Explain the need for a project plan?

Management is an essential process in accomplishing things in an organized manner that’s why in every activity;
project management planning should be done. Managing project plan involves a lot of activities and manpower. A
It needs collaborative effort and sharing of ideas. A There’s a need to manage project plan because it determines
how the project should be done. A If project management planning is not well-thought of, everything would be put
to waste. All the efforts, money, and time would never return again upon investing in a project management plan
that failed. Project plan needs to be managed well. A The reasons would be countless why there is a need so but
below are list of widely-accepted reasons why project plan should be managed.
1. A Project management planning clearly defines what actions to be undertaken in the accomplishment of the
project.
2. It estimates the time required for a project to finish through the time management plan.
3. It gives rough calculation on the expenses involved in the project by having a financial plan.
4. It identifies possible risks during the course of the project and makes preparations in case those risks may happen
through the risk management plan.
5. It helps avoid duplication of resources tasks, and labor by giving everyone a clear idea of their respective role in
the project.
6. It coordinates multiple resources within time and cost restraints almost accurately.
7. It also makes things faster by assigning appropriate roles to specific resources and people.
8. It gives a clear detail on the standards of the projects and what should be expected from the project through
quality management plan. .
9. It gives detailed information of every task – who should do the assignment, what task should be prioritized, when
should the task be accomplished.
10. A Project management planning also gives the project’s objective to be achieved and sets the scope of the
project to focus only on a certain goal.

production system
A production system (or production rule system) is a computer program typically used to provide some form of
artificial intelligence, which consists primarily of a set of rules about behavior. These rules, termed productions, are
a basic representation found useful in automated planning, expert systems and action selection. A production system
provides the mechanism necessary to execute productions in order to achieve some goal for the system. . A
production system also contains a database, sometimes called working memory, which maintains data about current
state or knowledge, and a rule interpreter. The rule interpreter must provide a mechanism for prioritizing
productions when more than one is triggered.
Explain the need of forecasts in operations.
In view of the inherent accuracies in the process of forecasting there arises the question why is forecasting
necessary? The answer is that all organizations operate in an atmosphere of uncertainty but decisions have to be
made today that affects the future of the organization. Educated guesses about the future are more valuable than
uneducated guesses. There are various ways of making forecasts that rely on logical methods of manipulating data
that have been generated by historical events. However, it is also important to note that judgment, common sense
and intuition play s a part in the real world in forecasting process and the mix of qualitative and quantitative
techniques used in forecasting methods and techniques. The need for forecasting also arises because in this decade
of rapid changes in technology, government involvement in the economy, social and political changes it is necessary
to predict the macro and micro changes as accurately as possible to survive and grow in a dynamic and uncertain
world.
Material requirements planning: - Material requirements planning (MRP) is a production planning and inventory
control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software-based, while it is possible
to conduct MRP by hand as well. An MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives:
*Ensure materials are available for production and products are available for delivery to customers.
*Maintain the lowest possible level of inventory.
*Plan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules and purchasing activities.
Inventory optimization:-In general inventory associated with the stock of finished goods and materials lying in the
store for supply. With continuing production and distribution inventory issue become an important part as through
inventory it is possible to keep balance between the demand and supply of goods in the market. Inventory
optimization, on the other hand, refers to the absence of both un necessary stock or accusive stock which may lead
to wastages investments and goods and shortage of stores to meet the demand of the market. Inventory optimization
is an important approach from the part of the operation manager as because it can help in continuing the attachment
with all the dealers and customers in the supply chain and thus increase the satisfaction of customers.
Define Slack?
In project management, float or slack is the amount of time that a task in a project network can be delayed without
causing a delay to: subsequent tasks (free float), project completion date (total float).
Explain the taxonomy of project?
There are various criteria we could use to classify project: by total budget, project duration, risk business value, team
size, or some combination of them. For the purpose of matching project manager and team members with the type of
project team they are qualified to join, we will use a classification based on the technical and business environments
that characterize the project. Graphically displays the classification scheme.Given a project, the process summarized
in the complexity assessment matrix measures as many as 40characteristics to map the project into two dimensions:
business environment and technical environment. At least conceptually a typical project can then be plotted as a data
point on the complexity assessment matrix. The data point will fall into one of four regions on the matrix. Starting
from the simplest situation, Type IV projects have low business value and use well-established technology. In fact,
they are projects that may have repeated themselves several times and have become rather routine. Type II projects;
on the other hand, may be using new or complex technologies even though the business value may be low or
moderate. Type III projects are characterized by high business value even though they may have low or moderate
technical complexity. These projects are therefore distinguished from the other two by their high business context.
Type I projects bear all the characteristics of Type II and Type III projects. That is, they use complex technogies and
have high business value. They are the most demanding of the four types and are often mission-critical as well.

Advantages of network analysis:-network analysis is one of the tool which can be used in project management and
helpful in finding out different activities to be completed by an individual in an orderly manner. It Has some
Advantages like:-
1. It is helpful in translating even a complex projects into a set of simple and logical arranged activities through
network diagram.
2. It is also helpful in isolating all those activities which are contributory to the project completion.
3. It is a gain advantageous in taking follow up action and expediting the implication of project in accordance with
the objective.
4. Another important advantage of network analysis is through its different problems can be scanned and foreseen
before hand in the process of actual execution of the project.
What do you mean by aggregate planning? Why it is required.
Aggregate planning is the process of planning the quantity and timing of Operation Planning over the intermediate
time. In the intermediate range time the production planning is termed as aggregate planning. The aggregate
planning is made within the broad frame ware of the long range plan. Aggregate planning is an operational activity
which does an aggregate plan for the production process in advance of 2-18months to give an idea to management as
to what quantity of materials and other resources are to be procured and when, so that the total cost of operation of
the organization is kept to the minimum over the period.
Aggregate planning ,in many cases works on the bans for estimation of material required to continue production of a
manufacturing enterprise .If one consider the rationality of it or like to answer why it is required than he or she
console himself/herself by taking into account the following benefits of it.
1. To get an idea in advance about the quality of materials and other resources required to continue the operation.
2. To estimate about the quality of material required in advance.
3. To have an idea about the time schedule for providing materials and other resources at the appropriate time and
the sequence.
4. To help the management in cutting down the total cost of operation s by identifying the requirement of material
sources etc.
5. It is also required to finalize the number of human resources required to maintain and continue operations in the
given period of time in advance.
6. Aggregate planning is also necessary for taking decisions about the stock to be held by the firm for smooth
conducting production and operation of the firm.
Thus, aggregate planning is required to gain many benefits arise out of it and it is regarded as one of the
requirements planning.

Explain the tools used in project planning/Project manager?

The four commonly used tools in project planning and project management, namely: Brainstorming, Fishbone
Diagrams, Critical Path Analysis Flow Diagrams, and Gantt Charts.
1. Brainstorming:-Brainstorming is usually the first crucial creative stage of the project management and project
planning process. See the brainstorming method in detail and explained separately, because it many other useful
applications outside of project management. Unlike most project management skills and methods, the first stages of
the brainstorming process is ideally a free-thinking and random technique. Consequently it can be overlooked or
under-utilized because it not a natural approach for many people whose mains strengths are in systems and
processes. Consequently this stage of the project planning process can benefit from being facilitated by a team
member able to manage such a session, specifically to help very organized people to think randomly and creatively.
2. Fishbone diagrams:- Fishbone diagrams are chiefly used in quality management fault-detection, and in business
process improvement, especially in manufacturing and production, but the model is also very useful in project
management planning and task management generally. Within project management fishbone diagrams are useful for
early planning, notably when gathering and organizing factors, for example during brainstorming. Fishbone
diagrams are very good for identifying hidden factors which can be significant in enabling larger activities,
resources areas, or parts of a process. Fishbone diagrams are not good for scheduling or showing interdependent
time-critical factors. Fishbone diagrams are also called 'cause and effect diagrams' and Ishikawa diagrams, after
Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-89), a Japanese professor specializing in industrial quality management and engineering who
devised the technique in the 1960s. Ishikawa's diagram became known as a fishbone diagram, obviously, because it
looks like a fishbone: A fishbone diagram has a central spine running left to right, around which is built a map of
factors which contribute to the final result (or problem).For each project the main categories of factors are identified
and shown as the main 'bones' leading to the spine.
3. project critical path analysis flow diagram :-'Critical Path Analysis' sounds very complicated, but it's a very
logical and effective method for planning and managing complex projects. A critical path analysis is normally
shown as a flow diagram, whose format is linear (organized in a line), and specifically a time-line.Critical Path
Analysis is also called Critical Path Method - it's the same thing - and the terms are commonly abbreviated, to CPA
and CPM. A commonly used tool within Critical Path Analysis is PERT (Program/Programme/Project Evaluation
and Review Technique) which is a specialized method for identifying related and interdependent activities and
events, especially where a big project may contain hundreds or thousands of connected elements.
4. Gantt charts:- Gantt Charts (commonly wrongly called gant charts) are extremely useful project management
tools. The Gantt Chart is named after US engineer and consultant Henry Gantt (1861-1919) who devised the
technique in the 1910s. Gantt charts are excellent models for scheduling and for budgeting, and for reporting and
presenting and communicating project plans and progress easily and quickly, but as a rule Gantt Charts are not as
good as a Critical Path Analysis Flow Diagram for identifying and showing interdependent factors, or for 'mapping'
a plan from and/or into all of its detailed causal or contributing elements.
What do you mean by service-oriented projects?
A service-oriented project management model adopts its philosophies from the professional
services arena. For example, traditional project management begins with a set of clear
requirements, at least in theory. Much like the professional services industry, SOPM begins
with a set of symptoms or ideas from which the project leadership can work with the client and other constituents to
derive requirements, which ultimately lead to design or service elements.
Suddenly, we begin to see project management more as a service to the client and their
Organization, much like a doctor first diagnosing and then prescribing treatment to a patient, with the assistance of
specialists as needed. This has major implications on the skills needed to manage and lead a project, just as it has
implications on the selection of the project team. As a result, subjects that was previously
only loosely (if at all) associated with project management, such as business acumen, talent
Management and innovation, come to the forefront. This also means that effective project management is no longer
just the role of the project manager.
How Does Resource Scheduling Tie to Project Priority?
Organizations often need to implement more than one project at a time with limited resources. Resource scheduling
allows managers to identify their resources to best apply them to areas where sufficient resources are not available
to complete multiple tasks at the same time.
*Starting Projects:-A project manager needs resources to start a project. When resources are limited, projects are
prioritized based on a set of criteria. The most important projects have the highest priority and start sooner than
projects with lower priority. Resource scheduling involves staggering start and finish dates to coincide with the
availability of resources.
*Project Risks:-Identifying and scheduling resources is integral to assessing a project's risks. Project activities are
identified and time lines for completion of these activities are estimated based on available resources. If other
projects are dependent on the same resources, these project activities need to be completed or disrupted before new
activities can begin. The risk associated with these delays is minimized when resources are scheduled to complete
higher priority project activities before starting other activities.
*Available Resources:-Scheduling highlights areas where resources are not available at the times needed for
completion of high priority projects. Organizations may start lower priority projects sooner if they can be completed
with available resources. Other projects that are higher priority may wait until resources, such as plant capacity or
skilled staff, are added.
Top 10 Qualities of a Project Manager
1. Inspires a Shared Vision:-An effective project leader is often described as having a vision of where to go and the
ability to articulate it. Visionaries thrive on change and being able to draw new boundaries. It was once said that a
leader is someone who "lifts us up, gives us a reason for being and gives the vision and spirit to change." Visionary
leaders enable people to feel they have a real stake in the project. They empower people to experience the vision on
their own.
2. Good Communicator:-The ability to communicate with people at all levels is almost always named as the second
most important skill by project managers and team members. Project leadership calls for clear communication about
goals, responsibility, performance, expectations and feedback.
3. Integrity:-One of the most important things a project leader must remember is that his or her actions, and not
words, set the modus operandi for the team. Good leadership demands commitment to, and demonstration of, ethical
practices. Creating standards for ethical behavior for oneself and living by these standards, as well as rewarding
those who exemplify these practices, are responsibilities of project leaders.
4. Enthusiasm:-Plain and simple, we don't like leaders who are negative - they bring us down. We want leaders
with enthusiasm, with a bounce in their step, with a can-do attitude. We want to believe that we are part of an
invigorating journey - we want to feel alive. We tend to follow people with a can-do attitude, not those who give us
200 reasons why something can't be done. Enthusiastic leaders are committed to their goals and express this
commitment through optimism.
5. Empathy:-What is the difference between empathy and sympathy? Although the words are similar, they are, in
fact, mutually exclusive. According to Norman Paul, in sympathy the subject is principally absorbed in his or her
own feelings as they are projected into the object and has little concern for the reality and validity of the object's
special experience. Empathy, on the other hand, presupposes the existence of the object as a separate individual,
entitled to his or her own feelings, ideas and emotional history.
6. Competence:- Leadership competence does not however necessarily refer to the project leader's technical
abilities in the core technology of the business. As project management continues to be recognised as a field in and
of itself, project leaders will be chosen based on their ability to successfully lead others rather than on technical
expertise, as in the past.
7. Ability to Delegate Tasks:-Trust is an essential element in the relationship of a project leader and his or her team.
You demonstrate your trust in others through your actions - how much you check and control their work, how much
you delegate and how much you allow people to participate.
8. Cool Under Pressure:-In a perfect world, projects would be delivered on time, under budget and with no major
problems or obstacles to overcome. But we don't live in a perfect world - projects have problems. A leader with a
hardy attitude will take these problems in stride. When leaders encounter a stressful event, they consider it
interesting, they feel they can influence the outcome and they see it as an opportunity.
9. Team-Building Skills:-A team builder can best be defined as a strong person who provides the substance that
holds the team together in common purpose toward the right objective.
10. Problem Solving Skills-:- Although an effective leader is said to share problem-solving responsibilities with the
team, we expect our project leaders to have excellent problem-solving skills themselves.

Reducing the project Duration Increases the Risk of being late. Explain?
The need for reducing the project duration occurs for many reasons such as imposed duration dates, time-to-market
considerations, incentive contracts, key resource needs, high overhead costs, or simply unforeseen delays. These
situations are very common in practice and are known as cost-time trade-off decisions. This chapter presented a
logical, formal process for assessing the implications of situations that involve shortening the project duration.
Crashing the project duration increases the risk of being late. How far to reduce the project duration from the normal
time toward the optimum depends on the sensitivity of the project network. A sensitive network is one that has
several critical or near-critical paths. Great care should be taken when shortening sensitive networks to avoid
increasing project risks. Conversely, insensitive networks represent opportunities for potentially large project cost
savings by eliminating some overhead costs with little downside risk. Alternative strategies for reducing project time
were discussed within the context of whether or not the project is resource limited. Project acceleration typically
comes at a cost of either spending money for more resources or compromising the scope of the project. If the latter
is the case, then it is essential that all relevant stakeholders be consulted so that everyone accepts the changes that
have to be made. One other key point is the difference in implementing time-reducing activities in the midst of
project execution versus incorporating them into the project plan. You typically have far fewer options once the
project is underway than before it begins. This is especially true if you want to take advantage of the new scheduling
methodologies such as fast-tracking and critical-chain. Time spent up front considering alternatives and developing
contingency plans will lead to time savings in the end.
What are the elements of an effective project vision? Why are they important?
Communicate: Visionary ideas are not worth very much floating around in someone’s head. Their important
qualities must be communicated.
Strategic Sense: Given the objectives, constraints, resources and opportunities available in the project, the vision
has to make strategic sense. In other words, the vision has to be realistic. Is the project do-able with what we are
given?
Passion: The project manager has to believe in the vision – not just announce it. If he doesn’t, how can he expect his
team to do the same?
Inspiration: The vision must inspire all who work on it. It must not be viewed as tedious or dull. Project members
should feel a sense of purpose – a reason for coming in to work other than just to earn a living.
What are the unique challenges to managing a virtual project team?
Interpersonal communications is dependent upon verbal/audible and gesture cues. These give us insights as to an
individual’s true motives and intentions. As human beings, we use these cues to establish trust and confidence
amongst ourselves. Virtual communication curtails many of these qualities. This is especially true for e-mail -- all
we have is script, nothing else. Videoconferencing is a step in the right direction but it is not the same as face-to-face
conversations. As the text aptly points out, “You can’t have a drink over the Internet.” Certain concepts such as
Personal and Relational currencies are cannot feasibly be accomplished on the Internet. In other words, family
outings or a barbecue with fellow team members is nearly impossible with the current state of technology. Another
problem, in an activity such as a conference, is trying to get everyone to meet at once. With the varying time zones
in the US and around the world, trying to find a common time frame is difficult.
Some tips to enhance virtual performance:
Try to include face-to-face meetings if possible: Perhaps the initial meeting of the project team can be such an
event. This will establish social ties crucial to the team’s coherence.
Keep team members constantly updated on project progress: Perhaps a website devote to the project’s progress.
Keep team members from vanishing: Use Internet scheduling software to keep all in touch with each other.
Establish a code to avoid delays: All team members should agree on what/when/how info will be shared and when
they will respond to it.
Establish clear norms and protocols for conflicts: Due to the absence of body language, project manager’s need to
be extra careful in determining the opinions/views expressed in e-mail communications. This may require going
over a message several times or asking the sender to clarify his/her meaning.
What can a project manager do to avoid some of the pitfalls of a highly cohesive project team?
Awareness of the particular varieties of pitfalls is the fist step in avoiding, eliminating or reducing the effects of
these issues. One manner of reducing the effects of a pitfall such as groupthink is for the project manager to initiate
connections to the “outside world.” The outside world is how some project members often think of the parent
organization (of which they are a part). Connections to the parent org occur naturally in matrix project teams;
however, dedicated project teams are isolated. This can be done by getting team members involved in meetings and
conferences of the parent organization. Another approach is for the project manager to bring in external specialists. I
think getting team members re-involved in the parent org is important towards the end of the project. This can ease
their transition to the “hum-drum” of their functional duties.
What is the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict on a project?
Functional: Conflict is essential to a project as it encourages debate and problem solving discussions. Sometimes,
the absence of conflict can cause problems. That is, project members may feel pressured by time, self-doubt, or a
dedication to keep the team harmonious. Hence, they may hold back their opinions/objections. The lack of opinions
can hurt the team effort, as not enough alternatives to solving problems are available. Project manager’s must
encourage “healthy dissent” so that the team can solve problems and become innovative. A way project manager’s
can initiate healthy dissent is to assign a team member to play devil’s advocate. It is important that the project
manager protects the opinions of ALL members even those with very different views.

Dysfunctional: While functional conflict helps the team achieve its goals, dysfunctional conflict can do the exact
opposite. Sometimes, conflicts arise between two team members, or between the team and one or two members, that
is difficult to resolve. This type of conflict can be characterized by irrational, personality disputes or when the
failure to dispute a conflict results in the delay of important project tasks. There is often no easy solution for
dysfunctional disputes. Some options the project manager has are:
Mediate the Conflict: Negotiate a resolution to the problem by listing alternatives.
Arbitrate the Conflict: A solution is imposed after hearing each party out. The goal is to have the project win, not a
particular party.
Control the Conflict: Reduce the tension by diverting attention away from the conflict issue – such as interjecting
humor. Or by calling a “time out”; perhaps, the conflict can be solved the following day.
Accept it: Just accept the conflict as a part of life and live with it (the level of acceptance will have to depend upon
the how distracting the conflict is)
Eliminate the conflict: The project manager can remove the members(s) involved in the conflict from the team.
Temporarily or permanently (if the reasons are sufficient). This should be the LAST option.

Who is a facilitator?
A facilitator is someone who helps a group of people understand their common objectives and assists them to plan to
achieve them without taking a particular position in the discussion. Some facilitator tools will try to assist the group
in achieving a consensus on any disagreements that preexist or emerge in the meeting so that it has a strong basis for
future action. The role has been likened to that of a midwife who assists in the process of birth but is not the
producer of the end result. According to Bens "One who contributes structure and process to interactions so groups
are able to function effectively and make high-quality decisions. A helper and enabler whose goal is to support
others as they achieve exceptional performance".

What is Principled Negotiation?

Principled negotiation is a concept that is based on the book Getting to Yes by Roger Fisher and Bill Ury. This
approach to negotiation focuses on the interests of the parties and emphasizes conflict management and conflict
resolution. Because the goal of principled negotiation is to find a mutually shared outcome, it is sometimes referred
to as “win-win”. This represents a very different approach from the stereotypical view of a tough negotiation where
one party will inevitably lose, while the other wins. (A win-win negotiation is one where the agreement cannot be
improved by further discussions. There is no value left on the table and all creative options have been thoroughly
explored.).
Describe the top-down budgeting process?
Top-down budgeting is an overall budgeting process that is based on, instead of building a budget from the bottom
up, an overall estimate that is made of the higher level tasks. Then those estimates of higher-level tasks are used to
set limits on the costs of lower-level tasks. Money funnels down from higher level tasks down to the lower level
tasks until all tasks that are necessary for a project are given funding. The budgeting process begins with overall
project managers. The estimate for a project or for a larger budget depends upon the experience and the judgment of
the manager or the managers who are in charge of coming up with an overall budget.
This experience and this judgment of the top managers who are in charge of coming up with the overall estimate is
key to the success and the accuracy of the particular budget. The manager or managers has to remember to keep in
mind high cost tasks that are minor but are still expensive, any time delays that might happen with the project,
problems with procuring supplies, and any other difficulties that might happen with the project. If the overall project
manager can't come up with an accurate budget, then lower-level managers and employees will find themselves
scrambling for money so that they can accomplish their tasks with not enough money. These types of problems can
lead to the downfall of the project, based on a lack of funding and lower morale and resentment among employees.
Generally speaking, top-down budgeting is seen to be a good way to approach budgeting. Many companies use
top-down budgeting because it is well designed and suited to traditional organizations that are structured along a
hierarchy. When top-down budgeting is done correctly and accurately, then it has a very high level of overall
accuracy. Also, because all aspects of the budget are included in the initial budget estimate, then there is a high level
of stability in terms of the amount of money that is given to each of the different tasks for a particular budget.
Six Sigma Project Selection.
Steps Involved In Six Sigma Project Selection
The steps that need to be taken in selecting a project for Six Sigma vary as per your line of business and the scale of
the operation. However, the whole scope of Six Sigma hinges on two key focal points, namely, 'total customer
satisfaction' and 'increased return on investment.' The steps may be formulated, keeping this in view.
1. Put The Customer First: Customer satisfaction being the first focal point, know the critical points to assure quality
to drive the project (VOC). Each individual customer has a different point of view about quality and the summation
of them can be the first point. Make use of the Pareto Chart for prioritizing the issues.
2. Projects Must Be In Line With Your Business: List the top three roadblocks faced by all the functional heads in
your organization. Ensure that the roadblocks are directly concerned with the business. This exercise prioritizes the
elimination of such obstacles by everyone.
3. A Good Project Must Be Manageable: A good, realistic project can be actually completed within a reasonable
time, say, 6 months. Prolonged projects risk loss of interest and start building frustrations within the team and all the
way around. The team also runs the risk of disintegrating.
4. Every Result Must Be Measurable And Tangible: Any project which can't be measured before and after its
completion has no value. Improvement in the bottom line, maximization of customer satisfaction or reduced burden
on employees will all be measurable and so will keep the team motivated throughout.
5. Defining The Desired Outcome: This starts by defining the defects first. This also helps keep checks on the project
in terms of process capability. This is one way of making the project measurable by progress.

What are the major tasks of a project management office?

The main tasks of the Project Management Office are as follows:-
1. Project Planning:-Project Planning may be undertaken by another entity – senior leadership or Sales – but we
fully believe that the PMO and the assigned PM should be an integral part of this process. Sadly, that is not always
the case. Project Planning involves the estimation of the size of the project and the timeframe and resources it will
demand. The outcome of the Project Planning activities are usually a price to the customer and a project that is ready
to be kicked off.
2. Project Scheduling:-The act of Project Scheduling – or creating a detailed project timeline – may actually
initially take place during the sales process as a way to show the customer that the organization understands the
undertaking and has the resources and the timeframe to perform the work. This is another reason why PM
involvement in the sales process is critical. In simple terms, Project Scheduling is the act of breaking the project
down into detailed tasks, mapping them out with a project scheduling tool such as ProjectOffice.net or MS Project
and setting milestones and performance indicators.
3. Risk Analysis:-Risk Analysis should be performed by the PM team – lead by the Project Manager – and
preferably with solid input, if not outright involvement from, the customer side project team. Risk Analysis is the act
of identify potential project risks based on known and anticipated factors, weighing their probabilities, identifying
possible risk mitigation actions, and putting them into some device or spreadsheet for on-going tracking purposes.
4. Project Tracking:-Project Tracking becomes the sole responsibility of the Project Manager. This involves on-
going weekly status reporting, leadership of weekly status meetings, monitoring and revising the detailed project
schedule/plan, monitoring the team’s execution against it, and all the necessary communication that makes those
tasks possible. The output of employees can be managed much easier through performance reviews, which can also
open better communication with managers. Project tracking can be made much easier by using workforce
management software, which can record how much time is being spent on each separate task.

Network analysis disadvantages?

• The device typically must be installed on the switch that carries the traffic to be monitored. Remote monitoring of
a network is often not practical over a busy WAN connection. This will limit the number of locations that can be
scanned. If your organization requires monitoring on a broad geographic scale, this may not be the right technology.

• The mechanism that copies switch traffic to the physical device can cause additional CPU load on the switch. That
additional load can lower the performance of routing, access control, or other CPU-intensive operations.

• There is limited visibility into vulnerabilities. Many of the vulnerabilities that can be detected with a host agent or
active, authenticated network scan cannot be detected by analyzing network traffic.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Accurate. Information on performance must be accurate. Evaluating the accuracy of the information they receive
is one of the most important control tasks that managers face.
2.Timely. Information must be collected, routed, and evaluated quickly if action is to be taken in time to produce
improvements.
3. Objective and Comprehensible. The information in a control system should be understandable and be seen as
objective by the individuals who use it. A difficult-to understand control system will cause unnecessary mistakes
and confusion or frustration among employees.
4. Focused on Strategic Control Points. The control system should be focused on those areas where deviations
from the standards are most likely to take place or where deviations would lead to the greatest harm.
5. Economically Realistic. The cost of implementing a control system should be less than, or at most equal to, the
benefits derived from the control system.
6. Organizational Realistic. The control system has to be compatible with organizational realities and all standards
for performance must be realistic.
7. Coordinated with the Organization's Work Flow. Control information needs to be coordinated with the flow of
work through the organization for two reasons: (1) each step in the work process may affect the success or failure of
the entire operation, (2) the control information must get to all the people who need to receive it.
8. Flexible. Controls must have flexibility built into them so that the organizations can react quickly to overcome
adverse changes or to take advantage of new opportunities.
9. Prescriptive and Operational. Control systems ought to indicate, upon the detection of the deviation from
standards, what corrective action should be taken.
10. Accepted by Organization Members. For a control system to be accepted by organization members, the
controls must be related to meaningful and accepted goals.

what are the important aspects of project planning?

Planning is just that, planning. What is the end product and how is the best way to get there? There are many aspects
of the project that needs to be addresses: cost, where is the financing coming from, location, material availability,
time, who is going to do what, permits, etc.
Simple example: I am going to bake a cake. Sounds easy. I get out my recipe, start putting ingredients in the bowl.
The last ingredient is an egg, I don’t have one in the house. Hopefully, planning will help take care of lots of basic
aspects of the project. There is always going to be things that come up that will have to be dealt with as they come.
TYPES OF PROJECT SELECTION MODELS
There are two types of project selection models- nonnumeric models and numeric
Models.
1. Nonnumeric models are as follows:
(a) The Sacred Cow: In this case the project is suggested by a senior or powerful
official in the organization. The project is sacred in the sense that it will be maintained
until successfully concluded, or until the boss, personally, recognizes the idea as a
failure and terminates it.
(b) The Operating Necessity: If a flood is threatening the plant, a project to build a
protective dike does not require much formal evaluation, in an example of this
scenario. If the project is required in order to keeps the system operating and if the
system worth saving the estimated cost of the project, project cost will be examined
to make sure they are kept as low as is consistent with project success, but the project
will be funded.
(c) The Competitive Necessity: Although the planning process for the project was
quite sophisticated, the decision to undertake the project was based on a desire to
maintain the company’s competitive position in the market.
(d) Product Line Extension: In this case, a project to develop and distribute new
products would be judge on the degree to which it fits the firm’s existing product line,
fills a gap, strengthens a weak line, or extends the line in a new, desirable direction.
(e) Comparative Benefit Model: For this situation assume that an organization has
many projects to consider. Senior manager would like to select a subset of the project
that would most benefit the firm, but the projects do not seem to be easily
comparable.

2. Numeric Models: Numeric models are classified into two heads these are
namely-(a) Profitability (b) Scoring.
(a) Profitability: These are as follows-
> Payback period: The payback period for a project is the final initial fixed
investment in the project divided by the estimated annual cash inflows from the
project.
>Average Rate of Return: The ARR is the ratio of the average annual profit to the
initial or average investment in the project.
>Net Present Value Method: It may be described as the summation of the PV of
cash inflow in each year minus the summation of PV of new cash out flows in each
year.
>Internal Rate of Return: It is the rate of results that a project earns. It is defined as
the discount rate (r) which makes NPV zero.
>Profitability Index: It is known as benefit- cost ratio, the PI is the net present
value of all future expected cash flows divided by the initial cash investment. If this
ratio is greater than 1.0, the project may be accepted.
(b) Scoring: The scoring models are as follows-
>Unweighted 0-1 Factor Model: A set of relevant factors is selected by
management and usually listed in a preprinted form. One or more rates score the
project on each factor, depending on whether or not it qualifies for an individual
criterion. The raters are chosen by senior managers.
>Unweighted Factor Scoring Model: The disadvantage of unweighted 0-1 factor
model helps to evaluate another model that is unweighted factor scoring model. Here
the use of a discrete numeric scale to represent the degree to which a criterion is
satisfied is widely accepted.
>Weighted Factor Scoring Model: When numeric weights the relative importance
of each individual factor are added, we have a weighted factor scoring model.

Discuss the limitation of project selection model

1. Comments on accounting data: Whether managers are familiar with
accounting systems or not, they can find it useful to reflect on the methods and
assumptions used in the preparation of accounting data. Among the most crucial are
the following:
> Accountants are live in a linear world. With few exceptions, cost and revenue data
are assumed to vary linearly with associated changes in inputs and outputs.
> The accounting system often provides cost-revenue information that is derived
from standard cost analysis and assumption regarding revenues. These standards may
or may not be accurate representations of the cost revenue structure.
2. Comments on measurement: If a performance characteristics cannot be
measured directly as a number, it may be useful to characterize cannot be measured
directly as a number, it may be useful to characterized performance verbally and then
through a word or equivalency scale use the numeric equivalents of verbal
characterizations as model inputs.
3.Comments on technological shock: If the parent organization is not
experienced in the type of the project being considered for selection, performance
measures such as time to installation, time to achieve 80% efficiency, cost to install
and the like are often underestimated. It is interesting to observe that an almost
certain immediate result of installing a new, cost-saving technology is that cost rise.

What is the difference between mitigating a risk and contingency planning?

Mitigating a risk refers to taking action to either reduce the likelihood that a risk (bad event) will happen and/or
reduce the impact the risk has on the project. Contingency planning is developing response if the risk occurs.
Mitigating is preventive while contingency is reactive.
Explain the difference between budget reserves and management reserves?.
Budget reserves are established to cover identified risks that occur while implementing a project work package or
activity. If the risk does not materialize, the funds are returned to the management reserve. The management
reserve covers unforeseen risks and applies to the total project. These reserves are usually controlled by top
management, the owner, and/or the project manager. Budget and management reserves are independent of each
other.
Project risks can/cannot be eliminated if the project is carefully planned. Explain.
Project risks cannot be eliminated. It is impossible to be aware of all things that might happen
when a project is being implemented. Undesirable events identified before the project begins
can be transferred, retained/reduced, or shared. Contingency plans with trigger points and
responsibility should be established before the project begins.

The Advantages of conducting Performance Reviews

1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement:-A performance

review is essentially a form of the good old carrot and a stick.
It allows employers to reward those performing well and
punish those that aren't doing so great. It also allows
management to address individual performance on a task-to-
task basis. For example, an employee's performance review
will evaluate various abilities and accomplishments with
results consisting of both positive and negative feedback,
depending on the tasks being evaluated.
2.Competition:-The ability to receive feedback also allows
employees to compete for feedback. Performance reviews are
essentially report cards or score cards, and even if they may
not be publicized among the employees, the knowledge of
them will give staff members the incentive to try to
outperform each other.

3.Feedback to Management:-Performance reviews may

often seem like a one-way street, but they really should not be,
and an effective manager will make the best use of them. A
performance review is a good time to learn from the employee
what works and what doesn't and what needs improvements.
When conducting reviews, be sure to allow employees to feel
free to speak their mind about different situations at the work
place.

Problems are encountered in Performance Reviews

1. The reviewer and employee have a personal friendship outside of work and both
individuals can't differentiate their manager-employee role from their friend-friend
relationship.
2. The reviewer and the employee see themselves as part of a team. Team members are
supposed to encourage one another, be supportive in good and bad times. But when the
manager has to provide negative feedback or discipline the employee, these actions are
viewed as divisive.
3. When not provided regularly, annual (or even less periodic) reviews can be based on
most recent performance, not performance over the course of the year. The results go
both ways. Employees who put on their best behavior around review time get favorable
ratings and the employee who has a bad couple of weeks gets punished.
4. Performance reviews are only scheduled when an employee is not performing up to
expectations or a company needs to terminate/lay-off the employee.
5. "You know nobody's perfect and there is always room for improvement." The manager
doesn't believe in rewarding an employee with a "10" (out of 10) even when he/she
deserves it. Some employers actually use a rating scale of 1 to 9 because no employee
deserves a 10 in their minds.
How to Overcome a Performance Review

1.Keep your cool when you receive a negative appraisal. Do not make a scene,
raise your voice or stalk out of the meeting.
2.Do not refuse to sign the appraisal form when the appraisal is complete. Your
signature does not signify that you agree with the appraisal, merely that the
appraisal meeting occurred.
3.Keep a record throughout the year that documents your accomplishments and
performance. Bring this information with you to the appraisal meeting.
4.Ask for an opportunity to meet again the correct any perceptions or mistakes in
your performance record. When you have this meeting, support your case with
objective information.
5.Let your boss know that you take responsibility for being a high-performing
employee. Let your boss know that you will make whatever changes that need to
be made.

What is a 360 performance review?

A 360 performance review is a formalized process where you receive feedback
from others (known as raters) who work with you. This is different to a more
traditional performance review where your direct supervisor provides the
feedback. Raters in a 360 performance review include your direct supervisor,
your peers and direct reports, and also your internal and your external customers.
Although a 360 performance review is used specifically for appraising
performance most 360 degree reviews are used for developmental purposes - i.e.
getting feedback on your strengths and weaknesses/developmental opportunities
and then using that information to develop your employee development plan.

Criteria of Project Selection Model

1. Realism: The model should reflect the reality of the manager’s decision solution,
Including the multiple objectives of both the firms and its managers. Without a
Common measurement system, direct comparison of different of different projects is
Impossible. The model should take into account the realities of the firm’s limitations
or facilities, capital, personnel etc.
2. Capability: The model should be sophisticated enough to deal with multiple time
Periods, simulate various situations both internal and external to the project and
optimize the decision. An optimizing model will make the comparisons that
Management deems important, consider major risks and constraints.
3. Flexibility: The model should have the ability to be easily modified or to be self adjusting
in response to changes in the firm’s environment. For example: tax laws
Changes, new technological advancements alter risk levels.
4. Ease of use: The model should be reasonably convenient, not take a long time to
execute and be easy to use and understand. It should not require special
Interpretation, data that are difficult to acquire, excessive personnel unavailable
equipment.
5. Cost: Data gathering and modeling costs should be low relative to the cost of the
project and must surely be less than the potential benefits of the project.
6. Easy computerization: It must be easy and convenient to gather and store the
Information in a computer database and to manipulate data in the model through use
Of a widely available, standard computer package.
What distinguishes a functional matrix from a project matrix?
The functional matrix approach is much like the dedicated functional approach (see above) except that there is a
project manager coordinating the project activities. The functional managers (functional managers) manage their
own portion of the project. The project manager is basically a “consultant” or assistant that has indirect authority
over the project. In other words, functional managers are the bosses and the project managers are the “second
bananas.”
In the project matrix, the situation is basically reversed. This approach tries to emulate the “feel” of the dedicated
project approach. The project manager calls most of the shots including which functional personnel will be assigned
to the project. The project manager has the final say on the major project decisions. The functional manager’s role is
limited; in some situations, the functional manager’s department can even act as a “sub-contractor” to the project.
Ex.: The project team may only complete the design/development of a high-tech product. Then, “sub-contract” the
functional production and marketing departments to produce and market the product.
What are the relative advantages/disadvantages to the functional, matrix, virtual and dedicated team
approaches?
Functional approaches
Advantages:
(a) Project follows the format/structure of the PARENT company or organization. So, the parent’s design does not
have to be seriously changed.
(b) Maximum flexibility of staff: people can be assigned to work on whatever projects needs to be done at any time,
regardless of their “native” positions. This provides for a diverse technical pool.
(c) If project scope is narrow and all the functional units have been appropriately assigned, then skills can be used to
efficiently complete the project.
(d) People’s careers will remain constant; they will always have a “home base” to return to.
Disadvantages:
(a) Lack of project focus is often an issue because people feel obligated to their functional responsibilities before
their project responsibilities. The difference in priorities of one unit can affect other units as well. That is, if
engineering feels obligated to their functional responsibilities before their project duties, and other units are waiting
on engineering before they can begin, then the project will be delayed.
(b) Functional units are not well integrated. Coordination/communication between the units is slow and inefficient.
Dedicated functional staff are only committed to their portion and not the project as a whole.
(c) Due to the reasons stated above, the project will take longer to complete.
(d) Low motivation of staff. Project can be seen as a burden, a distraction from their normal duties. So their
dedication to project goals is not as high as the other two approaches. Lack of ownership or identification with the
project are other causes for low motivation.
Matrix
Advantages:
(a) Resources utilization and people-skills in the organization is quite flexible: both the functional and project
manager play a role in who/what goes where. The degree to who has more control depends on which “grade” of
matrix this is: functional, balanced or project.
(b) Project can draw upon the entire bank of technology and skills of the functional divisions. Team members also
have a “home” to go to when project is finished.
(c) Focus of project is stronger than a purely functional approach since there is a dedicated project manager.
(d) Resources can be shared amongst the functional units and other projects. People can be tackle multiple projects
at the same time. This reduces cost – compared to the dedicated project team approach – as duplicate jobs are
eliminated.
Disadvantages:
(a) There can be a lot of tension between the functional managers and the project manager because they have to
work so closely together. There may be power struggles or differences in opinion. It’s a tricky situation.
(b) Sharing resources within the organization can be a cause of conflict or competition if the resources are hard to
come by.
(c) Project members have TWO bosses. This can be stressful if one tells you to do one thing and the other tells you
to do something different. Who do you obey?
(d) Due to the presence of “multiple functional groups”, the project manager can become overwhelmed by the
agreements between the groups.
Virtual approach - advantages
1. Companies are not limited to their in-house expertise and core competencies. They can outsource work to
companies that specialize in work that they need accomplished.
2. The most noteworthy is cost reduction…there is increased flexibility.
3. Coordination of professionals from different organizations can be challenging.
4. Virtual projects are more prone to interpersonal conflict since the different participants do not share the same
values, priorities, and culture.
Dedicated
Advantages:
(a) Does not disrupt operations of parent nor does it take away the parent org’s resources (other than special project-
only members)
(b) Strong, dedicated focus to the project. I.E., the project comes before anything else. The project manager has
much more freedom to control his/her team than in the other two approaches.
(c) Speed: projects are completed much more quickly due to the dedicated effort.
(d) High motivation and adhesion of staff members. They are all on the same boat and they stick together, offering
each other lots of support. There is a great deal of responsibility shown.
(e) High level of cross-functional integration. People with different types of skills commit themselves to help
optimize the project even though it may not be their area of expertise.
Disadvantages:
(a) A dedicated project team is more expensive to implement. This is due to the variety of new positions that have to
be filled as well as new resources required. There can be duplication of effort within the organization. That is, there
can be mechanical engineers for the functional departments and dedicated mech. engineers for the project.
(b) Projectitis: the we-they situation that may arise if project members start to feel disconnected (or discontent) with
the parent organization This situation can produce the “let-down” situation when the project is completed and the
team members have to return to their functional duties.
(c) Sometimes, the full range of technical competence needed for the project cannot be obtained (brought in from the
outside, such as from functional departments) due to the “closed” or “contained” nature (culture) of the project.
There is again the “we-they” syndrome. Team members want the credit to themselves.
(d) Where do the team members go after the project? In a functional or, perhaps, a matrix approach, they may have a
home to return to. This, as stated, can be an anti-climax to a, perhaps, very rewarding experience.

Why is a conductor of an orchestra an appropriate metaphor for being a project management? What aspects
of project managing are not reflected by this metaphor? Can you think of other metaphors that would be
appropriate?

There are many parallels between conducting an orchestra and managing a project. Conductors and project
managers integrate the contributions of others. Each is dependent upon the expertise and talents of others. They
facilitate performance rather than actually perform. Project managers orchestrate the completion of the project by
inducing participants to make the right decision at the right time. Both control the pace and intensity of work by
coordinating the involvement of players. Finally each has a vision of performance that transcends score or project
plan. The conductor metaphor works best in describing how a project manager interacts with project members to
complete the project. The metaphor fails to capture the intricacies of dealing with all of the project stakeholders
(government officials, contractors, top management, customers) that impact the project.
Other metaphors that emerge from class discussions include: quarterback, steering wheel and ship’s captain.
Difference between Project Management and Program Management
Project management is the act of creating plans and managing resources in order to accomplish a project. A project
is a scheduled undertaking for the purpose of creating a product or service. Program management, on the other hand,
is the act of creating and managing multiple projects, most of the projects are usually related to one another.
Project management is usually short-lived with specific time constraints while program management is an ongoing
process in order to achieve the goals and objectives.
The job of a project manager usually involves working on finite projects or objectives. The program manager works
more often with strategy.
A project management team works to identify the triple constraint of time, scope and cost of a project. Then, they
plan and report on the delivery of the project. While the project is being accomplished the triple constraint is
reviewed. At it’s close, the project management team will review and report on the accomplishment of the project.
A program management team works to identify the mission, projects to be accomplished, and it’s close. The team
provides support for the requirements of the projects. They monitor the program plan and keep track of information
within the specific projects. After the completion of the project, it is reviewed and documented.
List out The four C’s of project environment
The project environment may be summarized by the four Cs. These are:
Complexity; completeness; con-petitiveness; customer focus.
1. Complexity:- Not all tools, techniques and managcment ideas are universally applicable – the project that
takes one person a week to complete clearly has very different managerial requirements from the multi-site,
high-budget project. In order to provide meaningful consideration of the function of management in such a
variety of settings, a classification of the complexity will be applied. In general, there will be a
high correlation between the level of complexity of a project and the amount of resources required to manage
it. The level of complexity of an activity is a function of three features:
>organizational complexity - the number of people, departments, organisations, countries, languages, cultures
and time zones involved;
>resource complexity - the volume of resources involved often assessed through the budget of the project;
>technical complexity - the level of innovation involved in the product or the - project process, or novelty of
interfaces between different parts of that process or product.
Discuss the four fundamental issues for potential conflict during the project formation stage?
1. The technical objectives of the project must be specified to a degree that will allow the detailed planning of the
build up stage to be accomplished.
2. Commitment of resources to the project must be forthcoming from senior management and functional managers
3. The priority of the project relative to the priorities of the parent organization’s other projects, must be set and
communicated
4. The organizational structure of the project must be established to an extent sufficient for the action plan, WBS,
responsibility chart, and network activity diagram to be prepared.
Explain the four C’s of project management?

1. Clarity:-project managers and project teams that practice clarity are better equipped to succeed. Promoting a
culture of clarity requires active direction and support from top of the organization. If senior management is not
committed, there can be no clarity; the default scenario in that case is ambiguity and chaos.

2. Communication:-this was, in a way, too easy a common denominator to miss. Simple, yet very powerful.
Project managers, their stakeholders and their teams must appreciate and embrace the need for proper, timely,
concise and relevant communication.

3. Commitment:-One of the key roles of a project manager / leader is securing the commitment of the project team.
The project leader cannot do this until she has demonstrated the same level of commitment that is demanded and
required from the project team.

4. Credibility:-This goes hand-in-hand with trust.You cannot convey your arguments if you are not credible. You
cannot achieve credibility if your integrity is suspect. There are no short cuts to credibility.

Risk management:-Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO
31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives, whether positive or negative) followed by coordinated and
economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate
events or to maximize the realization of opportunities. Risks can come from uncertainty in financial markets,
project failures, legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters as well as deliberate attacks from
an adversary. Principles of risk management:- *create value,*Be an integral part of organizational processes, *Be
part of decision making,*explicitly address uncertainty,*be systematic and structured,*be based on the best available
information,*be tailored,*take into account human factors,*be transparent and inclusive,*be dynamic, iterative and
responsive to change,*be capable of continual improvement and enhancement.

Capacity planning:-Capacity planning is the process of determining the production capacity needed by an
organization to meet changing demands for its products. In the context of capacity planning, "capacity" is the
maximum amount of work that an organization is capable of completing in a given period of time. The phrase is also
used in business computing as a synonym for Capacity Management. A discrepancy between the capacity of an
organization and the demands of its customers results in inefficiency, either in under-utilized resources or unfulfilled
customers. The goal of capacity planning is to minimize this discrepancy. Demand for an organization's capacity
varies based on changes in production output, such as increasing or decreasing the production quantity of an existing

Layout planning:-'layout planning' can be applied at various levels of planning: Plant location planning (where you
are concerned with location of a factory or a warehouse or other facility.) This is of some importance in design of
multi-nationally cooperating, Global-supply Chain systems. Department location Planning: This deal with the
location of different departments or sections within a plant/factory. This is the problem we shall study in a little
more detail, below. Machine location problems: which deal with the location of separate machine tools, desks,
offices, and other facilities within each cell or department.

Dispatching:- Dispatching deals with setting the production activities in motion through the release of orders and
instructions in accordance with previously planned timings as embodied in production schedules. James L. Landy
has defined Dispatching as “The dispatching function involves the actual granting of permission to proceed
according to plans already laid down. This is similar, in the casde of traveler to his employer finally approving his
vacation leave.”
What is Project Management Office ?
The Project Management Office is the Central office of where primary responsibilities are
Assigned of the project (or program) manager. He may be assisted by Quality Assurance (QA) or
process experts, but any team member has the responsibility to identify potential risks and actions
to mitigate risks. A Risk Management Plan is developed during the elaboration phase, but the
Plan is implemented and monitored as soon as the First risk is documented.