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Abstract: In recent years there has been considerable interest in the development and applications of
active fdters because of the increasing concern over power quality, at both distribution and consumer
levels, and the need to control reactive power and voltage stability at transmission levels. The existing
approaches are classified and assessed to provide a framework of references for both researchers in
this field and for generators, suppliers and consumers of electrical power who are, or may be,
concerned about the problems associated with power quality and are considering installing active
filters for their particular sets of problems.
Fig. 2 Suhdiviswn of paws systemjiliers crccording to power ratkg and speed of sespome
inductor s mi%
and
coupling
,jcapacitor
active
DC-link
One of the few applications of active filters in high-power filter inductors filter
systems is the Japanese bullet train (Sinkansen) [2, 5, 661, a b
which uses a parallel combination of several active filters. Fig.5 Invcrter b u d activejilter,s
The control and co-ordination requirements of these filters LICurrent fed inverter
h Voltage fed inverter
are, however, complicated [2].
m
the single-line diagram of Fig. 4. The purpose is to cancel
the load current harmonics fed to the supply. It can also
contribute to reactive-power compensation and balancing
of three-phase currents, as mentioned above. Parallel fdters b
have the advantage of carrying only the compensation cur-
rent plus a small amount of active fundamental current
supplied to compensate for system losses. It is also possible nonlinear
to connect several filters in parallel to cater for higher cur-
rents, which makes this type of circuit suitable for a wide
range of power ratings. This configuration consists of four
distinct categories of circuit, namely inverter configurations,
switched-capacitor circuits, lattice-structured filters and
voltage-regulator-type filters. Information on these circuits C
Inverter/converter configurations
Comparison criteria Switched-capacitor Lattice structures Voltage-regulator
CSI VSI filters active filters
5. I Reactive-powercompensation ('VAR'
4.3.2 Combination of series active and parallel correction)
passive filters: To reduce the complexity of the previous Most researchers normally regard reactive-power compen-
filter combination, the inverter-type series active fdter, sation [30, 3941, 43, 481 as not requiring active filters.
which constitutes a high impedance for high-frequency har- However, compensation of power factor in conjunction
monics, is accompanied by a parallel passive filter to pro- with current harmonics is fairly popular and is addressed
vide a path for the harmonic currents of the load [44, 731. by many publications. On the other hand, active-filter con-
This combination, represented by Fig. 11, permits an figurations rarely treat the problem of power-factor correc-
improvement over the characteristics of plain series active tion on its own owing to the fact that other quasidynamic,
filters and the extension of their capabilities to include cur- cheaper and slower-in-response reactive-power compensa-
rent-harmonic reduction and voltage-harmonic elimination tors are available in the market. This technique (in this case
[44, 461. The configuration, however appealing, has not yet called active-power filter for reactive-power compensation),
been studied thoroughly owing to lack of interest in series if applied, would normally be suited for low-power applica-
active filters. tions, since the currents needed for reactive-power compen-
sation are of the same order of magnitude as the rated
4.3.3 Combination of parallel active and passive current of the load. It would be a waste of sophsticated
filters: This combinatiqn, shown in Fig. 12, represents a equipment to tackle them without the use of other power-
very important mixture of passive and active inverter-type factor-correction devices, such as thyristor-controlled reac-
filters. The active filter is designed to eliminate only part of tors and capacitors; especially in single-phase systems,
the low-order current harmonics while the passive filter is where in certain specific applications the requirement is for
designed to eliminate the bulk of the load-current harmon- accurate compensation without harmonics generation.
ics. In such combinations, the system can be designed for
higher powers without excessive costs for high-power 5.2 Harmonic compensation
switching [45, 731. The main drawback of thls technique is This is the most important system parameter requiring
that it contains too many power components, especially for compensation in power systems and it is subdivided into
the passive filter. Since passive filters are permanently con- voltage- and current-harmonic compensation as follows.
IEE Proc.-Ele[ectr.Power Appl., Vol. 147, N o 5, September 2000 407
active power-system filters
1
compensation
t voltage
current
t voltage
current
+ current harmonics + VAR
compensation
-*
voltage harmonics +
VAR compensation
current harmonics +
* voltage harmonics
current harmonics
+voltage harmonics
+VAR compensation
Fig. 14 Subdivision according to cot?lpcxwiedvariables
5.2.I Compensation of voltage harmonics: The 6ach phase the corresponding amount of instantaneous
subject of compensating voltage harmonics [2, 19, 42, 671 is voltage to force it to follow the reference sinusoidal wave-
not widely addressed because power supplies usually have form. The system, in such cases, is normally of the low-
low impedance. The terminal voltage at the consumer point power category because in medium- and high-power sys-
of common coupling (PCC) is normally maintained withn tems the supply impedance does not have any significant
the standard limits for voltage sag and total harmonic dis- effect on system performance [2, 751.
tortion and does not normally vary much with loading.
This problem is usually important for harmonic-voltage- 5.3.2 Balancing of mains currents in three-phase
sensitive devices [l], which require the supply to be purely systems: As with balancing voltages, this compensation is
sinusoidal, such as power-system-protection devices and mainly concerned with three-phase systems for low-power
superconducting magnetic-energy storage [77]. Note that applications. The reason is that the magnitudes of currents
the compensation of voltage and current harmonics is to be supplied to the grid depend entirely on the amount of
interrelated. The reduction of voltage harmonics at the imbalance in the system, which mostly occurs in low-volt-
PCC helps a great deal to reduce current harmonics, espe- age distribution systems for residential loads. The compen-
cially for the particular cases of nonlinear loads with reso- sator under consideration [2, 49, 75, 781 would sometimes
nance at the harmonic frequencies. However, the be forced to supply the rated value of current, which limits
compensation of the voltage harmonics at the PCC does its power-handling capabilities. The power circuit of this
not eliminate the need for current-harmonic compensation system normally consists of three single-phase type (H-
for nonlinear loads. bridge inverters) having the same energy-storage element.
THD minimisation
minimum filter current
Fig. 15 ,%bdivirioM according to control techniylres
IEE ProcElectr. Power Appl.. Vol. 147. No. 5, September 2000 409
between the detection of a change in the harmonic current (a) High-pass-filter method: The use of a high-pass filter is
and the application of the new set of switching angles straightforward for removing low-order frequencies in the
obtained from the optimisation procedure. This system is load-current signal. The resulting high-frequency compo-
mainly suitable for constant or slowly varying loads. nents constitute the desired reference [3]. T h s filtering tech-
nique is, considered to be equivalent to differentiation,
6.2.4 Linear-voltage-control technique: This which makes this technique vulnerable to noise.
method is only suitable for the voltage-regulator type of (6) Low-pass-filter method: However indirect, this method
active filter [29, 301. The voltage across the output capacitor is preferred over the high-pass-filter method because it
is linearly controlled through the continuous charging and reduces the effect of differentiation in the resulting filtered
discharging. The capacitor-voltage reference is calculated component. Filtering the fundamental component and then
from the harmonic reference and includes the rate of subtracting it from the total load current yields the desired
change of the load-current harmonics [30]. The continuous reference [3, 51, 671. As mentioned above, the system suf-
and smooth variation of the capacitor voltage, in contrast fers from large magnitude and phase errors.
to the sudden changes of the inverter-voltage waveforms,
ensures that the current change in the supply/filter loop is 7.2 CurrenVvoltage-reference calculation
controlled and hence the switching frequency is further (discrete-timeor frequency-domain control)
reduced. The main advantage of this technique lies in the The calculation of harmonics is usually adopted because of
fact that no sudden variation of voltage is caused on the the main drawback of the technique described in Section
supply side. This, in fact, reduces the amount of high-fre- 7.1 which incorporates phase-angle and magnitude errors.
quency harmonics injected into the supply due to the pres- Most conventional methods of calculation can be classified
ence of the PWM inverter. either as time-domain or frequency-domain. Other modern
6.2.5 Other techniques: Other control techniques exist techniques exist.
[53, 54, SO]. They simply provide small changes to the
aforementioned techniques, providing simply newer or bet- 7.2.I TTme-domain approaches: The following seven
ter performance over their predecessors. These techniques subdivisions of time-domain approaches are mainly used
may include the use of state-of-the-art adaptive, predictive for three-phase systems except for the fictitious-power-com-
and sliding-mode controllers, which are normally dificult pensation technique which can be adopted for single- or
to implement without the use of DSPs. These techniques three-phase systems.
can be implemented in either the time domain or the fre- (i) Instcmtaneous-rec~~tive-poweralgorithm: In this technique,
quency domain. suitable only for three-phase systems, the instantaneous
power of the load is calculated. It consists of a D C compo-
7 Classification according to current/voltage- nent and an oscillating component. The oscillating compo-
reference-estimation technique nent is separated over a certain interval of time (an integral
number of cycles). The reference signals are then calculated
As shown in Fig. 1, the reference currentholtage to be by distributing the total current equally to each of the three
processed by the control loops constitutes an important phases. This operation takes place only under the assump-
and crucial measure for subdividing active-filtering tech- tion that the three-phase system is balanced and that the
niques. Fig. 16 illustrates these estimation techniques, voltage waveforms are purely sinusoidal [S, 40, 41, 501. If,
which cannot be considered to belong to the control loop on the other hand, this technique is applied to contami-
since they perform an independent task by providing it nated supplies, the resulting performance is proven to be
with the required reference for further processing. Despite poor [SI.
the fact that some references do not mention their source of
compensating-current reference, these estimation techniques (ii) Synchronous-detection ulgorith: This technique [8],
can be classified as follows. which is very similar to the previous one, relies in the fact
that the three phase currents are balanced. The average
7.1 CurreniYvoltage-referencesynthesis power is calculated and divided equally between the three
(continuous time-domain control) phases. The signal is then synchronised relative to the
T h s technique uses an analogue signal filter to determine mains voltage for each phase. This technique, however easy
the harmonics contained in the main supply current. This to implement, suffers from the fact that it depends to a
technique is preferred because of the simplicity of its imple- great extent on the harmonics in the voltage signal.
mentation, using analogue devices, in the time domain. (iii) Constant-active-power algorithm: The instantaneous
However, it suffers from a serious drawback, in that the and average powers of the load are calculated. The active-
phase and magnitude errors introduced by the signal active power component of the system is controlled to keep the
filter employed are considerable. Two main categories instantaneous real power constant, while maintaining the
emerge. imaginary power to zero. This technique performs fairly
+ synchronous detection
time + constant active power
current/voltage- current/voltage- domain +
'
constant (unity) power factor
reference synthesis reference calculation fictitious power compensation
-
--* synchronous frame
7
410 IEE Proc.-Elecir Power Appl., Vol. 147, No. 5, September 2000
well under ordinary conditions. However, the performance simple low-pass filter [13, 28, 461. The performance is still
deteriorates when the supply is contaminated [7]. slow (more than one complete mains cycle). This technique
(iv) Constant- (unity-) power-fuctor algorithm: This is is similar to the Fourier techniques presented above; it is,
another technique, which is very similar to that in (iii) however, differently implemented.
above, except the fact that it forces the instantaneous cur- (iii) ModiJed-Fourier-series techniques: One of these tech-
rent signal to track the voltage-reference waveform. This niques was developed in [30]. The principle behind it is that
implies that the power factor would be fured to unity and only the fundamental component of current is calculated
the system would only be suitable for the combined system and t h s is used to separate the total harmonic signal from
of VAR and current-hamionic compensation [7, 81. the sampled load-current waveform. The practical iniple-
(v) Fictitious-power-compensationalgorithm: This technique mentation of this technique relies on modifying the main
relies on the principle of fictitious power compensation Fourier series equations to generate a recursive formula
developed in [1&12]. Despite the opposition to the theory with a sliding window. This technique is adapted to use
by [81-83], this principle was proven to operate satisfacto- two different circular arrays to store the components of the
rily. The system controller is designed to minimise the sine and cosine coefficients computed every sampling sub-
undesired component of power. In this aspect, it is similar cycle. The newly computed values of the desired coefficient
to the instantaneous-reactive-power algorithm but with a are stored in place of the old ones and the overall sums of
different definition of power. This approach is suitable for the sine and cosine coefficients are updated continuously.
both single- and three-phase systems. However it involves a The computation time is much less than that of other tech-
large amount of computation. niques used for single-phase applications. This technique is
equally suitable for single- or three-phase systems.
(vi) Synchronous~~unze-basedalgorithm: This algorithm
relies on the Park transformations to transform the three- Another modified Fourier-series technique was devel-
phase system from a stationary reference frame into syn- oped in [55]. It relies on the decomposition of the three-
chronously rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence phase signals into synchronously rotating direct and quad-
components. These can easily be analysed since the funda- rature axes. The technique is used to compensate for all
mental-frequency component is transformed into DC ‘nonactive’ components of load-current signal. The nonac-
quantities [84]. The active and reactive components of the tive current definition in the dq reference frame is used to
system are represented by the direct and quadrature com- generate the desired supply currents. Sliding-window
ponents, respectively. The high-order harmonics still remain computation techniques are used (similar to that above) to
in the signal; however they are modulated at different fre- calculate the reference value of the filter current. This tech-
quencies. These are the undesired components to be elimi- nique is suitable only for three-phase systems.
nated from the system and they represent the reference
harmonic current. The system is very stable since the con- 7.2.3 Other algorithms: There are numerous optimisa-
troller deals mainly with DC quantities. The computation is tion and estimation techniques, and all the utilities and
instantaneous but incurs time delays in filtering the DC libraries for estimation can be used to perform t h s task.
quantities. This method is applicable only to three-phase However some new methods arise, such as the neural-
systems. network and adaptive-estimation techniques which are
(vii) Synchronous-Jux-detection algorithm: This technique is fairly accurate and have, of course, much better response
similar to that in (vi) above, in applying Park transforma- [9, 53, 54, 8&88]. Unfortunately, presently available
tions to transfer the system into synchronously rotating control hardware is not suitable for implementation of
these techniques.
direct, quadrature and zero-sequence frames of reference.
However, it applies the transformation on the flux linkage
of the filter inductance, which is then controlled using the 8 Conclusions
output voltages and currents in separate integral loops [U]. The review and classification of published work in this field
The presence of these integral loops incorporates time shows that there has been a significant increase in interest
delays, which depend on the frequency response of the spe- in active filters and associated control methods. This is due
cial feedfonvard and feedback integrators. to increasing concern about power quality and the availa-
bility of suitable power-switching devices at affordable
7.2.2 Frequency-domain approaches: Frequency- prices. To facilitate understanding and selection of particu-
domain approaches are suitable for both single- and three-
lar configuration and control techniques for a given appli-
phase systems. They mainly derived from the conventional
cation, the classification is based on five main criteria. The
Fourier analysis and include the following three subdivi-
power-circuit configurations of active filters and the ratings
sions.
of the compensated systems define the two broad catego-
(i) Conventional Fourier and FFT algorithms: Using fast ries. The other three classification criteria are based on the
Fourier transforms, the harmonic current can be recon- control strategies, control techniques and reference-estima-
structed by eliminating the fundamental component from tion methods generally employed. The review also takes
the transformed current signal and then the inverse trans- into account the criteria for selecting passive components,
form is applied to obtain a time-domain signal [3, 18, 37, and the switching frequencies and losses for the various
391. The main disadvantage of this system is the accompa- configurations are also discussed.
nying time delay. This technique needs to take samples of Control circuits constitute a minor portion of the total
one complete cycle (or an integral number of cycles) to gen- cost of active filters. This is because the new generation of
erate the Fourier coefficients and it is therefore suitable for microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs) can
slowly varying load conditions. operate at extremely high frequencies and at very low cost.
(ii) Sine-multiplication technique: T h s method relies on the The number of instructions and operations performed per
process of multiplying the current signal by a sine wave of second is phenomenal. Thus the most complex control
the fundamental frequency and integrating the result. T h ~ s requirements can be incorporated without a great deal of
results in a loss of all the high-order harmonics using a concern about this part of the cost for any system.
IEE PIOC-Electr Power A p p l , Vol 147, No 5, September 2000 41 1
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