,
Brazil and Malaysia being notable examples.
2.3 Transesterification
As mentioned above, base catalysis is the most common
process in the transesterification of an oil or fat with an
alcohol to give biodiesel (see Fig. 1 for the principle of the
transesterification reaction). Bases such as NaOH or KOH
have been commonly applied but alkoxides such as
NaOCH3 have the advantage that water formation
according to the reaction XOH ? ROH ? H2O ? ROX
(X = Na or K, R = alkyl) is not possible. Both water and
free fatty acids should be kept to a minimum in base-cat-
alyzed transesterification [24]. As lower quality feedstocks
such as used cooking oils have high free fatty acid content,
an acid-catalyzed pre-treatment is necessary to reduce the
free fatty acid content (thus converting the free fatty acids
to alkyl esters) to a level acceptable for carrying out base-
O
CH2-O-C-R
O O
Catalyst
CH-O-C-R + 3 R OH 3 R -O-C-R + CH-OH
O
CH2-O-C-R
Triacylglycerol Alcohol Alkyl ester
(Vegetable oil) (Biodiesel)
Fig. 1 Principle of the transesterification reaction
123
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
catalyzed transesterification on the remaining material
[34]. Besides the desired mono-alkyl esters, glycerol is
formed as co-product during transesterification. A major
advantage of base-catalyzed transesterification is the mild
reaction conditions, which for the production of methyl
esters typically are 1 h at 60–65 °C and ambient pressure,
1% catalyst and a molar ratio of alcohol to oil of 6:1. The
product is typically washed with water after the reaction
and removal of the glycerol phase. The yield from this
transesterification procedure is typically very high, usually
more than 96%, and generally does not depend on the fatty
acid profile of the feedstock. When using alcohols other
than methanol, some changes to the reaction conditions are
necessary such as higher reaction temperature (around the
boiling point of the alcohol) and other effects may occur
such as the possible formation of emulsions when pro-
ducing ethyl esters. Small amounts of triacylglycerol
starting material and mono- and diacylglycerols formed as
intermediates can remain in the finished product as do
traces of glycerol co-product, alcohol and catalyst. These
minor components (impurities) are limited in biodiesel
standards by corresponding specifications. These minor
components can influence fuel properties.
Numerous other catalysts and catalytic procedures have
been developed for the synthesis of biodiesel including
heterogeneous catalysis and enzymatic processes, often
under the aspect of permitting lower quality feedstocks to
be used directly, or using other alcohols without significant
change of reaction conditions or ease of catalyst separation.
Some reviews are [35–56].
2.4 Fatty Acid Composition and Fuel Properties
Both building blocks of fatty esters, the fatty acid chain and
the alcohol moiety, influence biodiesel fuel properties and
varying either can lead to a change in fuel properties.
However, the varying fatty acid profiles of the feedstocks
used for biodiesel production are the main parameter cas-
ing changes in biodiesel fuel properties influenced by the
structure of fatty esters. The properties of biodiesel largely
influenced by the fatty ester profile are discussed here
briefly.
CH2-OH 2.5 Cetane Number and Combustion
The cetane number (CN) is a dimensionless descriptor
related to the ignition delay time a fuel experiences upon
injection into the combustion chamber of a diesel engine.
CH2-OH The higher the CN, the shorter the ignition delay time and
vice versa. A cetane scale using hydrocarbons has been
Glycerol
established with hexadecane being the high CN reference
compound (CN = 100). The CN is included in biodiesel
standards with prescribed minimum values of 47 (ASTM
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
D6751) and 51 (EN 14214). The CN of fatty esters
increases with increasing saturation and increasing chain
length [57, 58]. Accordingly, the CN of esters of palmitic
and stearic acids is [80 [56], the CN of methyl oleate is in
the range of 55–58, that of esters of linoleic acid around 40
and that of esters of linolenic acid around 25. Thus bio-
diesel fuels with high amounts of saturated fatty acids tend
to have higher CN while fuels with high amounts of
polyunsaturated fatty acid chains tend to have lower CN.
Increasing CN to a certain level (around 60) has been
brought into connection with decreasing NOx exhaust
emissions [59]. Effects of compound structure on regulated
exhaust emissions (besides NOx, these are particulate
matter, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide) similar to the
effect on CN have been observed [60, 61]. The CN of soy
methyl esters is in the range of 48–52 and that of rapeseed
(canola) methyl esters slightly higher in the range of
52–55, with biodiesel fuels derived from highly saturated
feedstocks displaying even higher CN.
2.6 Viscosity
Viscosity, in the form of kinematic viscosity, is specified in
biodiesel standards with the ranges being 1.9–6.0 mm2/s
(ASTM D6751) and 3.5–5.0 mm2/s (EN 14214). Since
viscosity increases with decreasing temperature, handling
of fuels at lower temperatures is facilitated by lower vis-
cosity. The viscosity of a fatty ester increases with
increasing chain length and increasing saturation [62].
However, only cis double bonds cause a noticeable
reduction of viscosity as esters with trans double bonds
display viscosity similar to their saturated counterparts
[62]. Typical values for kinematic viscosity are around
4.0–4.1 mm2/s for soy methyl esters and 4.4 mm2/s for
rapeseed (canola) methyl esters.
2.7 Oxidative Stability
The presence of double bonds in the chains of unsaturated
esters contained in biodiesel is the structural cause why
biodiesel is susceptible to autoxidation, i.e., reaction with
oxygen in air. The allylic CH2 positions in the fatty acid
chains are those susceptible to oxidation with the bis-allylic
positions in polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic
acid and linolenic acid being even more prone to autoxi-
dation. Thus, the autoxidation of unsaturated fatty com-
pounds proceeds with different rates depending on the
number and position of double bonds. The species formed
during the oxidation process cause the fuel to eventually
deteriorate. Relative rates of oxidation given in the litera-
ture [63, references therein] are 1 for oleates (methyl, ethyl
esters), 41 for linoleates, and 98 for linolenates. Thus,
biodiesel fuels with higher unsaturation tend to have lower
717
oxidative stability and vice versa, although a number of
other factors influence oxidative stability considerably.
Factors promoting oxidation are the presence of air, light,
elevated temperatures and presence of extraneous materi-
als. Oxidative stability is addressed in biodiesel standards
by the EN 14112 standard (so-called ‘‘Rancimat’’), which
prescribes a minimum induction time of 3 h (ASTM
D6751) or 6 h (EN 14214) for a sample subjected to its
conditions. The European biodiesel standard contains some
specifications that are also related to oxidative stability,
namely the iodine value, which is a problematic inclusion
[64], content of linolenic esters and content of esters with
more than three double bonds.
2.8 Cold Flow
The low-temperature properties of biodiesel are also
influenced by the properties of the individual components.
The melting points of fatty esters generally increase with
chain length (although chains with odd numbers of carbons
have slightly lower melting points that the preceding even-
numbered chain) and increasing saturation. Thus mixtures
such as biodiesel exhibit melting ranges, which is reflected
in the specifications used in biodiesel standards. The cloud
point (CP) is the temperature at which the first solids
appear in a fuel but the fuel can still flow, although these
solids can lead to fuel filter plugging [65]. The pour point
(PP), usually a few degrees below the cloud point, is the
temperature at which the fuel can no longer be freely
poured. Several other methods exist for determining the
low-temperature properties of biodiesel, which are the cold
filter plugging point (CFPP) and low-temperature flow test
(LTFT) [65]. The cloud point and CFPP are included in
biodiesel standards but are ‘‘soft’’ specifications, the CP in
ASTM D6751 requiring a report and the CFPP in EN
14214 varying with time of year and geographic location.
Typical values for the CP of soy-based methyl esters are
approximately 0 °C and -3 °C for rapeseed (canola)-
derived methyl esters, while methyl esters fuels with high
contents of saturated fatty acid chains (palm oil-, waste
cooking oil-, animal fat-derived) can have CP of around
15 °C or even slightly higher. That alternative feedstocks
as discussed above do not necessarily address the issue of
fuel properties is shown jatropha-derived biodiesel which
has a higher content of saturated fatty esters than soybean
oil [12] and thus poorer low temperature properties. Esters
derived from ethanol, iso-propanol or other branched
alcohols tend to have lower CP.
2.9 Lubricity
The advent of low-sulfur petrodiesel fuels and, more
recently, ultra-low sulfur diesel fuels (ULSD) as required
123
718
by regulations in the United States, Europe and elsewhere,
has led to failure of engine parts such as fuel injectors and
pumps as they are lubricated by the fuel itself. The poor
lubricity of low-sulfur petrodiesel fuels requires additiza-
tion or blending with another fuel of sufficient lubricity to
regain lubricity [66]. Biodiesel, which has inherently high
lubricity, restores lubricity to such low-lubricity diesel
fuels at blend levels of about 2% and higher [67, references
therein]. Lubricity is not specified in biodiesel standards
but is one of the major technical advantages of biodiesel.
2.10 Minor Constituents
Minor constituents can have significant effects on biodiesel
properties as briefly summarized here. An example is the
mono- and diacylglycerols of saturated fatty acids
increasing the cloud point of methyl soyate in concentra-
tions as low as 0.1% [68]. On the other hand, monona-
cylglycerols (and free fatty acids) possess excellent
lubricity and are likely to a large part responsible for the
lubricity of low-level blends of biodiesel with petrodiesel
[67]. As another example, recently sterol glucosides (SG),
which have high melting points ([240 °C) and limited
solubility in biodiesel, have been identified as a cause of
precipitates forming when storing biodiesel in the cold or
sometimes even at ambient temperature [69–71]. Minor
constituents influencing biodiesel fuel properties may exist
in biodiesel made from all feedstocks, including alternative
feedstocks.
2.11 Improvement of Biodiesel Fuel Properties
The technical problems associated with the use of biodiesel
have spurred research regarding the improvement of bio-
diesel properties. Oleic acid enrichment with linoleic acid
as the secondary fatty acid has been suggested with the
additional aspect that such a fatty acid composition has
useful organoleptic properties [72]. Optimized biodiesel
compositions have been discussed with esters of palmito-
leic acid and, if saturated fatty acids are preferred, decanoic
acid offering advantages [73]. Biodiesel derived from
cuphea oil enriched in decanoic acid possesses improved
properties including lower CP of -9 to -10 °C [74]. The
genetic engineering of crops to enrich medium-chain fatty
acids has been discussed [75]. Biodiesel from field pen-
nycress oil with a fatty acid profile consisting mainly of
erucic acid and C18:1 unsaturated fatty acids also exhibited
a lower CP of -10 °C [76]. Overall, five approaches have
been identified for improving the fuel properties of bio-
diesel [77]. These approaches are (A) the use of additives,
(B) use of esters other than methyl, and changing the fatty
acid profile by (C) either physical procedures, (D) genetic
modification or (E) utilizing feedstocks with inherently
123
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
differently fatty acid profiles. An approach taking fuel
properties but also the economic and political consider-
ations briefly addressed in the present article has been
discussed [78]. Algae can be modified to increase lipid
production [79, 80]. The fatty acid profiles of various algal
species have been reported [10]. The fatty acid profile of
the algae can apparently be tailored depending on various
parameters employed for their cultivation. Recently,
microbiological approaches to biodiesel fuels with modi-
fied fatty ester profiles have been reported and that do not
use classical lipid feedstocks, using carbohydrates instead
[81–84].
In conclusion, current research activities regarding bio-
diesel emphasize several areas. These include new feed-
stock development, improvement of biodiesel properties,
and biodiesel production as well as others (for example,
exhaust emissions) not discussed here. These issues can be
strongly intertwined.
Disclaimer Product names are necessary to report factually on
available data; however, the USDA neither guarantees nor warrants
the standard of the product, and the use of the name by USDA implies
no approval of the product to the exclusion of others that may also be
suitable.
References
1. Mittelbach M, Remschmidt C (2004) Biodiesel––the compre-
hensive handbook. M Mittelbach, Graz, Austria
2. Knothe G, Van Gerpen J, Krahl J (eds) (2005) The biodiesel
handbook. AOCS Press, Champaign, IL
3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard
D6751. Standard specification for biodiesel fuel blend stock
(B100) for middle distillate fuels. ASTM, West Conshohocken,
PA
4. Sims REH (1985) Tallow esters as an alternative diesel fuel.
Trans ASAE 28:716–721
5. Zheng D, Hanna MA (1996) Preparation and properties of methyl
esters of beef tallow. Bioresour Technol 57:137–142
6. Nye MJ, Williamson TW, Deshpande S, Schrader JH, Snively
WH, Yurkewich TP, French CL (1983) Conversion of used frying
oil to diesel fuel by transesterification: preliminary tests. J Am Oil
Chem Soc 60:1598–1601
7. Kulkarni MG, Dalai AK (2006) Waste cooking oil––an eco-
nomical source for biodiesel: a review. Ind Eng Chem Res
45:2901–2913
8. Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv
25:294–306
9. Schenk PM, Thomas-Hall SR, Stephens E, Marx UC, Mussgnug
JH, Posten C, Kruse O, Hankamer B (2008) Second generation
biofuels: high-efficiency microalgae for biodiesel production.
Bioenergy Res 1:20–43
10. Hu Q, Sommerfeld M, Jarvis E, Ghirardi M, Posewitz M, Seibert
M, Darzins A (2008) Microalgal triacylglycerols as feedstocks for
biofuel production: perspectives and advances. Plant J 54:621–
639
11. Lardon L, Hélias A, Sialve B, Steyer JP, Bernard A (2009) Life-
cycle assessment of biodiesel production from microalgae.
Environ Sci Technol 43:6475–6481
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
12. Foidl N, Foidl G, Sanchez M, Mittelbach M, Hackel S (1996)
Jatropha Curcas L. as a source for the production of biofuel in
Nicaragua. Bioresour Technol 58:77–82
13. Wood P (2005) Out of Africa. Could Jatropha be Europe’s bio-
diesel feedstock? Refocus 6:40–44
14. Berchmans HJ, Hirata S (2008) Biodiesel production from crude
Jatropha curcas L. seed oil with a high content of free fatty acids.
Bioresour Technol 99:1716–1721
15. European Committee for Standardization. Standard EN 14214.
Automotive fuels––fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for diesel
engines––requirements and test methods
16. Diesel R (1913) Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors. Verlag von
Julius Springer, Berlin
17. Diesel R (1912) The diesel oil-engine. Engineering 93:395–406
18. Knothe G (2001) Historical perspectives on vegetable oil-based
diesel fuel. INFORM 12:1103–1107
19. Chavanne CG (1937) Procédé de transformation d’huiles végé-
tales en vue de leur utilisation comme carburants (Procedure for
the transformation of vegetable oils in view of their use as fuels).
Belgian Patent BE 422,877, 31 Aug 1937
20. van den Abeele M (1942) Palm oil as raw material for the
production of a heavy motor fuel (L’huile de palme. Matière
première pour la préparation d’un carburant lourd utilisable
dans les moteurs à combustion interne) Bull Agr Congo Belge
33:3–90
21. Chavanne G (1942) Sur un mode d’utilisation possible de l’huile
de palme à la fabrication d’un carburant lourd. (A method of
possible utilization of palm oil for the manufacture of a heavy
fuel) Bull Soc Chim 19:52–58
22. Bruwer JJ, van d Boshoff B, Hugo FJC, Fuls J, Hawkins C, van
der Walt AN, Engelbrecht A, du Plessis LM (1980) The utiliza-
tion of sunflower seed oil as a renewable fuel for diesel engines.
Nat Energy Symp, ASAE, Kansas City, MO
23. Bruwer JJ, van d Boshoff B, Hugo FJC, du Plessis LM, Fuls J,
Hawkins C, van der Walt AN, Engelbrecht A (1980) Sunflower
seed oil as an extender for diesel fuel in agricultural tractors.
Symp S Afr Inst Agricult Eng
24. Freedman B, Pryde EH, Mounts TL (1984) Variables affecting
the yields of fatty esters from transesterified vegetable oils. J Am
Oil Chem Soc 61:1638–1643
25. Wicke B, Dornburg V, Junginger M, Faaij A (2008) Different
palm oil production systems for energy purposes and their
greenhouse gas implications. Biomass Bioenergy 32:1322–
1337
26. Yee KF, Tan KT, Abdullah AZ, Lee KT (2009) Life cycle
assessment of palm biodiesel: revealing facts and benefits and
sustainability. Appl Energy 86:S189–S196
27. Crutzen PJ, Mosier AR, Smith KA, Winiwarter W (2008) N2O
Release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming
reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmos Chem Phys Discuss
7:11191–11205; Atmos Chem Phys Discuss 8:389–395
28. Hill J, Nelson E, Tilman D, Polasky S, Tiffany D (2006) Envi-
ronmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of bio-
diesel and ethanol biofuels. Proc Nat Acad Sci 103:11206–11210
29. Huo H, Wang M, Bloyd C, Putsche V (2009) Life cycle assess-
ment of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of soybean-
derived biodiesel and renewable fuels. Environ Sci Technol
43:750–756
30. Williams PRD, Inman D, Aden A, Heath GA (2009) Environ-
mental and sustainability factors associated with next-generation
biofuels in the U.S.: what do we really know? Environ Sci
Technol 43:4763–4775
31. Frondel M, Peters J (2007) Biodiesel: a new oildorado? Energy
Policy 35:1675–1684
32. National Biodiesel Board. http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuel
factsheets/Production_Capacity.pdf, http://www.biodiesel.org/
719
pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production_Graph_Slide.pdf. Accessed 2
Nov 2009
33. European Biodiesel Board. http://www.ebb-eu.org/stats.php,
http://www.ebb-eu.org/prev_stats_production.php. Accessed 2
Nov 2009
34. Canakci M, Van Gerpen J (1999) Biodiesel production via acid
catalysis. Trans ASAE 42:1203–1210
35. Gutsche B (1997) Technology of methyl ester production and its
application to biofuels. (Technologie der Methylesterherstellung -
Anwendung für die Biodieselproduktion). Fett/Lipid 99:418–427
36. Schuchardt U, Serchelt R, Vargas RM (1998) Transesterification
of vegetable oils: a review. J Braz Chem Soc 9:199–210
37. Ma F, Hanna MA (1999) Biodiesel production: a review. Bior-
esour Technol 70:1–15
38. Fukuda H, Kondo A, Noda H (2001) Biodiesel fuel production by
transesterification of oils. J Biosci Bioeng 92:405–416
39. Haas MJ, Piazza GJ, Foglia TA (2002) Enzymatic approaches to the
production of biodiesel fuels. In: Kuo TM, Gardner HW (eds) Lipid
biotechnology. Marcel Dekker, New York, Basel, pp 587–598
40. Shah S, Sharma S, Gupta MN (2003) Enzymatic transesterifica-
tion for biodiesel production. Ind J Biochem Biophys 40:392–399
41. Nakazono Y (2003) Production technology for biodiesel fuels
(Article in Japanese). Eco Indus 8:43–53
42. Bondioli P (2004) The preparation of fatty acid esters by means
of catalytic reactions. Top Catal 27:77–82
43. Hoydonckx HE, De Vos DE, Chavan SA, Jacobs PA (2004)
Esterification and transesterification of renewable chemicals. Top
Catal 27:83–96
44. Lotero E, Liu Y, Lopez DE, Suwannakarn K, Bruce DA, Good-
win JG Jr (2005) Synthesis of biodiesel via acid catalysis. Ind
Eng Chem Res 44:5353–5363
45. Meher LC, Sagar DV, Nail SN (2006) Technical aspects of
biodiesel production by transesterification––a review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 10:248–268
46. Mbaraka IK, Shanks BH (2006) Conversion of oils and fats using
advanced mesoporous heterogeneous catalysts. J Am Oil Chem
Soc 83:79–91
47. Lotero E, Goodwin JG Jr, Bruce DA, Suwannakarn K, Liu Y,
Lopez DE (2006) The catalysis of biodiesel synthesis. Catalysis
19:41–83
48. Marchetti JM, Miguel VU, Errazu AF (2007) Possible methods
for biodiesel production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 11:1300–
1311
49. Behzadi S, Farid MM (2007) Review: examining the use of
different feedstock for the production of biodiesel. Asia-Pacific J
Chem Eng 2:480–486
50. Al-Zuhair S (2007) Production of biodiesel: possibilities and
challenges. Biofuels Bioprod Bioref 1:57–66
51. Akoh CC, Chang S-W, Lee G-C, Shaw J-F (2007) Enzymatic
approach to biodiesel production. J Agric Food Chem 55:8995–
9005
52. Ranganathan SV, Lakshmi Narasimhan S, Muthukumar K (2008)
An overview of enzymatic production of biodiesel. Bioresour
Technol 99:3975–3981
53. Nikiema J, Heitz M (2008) Biodiesel. II. Production––a synthesis
(Le biodiesel. II. Production––une synthèse). Can J Civil Eng
35:107–117
54. Nielsen PM, Brask J, Fjerbaek L (2008) Enzymatic biodiesel
production: technical and economical considerations. Eur J Lipid
Sci Technol 110:692–700
55. Di Serio M, Tesser RL, Pengmei L, Santacesaria E (2008) Het-
erogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production. Energy Fuels
22:207–217
56. Fjerbaek L, Christensen KV, Norddahl B (2009) A review of the
current state of biodiesel production using enzymatic transeste-
rification. Biotechnol Bioeng 102:1298–1315
123
720
57. Harrington KJ (1986) Chemical and physical properties of veg-
etable oil esters and their effect on diesel fuel performance.
Biomass 9:1–17
58. Knothe G, Matheaus AC, Ryan TW III (2003) Cetane numbers of
branched and straight-chain fatty esters determined in an ignition
quality tester. Fuel 82:971–997
59. Ladommatos N, Parsi M, Knowles A (1996) The effect of fuel
cetane improver on diesel pollutant emissions. Fuel 75:8–14
60. McCormick RL, Graboski MS, Alleman TL, Herring AM (2001)
Impact of biodiesel source material and chemical structure on
emissions of criteria pollutants from a heavy-duty engine. Envi-
ron Sci Technol 35:1742–1747
61. Knothe G, Sharp CA, Ryan TW III (2006) Exhaust emissions of
biodiesel. Petrodiesel, neat methyl esters, and alkanes in a new
technology engine. Energy Fuels 20:403–408
62. Knothe G, Steidley KR (2005) Kinematic viscosity of biodiesel
fuel components. influence of compound structure and compari-
son to petrodiesel fuel components. Fuel 84:1059–1065
63. Frankel EN (2005) Lipid oxidation, 2nd edn. The Oily Press, PJ
Barnes & Associates, Bridgwater, England
64. Knothe G (2002) Structure indices in FA Chemistry. How rele-
vant is the iodine value? J Am Oil Chem Soc 79:847–854
65. Dunn RO, Bagby MO (1995) Low-temperature properties of
triglyceride-based diesel fuels: transesterified methyl esters and
petroleum middle distillate/ester blends. J Am Oil Chem Soc
72:895–904
66. Lacey PI, Westbrook SR (1995) Diesel fuel lubricity. SAE
Technical Paper Series 950248
67. Knothe G, Steidley KR (2005) Lubricity of components of bio-
diesel and petrodiesel. The origin of biodiesel lubricity. Energy
Fuels 19:1192–1200
68. Yu L, Lee I, Hammond EG, Johnson LA, Van Gerpen JH (1998)
The influence of trace components on the melting point of methyl
soyate. J Am Oil Chem Soc 75:1821–1824
69. Bondioli P, Cortesi N, Mariani C (2008) Identification and
Quantification of steryl glucosides in biodiesel. Eur J Lipid Sci
Technol 110:120–126
70. Moreau RA, Scott KM, Haas MJ (2008) The identification of
steryl glucosides in precipitates from commercial biodiesel. J Am
Oil Chem Soc 85:761–770
71. Van Hoed V, Zyaykina N, De Greyt W, Maes J, Verhé R,
Demeestere K (2008) Identification and occurrence of steryl
glucosides in palm and soy biodiesel. J Am Oil Chem Soc 85:
701–709
123
Top Catal (2010) 53:714–720
72. Bringe NA (2005) Soybean oil composition for biodiesel. In:
Knothe G, Van Gerpen J, Krahl J (eds) The biodiesel handbook.
AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, pp 161–164
73. Knothe G (2008) ‘‘Designer’’ biodiesel: optimizing fatty ester
composition to improve fuel properties. Energy Fuels 22:1358–
1364
74. Knothe G, Cermak SC, Evangelista RL (2009) Cuphea oil as
source of biodiesel with improved fuel properties caused by high
content of methyl decanoate. Energy Fuels 23:1743–1747
75. Dehesh K (2001) How can we genetically engineer oilseed crops
to produce high levels of medium-chain fatty acids? Eur J Lipid
Sci Technol 103:688–697
76. Moser BR, Knothe G, Vaughn SF, Isbell TA (2009) Production
and evaluation of biodiesel from field pennycress (Thlaspi ar-
vense L.). Oil Energy Fuels 23:4149–4155
77. Knothe G (2009) Improving biodiesel fuel properties by modi-
fying fatty ester composition. Energy Environ. Sci. 2:759–766
78. Pinzi S, Garcia IL, Lopez-Gimenez FJ, Luque de Castro MD,
Dorado G, Dorado MP (2009) The ideal vegetable oil-based
biodiesel composition: a review of social. Economical and
technical implications. Energy Fuels 23:2325–2341
79. Roessler PG, Brown LM, Dunahay TG, Heacox DA, Jarvis EE,
Schneider JC, Talbot SG, Zeiler KG (1994) Genetic engineering
approaches for enhanced production of biodiesel fuel from mic-
roalgae. ACS Symp Ser 566:255–270 (Enzymatic conversion of
biomass for fuels production)
80. Dunahay TG, Jarvis EE, Dais SS, Roessler PG (1996) Manipu-
lation of microalgal lipid production using genetic engineering.
Appl Biochem Biotechnol 57–58:223–231
81. Kalscheuer R, Stölting T, Steinbüchel A (2006) Microdiesel:
Escherichia coli engineered for fuel production. Microbiology
152:2529–2536
82. Keasling JD, Hu Z, Somerville C, Church G, Berry D, Friedman
L, Schirmer A, Brubaker S, del Cardayré SB (2007) Production
of fatty acids and derivatives thereof, WO/2007/136762,
November 29, 2007. http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?WO=
2007136762
83. Wackett LP (2008) Biomass to fuels via microbial transforma-
tions. Curr Opin Chem Biol 12:187–193
84. Stöveken T, Steinbüchel A (2008) Bacterial acyltransferases as
an alternative for lipase-catalyzed acylation for the production of
oleochemicals and fuels. Angew Chem Int Ed 47:3688–3694