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Femeile in Roma antica

In legislatia romana, femeia trecea de la autoritatea tatalui la cea a sotului;


chiar si o vaduva bogata avea nevoie de un barbat pentru a-i supraveghea
averea. De abia in secolul I i.e.n., femeile romane au inceput sa aiba o mai
mare libertate.

Femeilor romane nu le era permis sa detina afaceri proprii. Dupa o lunga


perioada de timp, in care femeilor nu le-au fost permise nici macar
sugestiile, barbatii au inceput sa fie interesati de opiniile si sfaturile
nevestelor. Femeile ce apartineau familiilor instarite nu erau nevoite sa
lucreze, munca fiind rezervata sclavilor si claselor inferioare.

Principala ocupatie a femeii era ingrijirea casei si cresterea copiilor, insa


femeile sarace erau nevoite sa si munceasca pentru a putea trai. Femeile
sclave lucrau ca servitoare sau ca menajere personale ale doamnelor din
clasele superioare. Sclavii nu aveau drept de casatorie din punct de vedere
legal, dar le erau permise relatiile sexuale in scop de procreare (copiii cu
ambii parinti sclavi erau tot sclavi). Ei puteau fi eliberati de catre stapani,
devenind astfel oameni liberi, si de abia copiii lor dobandeau statutul de
cetatean. Cand li se reda libertatea, li se asigurau si mijloacele de
subzistenta. Ei ii ramaneau fideli stapanului care le oferea in continuare
sprijin de cate ori era necesar.

Romanii puneau mare accent pe casatorie, casa si familie. Multe obiceiuri de


nunta ale romanilor s-au pastrat pana in zilele noastre: inelul pus pe al treilea
deget al mainii stangi pentru a simboliza logodna, mireasa imbracata in alb
cu un voal asezat pe cap si prezenta cavalerului de onoare. O fata romana era
considerata apta de insuratoare la 14 ani. Tatal fetei era cel care alegea un
sot pentru fiica sa, deci interesul economic si relatiile interfamiliale primau
in fata dragostei. Ziua ceremonierii casatoriei era aleasa cu multa grija, iunie
fiind luna preferata. Mai intai avea loc ceremonia religioasa apoi se semnau
actele si in sfarsit era dat un ospat la care participau rudele si prietenii. In
perioada de trecere de la republica la imperiu, in Roma a devenit popular un
nou stil de casatorie, in care femeia era stapana propriilor bunuri dinainte de
casatorie, si astfel divortul a devenit o optiune posibila.
 in Grecian antica, tortul de nunta era aproape intotdeauna din branza,
inmuiat in miere.
 in Roma antica era obiceiul de a sfarama tortul de nunta deasupra capului
miresei. Si doar acei copii ai caror mame respectau acest obicei erau eligibili
legal pentru a detine functii guvernamentale inalte.

În Roma Antică exista un obicei nupţial numit mancipaţie şi era asemănător


cu cumpărarea unui sclav. Literalmente, acest cuvînt s-ar traduce ca: „a pune
mîna pe...”, iar la modul figurat - a lua sub tutelă pe cineva. Acest ritual se
făcea în prezenţa martorilor, cantaragiului, mirelui (care juca rolul de
cumpărător) şi al tatălui miresei (vînzător). Mireasa însăşi era „cumpărată”.
Mirele se atingea de unul dintre talerele cîntarului şi se jura că anume el este
proprietarul „mărfii” (miresei), iar socrul se jura pe toţi zeii că ea nu mai este
a lui, ci a norocosului „cumpărător”.

Un obicei ca toate obiceiurile – nici mai bun, dar nici mai rău decît altele.
Numai un liberast contemporan ar putea să-l califice ca o înrobire a femeii.
Or, femeia-mamă şi gospodină (matroana) avea în Roma Antică un statut
deosebit de înalt. Ultimul rex (rege) roman a fost detronat deoarece a violat
soţia unui ofiţer de-al său. Casta şi vrednica matroană Lucreţia (căci despre
ea este vorba) a preferat să se sinucidă în public, decît să trăiască mai
departe cu pata dezonoarei. Poporul l-a alungat pe desfrînatul rege
Tarquinius cel Orgolios şi Roma a devenit republică („res publica” – „lucru
obştesc”).
În perioada Imperiului, cînd Roma a ajuns într-o gravă criză a moravurilor,
are loc emanciparea (literalmente – „eliberarea, egalizarea sau dezrobirea”)
femeii. Acest fenomen a fost provocat de pătrunderea în societatea romană a
diferitor religii şi culturi ezoterice, străine austerei civilizaţii romane. Tot
felul de culte ale zeilor şi zeiţelor străine, precum cele ale Astartei, Isidei,
Mitrei, Baal ş.a.m.d. au invadat Cetatea Eternă, alias – Roma. Ele au distrus
încet (dar sigur) din interior „Pax Romana”. Desfrîul, destrăbălarea, luxul
opulent şi goana după plăceri au pus stăpînire pe Roma. Messalina, soţia
împăratului Claudius, îşi selecta amanţii ocazionali printre docherii şi
hamalii portuari din Ostia (avanportul Romei unde şi în prezent un
debarcader este teritoriu suveran al Vaticanului – n. a.).

Destrăbălatele mesaline au luat locul castelor lucreţii. Incestul şi căsătoriile


„unisex” au devenit fenomene obişnuite în cele mai înalte cercuri ale statului
roman. Nero şi Heliogabal s-au „măritat” cu amanţii lor şi chiar îşi etalau în
public vînătăile obţinute de la aceştia. Soţiile patricienilor se mîndreau cu
numărul divorţurilor şi al amanţilor. În goana după plăceri, femeile romane
nu mai doreau să nască. Armata romană, dintr-o miliţie populară a
cetăţenilor (quiriţi), s-a transformat în una de mercenari barbari care, pînă la
urmă, au vîndut Roma. Toate cele expuse nu vă amintesc oare nimic?

Roma antica
Zeii in Roma anticaZeiiPrincipalii zei si zeite au fost:Jupiter - el era zeul
luminii si al fenomenelor ceresti: vantul, ploaia,
tunetul, al furtunii si al fulgerului. El se numea Jupiter Optimux Maximus
(cel prea mare si prea milostiv), Conservator
Orbis (ocrotitorul lumii), Conservator Augustorum (ocrotitorul imparatilor),
Propugnator ( inainte-lupatorul), dar si Pistor -
zeul Painii. Juno - era sotia lui Jupiter, zeita luminii. Ca zeita a lunii ea s-a
contopit cu Diana, zeita vanatorii. Era
cunoscuta si cu atributele de Pronuba ( protectoarea logodnicilor), Domiduca
(calauza miresei la casa mirelui), Nucsia (
calauza pragurilor parfumate). Vesta - era asociata cu pamantul mama,
ramanea vesnic fecioara si era simbolul
maternitatii. Vulcan - era zeul trasnetului, al focului devastator, al focului
datator de viata. Era infatisat cu barba, cu o
usoara deformatie faciala si purta o scurta care ii lasa liber bratul drept.
Saturn - era patronul belsugului si al bogatiei si
propagatorul vitei de vie. Minerva - zeita cunoscuta si la etrusci si la greci,
era patroana intelepciunii si a artelor, iar
impreuna cu Jupiter si Juno, formau o triada divina. Mercur - zeul
comertului, avea fata rasa si purta intotdeauna o punga
in mana. Faunus - era zeitatea animalelor padurii si proteja oamenii
impotriva lupilor (din acesta cauza mai este cunoscut
si sub numele de Lupercus). Alti zei:Consus - zeul fertilitatii
pamantului;Silvanus - zeul padurilor;Flora - zeita
inmuguririi;Diuturna - zeita apelor linistite; Antevorta - zeita trecutului
oamenilor;Postvorta - zeita viitorului; O serie de zei
erau desemnati ca stapani ai lumii subpamantene:Orcus - zeul mortii;Mania
si Lara - zeitele care speriau copiii;Lemures si
Larvae - duhuri ale mortilor cu comportari primejdioase. Intre divinitatile
protectoare ale oraselor si ale persoanelor
amintim:Fortuna - zeita norocului;Lares si Penates - ocrotitorii
pamantului;Angerina - zeita tacerii;Fides - protectorul
juramintelor. Intre eroi amintim pe: Hercule, Romulus si Remus, Aeneas. Au
fost divinizati si unii dintre imparatii romani:
Iulius Caesar, Augustus ( primul imparat zeu), Claudius.
Viata de apoi in Roma anticaViata dupa moarteDupa credinta romanilor,
sufletele celor decedati (lares, manes) duceau
o viata asemanatoare celei de aici, fie in mormant, fie intr-o regiune
subterana, obscura, in care domnea zeul foarte putin
simpatic, Orcus. Imparatia aceasta a mortilor nu era insa izolata complet de
lumea de aici, ci corespundea cu ea printr-o
groapa facuta in pamant (mundus) in apropierea orasului sau satului si
acoperita cu o piatra (lapis manalis). De trei ori pe
an, la 24 august, 5 octombrie si 8 noiembrie, se ridica aceasta piatra pentru
ca sufletele sa iasa si sa se duca sa-si vada
rudele. Rudele insa se temeau grozav de spiritele celor decedati care, pentru
ca aceste spirite se inviorau numai cand
puteau sa suga sange de om. De aceea li se aduceau tot felul de sacrificii,
uneori sacrificandu-se pe mormant sotia si
sclavii celui decedat. Pentru a linisti sufletele celor morti si pentru a scapa de
ele, romanii celebrau asa-numitele Lemuria
in zilele de 9, 11 si 13 mai. Lemures erau sufletele mortilor deveniti strigoi
si venind printre cei vii ca sa faca rautati.
Pentru a scapa de aceasta primejdie, in zilele amintite mai sus, capul familiei
se trezea la miezul noptii si umbla cu
picioarele goale prin coridoarele casei, trosnind din degete pentru a speria
spiritele si aruncand in spatele sau seminte de
bob negru, fara a-si intoarce capul. De noua ori repeta cuvintele: "Cu acest
bob ma rascumpar pe mine insumi si pe ai
mei". Dupa stropirea cu apa sfintita, lovea intr-o placa de bronz si striga inca
de noua ori: "Spirite ale stramosilor mei,
iesiti afara". Romanii credeau deci ca strigoii veniti sa suga sangele
oamenilor se repezeau la semintele de bob si
datorita puterii magice a cuvintelor repetate de noua ori, se departau de casa
lasind oamenii in pace. O categorie
speciala de suflete ale mortilor o forma aceea a criminalilor sau a celor care
au sfarsit printr-o moarte napraznica.
Acestea se numeau larvae si erau considerate ca raufacatoare, la fel cu cele
ale mortilor deveniti strigoi. Obligatiile
familiei la moarte si la inmormantare au fost codificate la romani si
respectate cu strictete. Dupa inhumare sau incinerare,
ambele rituri fiind admise, cei prezenti gustau ceva invitand si pe mort sa ia
parte la masa, ii cereau binecuvantarea si,
inainte de a pleca, isi luau ziua buna de la el prin cuvintele: Salve, Sancte
parens ! Pe pietrele funerare era obiceiul sa se
scrie fraze augurale, intre care cea mai obisnuita era: Sit tibi terra levis,
menita sa usureze iesirea spiritului din mormant
pentru a lua parte la mesele date de rude in amintirea sa. In fiecare an, in
ziua de 22 februarie, intreaga familie se aduna
acasa la o masa comuna. in acea zi nu trebuia sa se tina seama de certurile
familiale. La masa erau rezervate locuri
pentru morti. Statuetele zeilor familiali prezidau masa aceasta, la care se
strangea laolalta intreaga familie, vii si morti.
Temple, preoti, rituri si sarbatoriLocasurile de cultTemplele romane au
imitat in constructie pe cele etrusce(de obicei
patrate) si pe cele grecesti(de forma dreptunghiulara). Astfel de temple au
fost prezente in Roma ( tempul de pe
Capitoliu) dedicate triadei: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva sau tempul dedicat zeului
Marte, amplasat in Campul lui Marte. Existau
si temple in forma rotunda ca cel dedicate zeitei Vesta. Existau si locuri
retrase, grote sacre (lucus).Templele mai mici se
numeau aedicule. Dupa o perioada de decline, catre sfarsitul republicii,
templele devin din ce in ce mai marete la
inceputul imperiului. Preotii N-a existat la romani o casta sacerdotala. Cultul
putea fi implinit si de alte persoane decat
preotii, ca de exemplu de anumiti functionari ai statului, iar preotii asistau
numai si vegheau ca formele cultului sa fie
implinite cu cea mai mare exactitate. Persoanele destinate cultului se grupau
in colegii si corporatii. Institutia colegiala a
pontificilor a fost intemeiata, dupa traditie, de regele Numa. De fapt,
pontificii erau inteleptii din epoca cea mai veche
latina, detinatorii traditiilor poporului, care s-au reunit mai tarziu in colegiu,
la inceput de 3, apoi de 5, de 9, de 15 si in
sfarsit de 16 pontifici. Ei inregistrau principalele evenimente din viata
statului, alcatuind asa-numitele Annales maximi.
Tot lor le era incredintata intocmirea calendarului religios si civil. In fruntea
colegiului pontificilor era Pontifex Maximus. El
era cel mai mare preot al statului. Pontificii aveau in subordinea lor pe
flamini (flamines), preotii unor anumite divinitati,
care aveau grija de aducerea sacrificiilor zeilor respectivi. Erau 3 flamines
maiores: flamen Dialis, flamen Martialis si
flamen Quirinalis, si 12 flamines minores. Tot in subordinea si directa
supraveghere a lui Pontifex Maximus erau si
vestalele, fecioarele consacrate templului zeitei Vesta. Acestea, in numar de
sase, erau alese de Pontifex Maximus din
familiile nobile sau cu foarte buna reputatie si introduse in ordinul lor cu
anumita ceremonie. Vestalele intrau in ordin la
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varsta de 6-10 ani si erau angajate pe 30 de ani. Primii 10 ani erau de
pregatire, in ceilalti 10 ani erau preotese si ultimii
10 ani erau indrumatoarele noilor venite. Dupa 30 de ani puteau sa se
casatoreasca. Multe insa ramaneau in atrium
Vestae. Un rol important la romani l-a avut augurii, prezicatorii, deoarece
toate actiunile statului erau precedate de
cercetarea semnelor prevestitoare. Ei erau socotiti interpreti ai lui Iupiter
Optimus Maximus. O particularitate a religiei
romane o forma existenta "corporatiilor" sacerdotale, ai caror membri se
recrutau din familiile aristocrate. Cele mai
importante corporatii sacerdotale erau cele ale salienilor, lupercilor si
arvalilor. Riturile publice. Cultul public consta la
inceput din rugaciuni, voturi, purificari si sacrificii. Rugaciunea (precatio)
era socotita ca avind o putere magica. Din
aceasta cauza trebuia rostita fara nici o schimbare sau greseala. O forma
speciala de rugaciune era supplicatio,
rugaciune solemna ceruta poporului de catre senat in cazuri de calamitati
publice, epidemii, foamete sau ca multumire
pentru vreo victorie militara. Intreg poporul lua parte la aceasta ceremonie,
care dura un anumit numar de zile. Poporul
intra cu ramuri de laur in templele deschise, facea libatii de vin si ardea
tamiie, in vreme ce matroanele, cu parul
despletit, se roteau imprejurul altarelor cu mainile ridicate spre cer. Votul
(votum) era socotit ca mijlocul cel mai eficace
pentru a se castiga bunavointa si ajutorul zeilor, carora li se promiteau in
schimb, in chip conditionat, ofrande, sacrificii
etc. Purificarile aveau mare importanta la romani. Scopul lor nu era atat
curatirea de greseli morale cat spalarea de unele
atingeri impure. Sacrificiile ocupau si la romani locul cel mai important in
cult, fiind randuite cu extrema amanuntime.
Riturile particulare. Cultul particular nu avea la romani un ritual unic, fiecare
familie implinind actele de cult potrivit
propriei sale traditii. Ritul obisnuit consta in a oferi focului libatii in timpul
mesei. La noua zile dupa nastere, copilul era
stropit cu apa si recunoscut de tata, care ii punea un nume. La varsta
pubertatii, in ziua de 14 martie (Liberalia), se
dezbracau hainele de copil si se punea toga barbateasca, ceremonia
sfarsindu-se printr-un sacrificiu. Cea mai solemna
ceremonie a cultului familial era casatoria. Dupa ce mireasa era adusa cu alai
si cantece religioase la casa mirelui, tinerii
mancau impreuna, ca si la greci, o lipie de secara, perfectandu-se astfel din
punct de vedere religios unirea lor. Toate
aceste rituri ale cultului familial se implineau in jurul vetrei, ca si la greci.
Date istoriceDate istoriceItalia a fost, mai mult decat Grecia, locul unor
invazii continue ale unor populatii din afara.
Astfel, peste unele populatii mai vechi, mediteraneene, incep spre sfarsitul
mileniului al II-lea i. Hr. sa se aseze triburi
migratoare venite de peste Alpi. Cei dintai au fost siculii, stabiliti in Sicilia.
Ei ar fi dat si numele Italiei, in amintirea regelui
lor Italos. Dar prima invazie de mare importanta a fost aceea a popoarelor
italice, invazie care face parte din marea
miscare a triburilor indo-europene stabilite mai inainte in Europa centrala.
De aici, de la Dunarea de mijloc, au pornit spre
sud-est triburile elenice, iar spre sud-vest cele italice. Un alt strat etnic l-au
format in Italia etruscii. In secolul al VIII-lea i.
Hr. a avut loc un alt eveniment de mare importanta pentru istoria Romei
antice: inceputul colonizarii de catre greci a
Italiei de sud si a Siciliei. In ultimele decenii ale secolului al V-lea i. Hr.,
Italia a suferit invazia galilor, populatie de neam
celtic. Dintre toate aceste populatii, cei care aveau sa scrie marea istorie a
Romei antice au fost romanii, intemeietorii
Cetatii eterne. In secolul al VIII-lea i. Hr. - anul 753 dupa istoricii latini -
triburi de latini, sabini si etrusci puneau bazele
Romei prin unirea asezarilor fortificate care se aflau pe cele sapte coline de
pe malul stang al Tibrului. Sub raportul
organizarii politice, Roma antica a trecut prin trei perioade: regalitatea (753-
509 i. Hr.), republica (509-31 i. Hr.) si
imperiul (31 i. Hr.-476 d. Hr.).
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Ulterior, odata cu cu intrarea in istorie, conflictele si solidaritatile se


realizeaza pe criterii mai largi si evident mai abstracte. Constiinta unui
destin comun, a unui statut similar, functioneaza ca un factor coagulant din
perspectiva sociala. Un exemplu concludent ar fi  adoptarea Legii celor 12
table in 449 I.Ch, pe fondul tensiunii sporite intre plebeii si patricienii
romani. La numai patru ani diferenta, presiunea sociala a determinat
modificarea Codexului, astfel ca in 445 I. Ch., Tribunul plebei, Gaius
Canuleius a cerut acceptarea casatoriilor mixte (patriciano-plebee). Lex
Canuleia este un document esential al dinamicii sociale in republica romana,
ea dand nastere unei noi dimensiuni a corpusului social, ordinul ecvestru.

Căsătoria romană era numită Justae nuptiae, Justum matrimonium,


Legitimum matrimonium, in conformitate cu Jus Civile, dreptul roman civil.
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p740 Matrimonium

The Roman section only (pp740-744) of an article on pp735-744 of

William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.:


A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London,
1875.

MATRIMOʹNIUM, NUʹPTIAE (γάμος), marriage.

[. . .]

A Roman marriage was called Justae Nuptiae, Justum Matrimonium,


Legitimum Matrimonium, as being conformable to Jus Civile or to Roman
Law. A marriage was either Cum conventione uxoris in manum viri, or it
was without this conventio. In both cases there must be connubium between
the parties, and consent: the male must also be pubes, and the woman viri
potens. The legal consequences as to the power of the father over his
children were the same in both. Opposed to the Legitimum Matrimonium
was the Matrimonium Juris Gentium.

A Roman marriage may be viewed, First with reference to the conditions


required for a Justum Matrimonium; Secondly, with reference to the forms
of the marriage; Thirdly, with reference to its legal consequences.

Unless there was connubium there could be no Roman marriage.


Connubium is defined by Ulpian (Frag. V.3) to be "uxoris jure ducendae
facultas", or the faculty by which a man may make a woman his lawful wife.
But in truth this is no definition at all, nor does it give any information.
Connubium is merely a term which comprehends all the conditions of a legal
marriage. Accordingly, the term is explained by particular instances:
"Roman men citizens," says Ulpian, "have connubium with Roman women
citizens (Romanae cives); but with Latinae and Peregrinae only in those
cases where it has been permitted. With slaves there is no connubium."

Sometimes connubium, that is the faculty of contracting a Roman marriage,


is viewed with reference to one of its most important consequences, namely,
the Patria Potestas: "for," says Gaius, "since it is the effect of Connubium
that the children follow the condition of their father, it results that when
Connubium exists, the children are not only Roman citizens, but are also in
the power of their father." Generally, it may be stated that there was only
connubium between Roman citizens: the cases in which it at any time
existed between parties, not both Roman citizens, were exceptions to the
general rule. Originally, or at least at one period of the Republic, there was
no Connubium between the Patricians and the Plebeians; but this was altered
by the Lex Canuleia which allowed Connubium between persons of those
two classes.

There was no connubium between many persons with respect to one another,
who had severally connubium with respect to other persons. Thus there were
various degrees of consanguinity within which there was no connubium.
There was no connubium between parent and child, whether the relation was
natural or by adoption; and a man could not marry an adopted daughter or
granddaughter, even after he had emancipated her. There was no connubium
between brothers and sisters, whether of the whole or of the half blood; but a
man might marry a sister by adoption after her emancipation, or after his
own emancipation. It became legal to marry a brother's daughter after
Claudius had set the example by marrying Agrippina; but the rule was not
carried further than the example, and in the time of Gaius it remained
unlawful for a man to marry his sister's daughter (Gaius, I.62; Tacit.
Ann. XII.5; Sueton. Claud. 26).

There was no connubium also between persons within certain relations of


affinity, as between a man and his socrus, nurus, privigna, and noverca.

Any illegal union of a male and female, though affecting to be, was not a
marriage: the man had no legal wife, and the children had no legal father;
consequently they were not in the power of their reputed father. These
restrictions as to marriage were not founded on any enactments; they were a
part of that large mass of Roman law which belongs to Jus Moribus
Constitutum. The marriage of Domitius, afterwards the emperor Nero, with
Octavia the daughter of Claudius, seems at first sight somewhat irregular.
Nero was adopted by Claudius by a Lex Curiata (Tacit. Ann. XII.26), but he
was already his son-in-law; at least the sponsalia are mentioned before the
adoption (Tacit. Ann. XII.9). There seems to be no rule of law which would
prevent a man from adopting his son-in-law; though if the adoption took
place before the marriage, it would be illegal, as stated by Gaius.

Persons who had certain bodily imperfections, as eunuchs, and others who
from any cause could never attain to puberty, could not contract marriage;
for though pubertas was in course of time fixed at a positive age [Impubes],
yet as the foundation of the notion of pubertas was physical capacity for
sexual intercourse, there could be no pubertas if there was a physical
incapacity.

The essence of marriage was consent, and the consent, says Ulpian, "both of
those who come together, and of those in whose power they are;" and
"marriage is not effected by sexual union, but by consent." Those then who
were not sui juris, had not, strictly speaking, connubium, or the "uxoris jure
ducendae facultas"; though in another sense, they had connubium by virtue
of the consent of those in whose power they were, if there was no other
impediment (Dig. 23 tit. 1 s11-13).

The Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea placed certain restrictions on marriage as to


the parties between whom it could take place. [Julia et Papia Poppaea;
Infamia.]

A man could only have one lawful wife at a time; and consequently if he
were married, and divorced his wife, a second marriage would be no
marriage, unless the divorce were effectual.

The marriage Cum conventione in manum differed from that Sine


conventione, in the relationship which it effected between the husband and
the wife; the marriage Cum conventione was a necessary condition to make
a woman a materfamilias. By the marriage Cum conventione, the wife
passed into the familia of her husband, and was to him in the relation of a
daughter, or as it was expressed, "in manum convenit" (Cic. Top. 3; filiae
loco est, Gaius, II.159). In the marriage Sine conventione, the wife's relation
to her own familia remained as before, and she was merely Uxor. "Uxor,"
says Cicero (Top. 3), "is a genus of which there are two species; one is
materfamilias, 'quae in manum convenit; the other is uxor only."
Accordingly a materfamilias is a wife who is in manu, and in the familia of
her husband, and consequently one of his sui heredes; or in the manus of
him in whose power her husband is. A wife not in manu was not a member
of her husband's familia, and therefore the term could not apply to her.
Gellius (XVIII.6) also states that this p741was the old meaning of
materfamilias. Matrona was properly a wife not in manu, and equivalent to
Cicero's "tantummodo uxor"; and she was called matrona before she had any
children. But these words are not always used in these their original and
proper meanings (see Ulp. Frag. iv).

No forms were requisite in marriage; the best evidence of marriage was


cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matrimonii causa might be proved by
various kinds of evidence. A marriage Cum conventione might be effected
by Usus, Farreum, and Coemptio.

If a woman lived with a man for a whole year as his wife, she became in
manu viri by virtue of this matrimonial cohabitation. The consent to live
together as man and wife was the marriage; the usus for a year had the
manus as the result; and this was by analogy to Usucapion of movables
generally, in which usus for one year gave ownership. The Law of the
Twelve Tables provided that if a woman did not wish to come into the
manus of her husband in this manner, she should absent herself from him
annually for three nights (trinoctium) and so break the usus of the year
(Gell. III.2; Gaius, I.111). The Twelve Tables probably did not introduce the
usus in the case of a woman cohabiting with a man matrimonii causa, any
more than they probably did in the case of other things; but as in the case of
other things, they fixed the time within which the usus should have its full
effect, so they established a positive rule as to what time should be a
sufficient interruption of usus in the case of matrimonial cohabitation, and
such a positive rule was obviously necessary in order to determine what
should be a legal interpretation of usus.

Farreum was a form of marriage, in which certain words were used in the
presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by certain religious
ceremonies in which panis farreus was employed; and hence this form of
marriage was also called Confarreatio. This form of marriage must have
fallen generally into disuse in the time of Gaius, who remarks (I.112) that
this legal form of marriage (hoc jus) was in use even in his time for the
marriages of the Flamines Majores and some others. This passage of Gaius
is defective in the MS., but its general sense may be collected from
comparing it with Tacitus (Ann. IV.16) and Servius (ad Aeneid. IV.104,
374). It appears that certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen Dialis,
could only be held by those who were born of parents who had been married
by this ceremony (confarreati parentes). Even in the time of Tiberius, the
ceremony of confarreatio was only observed by a few. As to divorce
between persons married by confarreatio, see Divortium.

The confarreatio is supposed to have been the mode of contracting marriage


among the patricians, and it was a religious ceremony which put the wife in
manu viri.

Coemptio was effected by Mancipatio, and consequently the wife was in


mancipio (Gaius, I.118). A woman who was cohabiting with a man as uxor,
might come into his manus by this ceremony, in which case the coemptio
was said to be matrimonii causa, and she who was formerly uxor became
apud maritum filiae loco. If the coemptio was effected at the time of the
marriage, it was still a separate act. The other coemptio which was called
fiduciae causa and which was between a woman and a man not her husband,
is considered under Testamentum and Tutela. If, however, an uxor made a
coemptio with her husband, not matrimonii causa, but fiduciae causa, the
consequence was that she was in manu, and thereby acquired the rights of a
daughter. It is stated by a modern writer, that the reason why a woman did
not come in mancipium by the coemptio, but only in manum, is this, that she
was not mancipated, but mancipated herself, under the authority of her father
if she was in his power, and that of her tutors, if she was not in the power of
her father; the absurdity of which is obvious, if we have regard to the form
of mancipatio as described by Gaius (I.119), who also speaks (I.118a) of
mancipatio as being the form by which a parent released his daughter from
the patria potestas (e suo jure), which he did when he gave his daughter in
manum viri. The mancipatio must in all cases have been considered as
legally effected by the father or the tutors.

In the course of time, marriage without the manus became the usual
marriage. The manus by usus fell into desuetude (Gaius, I.111).

Sponsalia were not an unusual preliminary of marriage, but they were not
necessary. "Sponsalia," according to Florentinus (Dig. 23 tit. 1 s.1) "sunt
mentio et repromissio nuptiarum futurarum." Gellius has preserved (IV.4) an
extract from the work of Servius Sulpicius Rufus De Dotibus, which, from
the authority of that great jurist, may be considered as unexceptionable
(cf. Varro, de  Ling. Lat. VI.70). Sponsalia, according to Servius, was a
contract by stipulationes and sponsiones, the former on the part of the future
husband, the latter on the part of him who gave the woman in marriage. The
woman who was promised in marriage was accordingly called Sponsa,
which is equivalent to Promissa; the man who engaged to marry was called
Sponsus. The Sponsalia then were an agreement to marry, made in such
form as to give each party a right of action in case of non-performance, and
the offending party was condemned in such damages as to the Judex seemed
just. This was the law (jus) of Sponsalia, adds Servius, to the time when the
Lex Julia gave the Civitas to all Latium; whence we may conclude that
alterations were afterwards made in it.

The Sponsalia were of course not binding, if the parties consented to waive
the contract; and either party could dissolve the contract as either could
dissolve a marriage. If a person was in the relation of double sponsalia at the
same time, he was liable to Infamia [Infamia.] Sometimes a present was
made by the future husband to the future wife by way of earnest (arrha, arrha
sponsalitia), or as it was called propter nuptias donatio (Cod. 5 tit. 3).
Sponsalia might be contracted by those who were not under seven years of
age. The regulation of Augustus, which was apparently comprised in the Lex
Julia et Papia, which declared that no sponsalia should be valid if the
marriage did not follow within two years was not always observed (Sueton.
Aug. c. 34; Dion Cass. LIV.16, and the note of Reimarus). [Infans;
Impubes.]

The consequences of marriage were —

1. The power of the father over the children of the marriage, which was a
completely new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, but one which
had no p742influence over the relation of the husband and wife.
[Patria Potestas.]
2. The liabilities of either of the parties to the punishments affixed to the
violation of the marriage union. [Adulterium; Divortium.]
3. The relation of husband and wife with respect to property, to which
head belong the matters of Dos, Donatio inter virum et uxorem,
Donatio propter nuptias, &c. Many of these matters, however, are not
necessary consequences of marriage, but the consequence of certain
acts which are rendered possible by marriage.
In the later Roman history we often read of marriage contracts which have
reference to Dos, and generally to the relation of husband and wife viewed
with reference to property. A title of the Digest (23 4) treats De Pactis
Dotalibus, which might be made either before or after marriage.

The Roman notion of marriage was this: — it is the union of male and
female, a consortship for the whole of life, the inseparable consuetude of
life, an intercommunion of law, sacred and not sacred (Dig. 23 tit. 2 s.1). But
it is not meant that marriage was to this extent regulated by law, for marriage
is a thing which is, to a great extent, beyond the domain of law. The
definition or description means that there is no legal separation of the
interests of husband and wife in such matters in which the separation would
be opposed to the notion of marriage. Thus the wife had the sacra, the
domicile, and the rank of the husband. Marriage was established by consent,
and continued by dissent; for the dissent of either party, when formally
expressed, could dissolve the relation. [Divortium.]

Neither in the old Roman law nor in its later modifications, was a
community of property an essential part of the notion of marriage; unless we
assume that originally all marriages were accompanied with the conventio in
manum, for in that case, as already observed, the wife became filiaefamilias
loco, and passed into the familia of her husband; or if her husband was in the
power of his father, she became to her husband's father in the relation of a
granddaughter. All her property passed to her husband by a universal
succession (Gaius, II.96, 98), and she could not thenceforward acquire
property for herself. Thus she was entirely removed from her former family
as to her legal status and became as the sister to her husband's children. In
other words, when a woman came in manum, there was a blending of the
matrimonial and the filial relation. It was a good marriage without the
relation expressed by in manu, which was a relation of parent and child
superadded to that of husband and wife. The manus was terminated by
death, loss of Civitas, by Difarreatio, and we may assume by Mancipatio. It
is a legitimate consequence that the wife could not divorce her husband,
though her husband might divorce her, and if we assume that the marriage
accompanied by the cum conventione was originally the only form of
marriage (of which, however, we believe, there is no proof) the statement of
Plutarch [Divortium] that the husband alone had originally the power of
effecting a divorce, will consist with this strict legal deduction. It is possible,
however, that, even if the marriage cum conventione was once the only
marriage, there might have been legal means by which a wife in manu could
be released from the manus; for the will alone would be sufficient to release
her from the marriage. In the time of Gaius (I.137), a woman, after the
repudium was sent, could demand a remancipatio.

When there was no conventio, the woman remained a member of her own
familia: she was to her husband in the same relation as any other Roman
citizen, differing only in this that her sex enabled her to become the mother
of children who were the husband's children and citizens of the state, and
that she owed fidelity to him so long as the matrimonial cohabitation
continued by mutual consent. But her legal status continued as it was before:
if she was not in the power of her father, she had for all purposes a legal
personal existence independently of her husband, and consequently her
property was distinct from his. It must have been with respect to such
marriages as these, that a great part at least of the rules of law relating to Dos
were established; and to such marriages all the rules of law relating to
marriage contracts must have referred, at least so long as the marriage cum
conventione existed and retained its strict character.

When marriage was dissolved, the parties to it might marry again; but
opinion considered it more decent for a woman not to marry again.
A woman was required by usage (mos) to wait a year before she contracted a
second marriage, on the pain of Infamia.

At Rome, the matrimonium juris civilis was originally the only marriage.
But under the influence of the Jus Gentium, a cohabitation between
Peregrini, or between Latini, or between Peregrini and Latini and Romani,
which, in its essentials, was a marriage, a consortium omnis vitae with the
affectio maritalis, was recognised as such; and though such marriage could
not have all the effect of a Roman marriage, it had its general effect in this,
that the children of such a marriage had a father. Thus was established the
notion of a valid marriage generally, which marriage might be either Juris
Civilis or Juris Gentium. Certain conditions were requisite for a valid
marriage generally, and particular conditions were necessary for a Roman
marriage. In the system of Justinian, the distinction ceased, and there
remained only the notion of a valid marriage generally which is the sense of
Justae nuptiae in the Justinian system. This valid or legal marriage is
opposed to all cohabitation which is not marriage; and the children of such
cohabitation have no father (Puchta, Inst. iii § 287). [Infamia.]
The above is only an outline of the Law of Marriage, but it is sufficient to
enable a student to carry his investigations farther. [G.L.]

It remains to describe the customs and rites which were observed by the
Romans at marriages (ritus nuptiales or nuptiarum solemnia justa, τὰ
νομιζόμενα τῶν γαμῶν). After the parties had agreed to marry and the
persons in whose potestas they were had consented, a meeting of friends was
sometimes held at the house of the maiden for the purpose of settling the
marriage-contract, which was called sponsalia, and written on tablets
(tabulae legitimae)a, and signed by both parties (Juven. Sat. II.119, &c.,
VI.25, 200; Gellius, IV.4). The woman after she had promised to become the
wife of a man was called sponsa, pacta, dicta, or sperata (Gell. l.c.; Plaut.
Trinum. II.4.99; Nonius, iv p213). From Juvenal (Sat. VI.27) it appears
p743that, at least during the imperial period, the man put a ring on the finger
of his betrothed, as a pledge of his fidelity. This ring was probably, like all
rings at this time, worn on the left hand, and on the finger next to the
smallest (Macrob. Sat. VII.13). The last point to be fixed was the day on
which the marriage was to take place. Towards the close of the republic it
had become customary to betroth young girls when they were yet children;
Augustus therefore limited the time during which a man was allowed to
continue betrothed to a girl (Suet. Aug. 34), and forbade men to be betrothed
to girls before the latter had completed their tenth year, so that the age of
pubertas being twelve years, a girl might not be compelled to be betrothed
longer than two years (Dion Cass. LIV. p609, Steph.)

The Romans believed that certain days were unfortunate for the performance
of the marriage rites, either on account of the religious character of those
days themselves, or on account of the days by which they were followed, as
the woman had to perform certain religious rites on the day after her
wedding, which could not take place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for
entering upon matrimony were the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every month,
all dies atri, the whole months of May (Ovid Fast. V.490; Plut.
Quaest.  Rom. p284) and February, and a great number of festivals (Macrob.
Sat. I.15; Ovid Fast. II.557). Widows, on the other hand, might marry on
days which were inauspicious for maidens (Macrob. Sat. l.c.; Plut.
Quaest.  Rom. p289).

On the wedding-day, which in the early times was never fixed upon without
consulting the auspices (Cic. de  Div. I.16; Val. Max. II.1 §1), the bride was
dressed in a long white robe with a purple fringe or adorned with ribands
(Juv. II.124). This dress was called tunica recta (Plin. H.  N. VIII.48), and
was bound round the waist with a girdle (corona, cingulum, or zona, Fest.
s.v. Cingulo), which the husband had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil,
called flammeum, was of a bright-yellow colour (Plin. H.  N. XXI.8; Schol.
ad Juv. VI.225), and her shoes likewise (Catull. LXII.10). Her hair was
divided on this occasion with the point of a spear (Ovid. Fast. II.560; Arnob.
adv.  Gent. II. p91; Plut. Quaest.  Rom. p285).

The only form of marriage which was celebrated with solemn religious rites,
was that by confarreatio; the other forms being mere civil acts, were
probably solemnised without any religious ceremony. In the case of a
marriage by confarreatio, a sheep was sacrificed, and its skin was spread
over two chairs, upon which the bride and bridegroom sat down with their
heads covered (Serv. ad  Aen. IV.374). Hereupon the marriage was
completed by pronouncing a solemn formula or prayer, after which another
sacrifice was offered. A cake was made of far and the mola salsa prepared
by the Vestal virgins (Serv. ad Virg. Eclog. VIII.82), and carried before the
bride when she was conducted to the residence of her husband. It is
uncertain whether this cake is the same as that which is called mastaceum
(Juv. Sat. VI.201), and which was in the evening distributed among the
guests assembled at the house of the young husband.

The bride was conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She
was taken with apparent violence from the arms of her mother, or of the
person who had to give her away. On her way she was accompanied by three
boys dressed in the praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers were still alive
(patrimi et matrimi). One of them carried before her a torch of white thorn
(spina) or, according to others, of pine wood; the two others walked by her
side supporting her by the arm (Fest. s.v. Patrimi et matrimi; Varro,
ap. Carisium, I. p117; Plin. H.  N. XVI.18). The bride herself carried a
distaff and a spindle with wool (Plin. H.  N. VIII.48; Plut. Quaest.  Rom.
p271). A boy called camillus carried in a covered vase (cumera, cumerum,
or camillum) the so called utensils of the bride and playthings for children
(crepundia, Fest. s.v. Cumeram; Plaut. Cistel. III.1.5). Besides these persons
who officiated on the occasion, the procession was attended by a numerous
train of friends both of the bride and the bridegroom, whose attendance was
called officium and ad officium venire (Suet. Calig. 25, Claud. 26). Plutarch
(Quaest.  Rom. init.) speaks of five wax-candles which were used at
marriages; if these were borne in the procession, it must have been to light
the company which followed the bride; but it may also be that they were
lighted during the marriage ceremony in the house of the bride.

When the procession arrived at the house of the bridegroom, the door of
which was adorned with garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across
the threshold by pronubi, i.e., men who had only been married to one
woman, that she might not knock against it with her foot, which would have
been an evil omen (Plut. Quaest.  Rom. p271C; Plaut. Cas. IV.4.1). Before
she entered the house, she wound wool around the door-posts of her new
residence, and anointed them with lard (adeps suillus) or wolf's fat (adeps
lupinus, Serv. ad  Aen. IV.19; Plin. H.  N. XXVIII.9). The husband received
her with fire and water, which the woman had to touch. This was either a
symbolic purification (for Serv. ad  Aen. IV.104, says that the newly married
couple washed their feet in this water), or it was a symbolic expression of
welcome, as the interdicere aqua et igni was the formula for banishment.
The bride saluted her husband with the words: ubi tu Caius, ego Caia (Plut.
Quaest. Rom. l.c.). After she had entered the house with distaff and spindle,
she was placed upon a sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house were
delivered into her hands (Fest. s.v. Clavis). A repast (coena nuptialis) given
by the husband to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied
the bride, generally concluded the solemnity of the day (Plaut. Curc. V.2.61;
Suet. Calig. 25). Many ancient writers mention a very popular song,
Talasius or Talassio, which was sung at weddings (Plut. Quaest. Rom. l.c.;
Liv. I.9; Dionys. Ant. Rom. II.31; Fest. s.v.  Talassionem); but whether it was
sung during the repast or during the procession is not quite clear, though we
may infer from the story respecting the origin of the song, that it was sung
while the procession was advancing towards the house of the husband.

It may easily be imagined that a solemnity like that of marriage did not take
place among the merry and humorous Italians without a variety of jests and
railleries, and Ovid (Fast. III.675) mentions obscene songs which were sung
before the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after the company had left.
These songs were probably the p744old Fescennina [Fescennina] , and are
frequently called Epithalamia. At the end of the repast the bride was
conducted by matrons who had not had more than one husband (pronubae),
to the lectus genialis in the atrium, which was on this occasion magnificently
adorned and strewed with flowers. On the following day the husband
sometimes gave another entertainment to his friends, which was called
repotia (Fest. s.v.; Horat. Sat. II.2.60), and the woman who on this day
undertook the management of the house of her husband, had to perform
certain religious rites (Macrob. Sat. I.15), on which account, as was
observed above, it was necessary to select a day for the marriage which was
not followed by a dies ater. These rites probably consisted of sacrifices to
the dii Penates (Cic. de Republ. V.5).

The rites and ceremonies which have been mentioned above, are not
described by any ancient writer in the order in which they took place, and
the order adopted above rests in some measure merely upon conjecture. Nor
is it, on the other hand, clear which of the rites belonged to each of the three
forms of marriage. Thus much only is certain, that the most solemn
ceremonies and those of a religious nature belonged to confarreatio.

The position of a Roman woman after marriage was very different from that
of a Greek woman. The Roman presided over the whole household; she
educated her children, watched over and preserved the honour of the house,
and as the materfamilias she shared the honours and respect shown to her
husband. Far from being confined like the Greek women to a distinct
apartment, the Roman matron, at least during the better centuries of the
republic, occupied the most important part of the house, the atrium
(cf. Lipsius, Elect. I.17; Böttiger, Aldobrandin. Hochzeit, p124 &c.;
Brissonius, De Ritu Nuptiarum, de Jure Connubii, Paris, 1564, 12mo.)
[L. S.]

Thayer's Note:

a the marriage-contract was written on tablets: No marriage contract


tablet has survived. In the dry climate of Egypt, however, a few Latin-
language contracts survived on papyri, at least three of which can be seen
online, with full translations, at the Michigan APIS site; an index page to
them has been provided here by Dr. David Instone Brewer of the Tyndale
House Institute for Early Christianity in the Graeco-Roman World.

 Senatori şi descendenţii acestora la cea de-a patra generaţie sunt interzise


de a se căsători membri ai clasei de Freedmen, sau de a se căsători cineva a
cărui mamă sau tată sau de sine este sau care a fost un actor.
 Freeborn persons are forbidden to contract marriage with a person who is
a procurer or with a freedman or freedwoman of a procurer, or with a person
seized in adultery and convicted of the crime, or with actors. Freeborn
persoane sunt interzise de a contractului de căsătorie cu o persoană care este
un procurer sau cu un FREEDMAN freedwoman sau a unui procurer, sau cu
o persoană capturate în adulter si condamnata de crima, sau cu actorii.
 Soldiers on military service are forbidden to contract marriages. Soldiers
privind serviciul militar sunt interzise de a contractului de casatorii.
 Persons who are not yet married are not permitted to attend certain public
festivals, in particular the ludi , a special exemption being granted for the
Ludi Saeculares in 17 BC Persoanele care încă nu sunt casatoriti nu sunt
autorizate să participe la anumite festivaluri publice, în special, ludi, o
exceptare speciala a fi acordată pentru Ludi Saeculares în 17 î.Hr.
 Persons of illegitimate birth ( spurii, spuriae ) are not permitted to be
registered on the official registers ( alba ). Persoane de naştere ilegitim
(spurii, spuriae) nu sunt permise a fi înregistrate în registrele oficiale (Alba).
 Concubinage is recognized, and the laws concerning legitimate marriage
do not apply. Concubinage este recunoscută, şi de dispoziţiile legale privind
căsătoria legitimă nu se aplică.
 Arrangements of a marital nature which are in contravention of the laws (
contra leges ), against the decrees of the Emperor ( et decreta Principum ),
against traditional accepted standards ( et bonos mores ) are invalid.
Modalităţi de o natură civilă, care sunt în contradicţie dintre legile (leges
contra), fata de decrete ale imparatului (decreta et Principum), faţă de
standardele acceptate tradiţionale (et bonos ways) sunt incorecte.
 The consul (of a pair of consuls) who has the larger number of children is
to be considered the senior consul. Consul (de o pereche de consulii) care
are mai mare număr de copii este de a fi considerat de înalţi consulului. If
each has the same number, the one who is still married is considered senior.
Dacă fiecare are acelaşi număr, cel care este casatorit inca este considerat
superiori. If both are married and each has the same number of children,
only then is the elder in terms of chronology considered the senior (Aulus
Gellius, Noctes Atticae 2. 15). Dacă ambele sunt casatoriti si fiecare are
acelaşi număr de copii, numai atunci este cel Bătrân din punct de vedere al
cronologiei considerat Senior (AULUS Gellius, Noctes Atticae 2. 15).
 Possessing chilcren can lead to exemption from civil obligations. Posedă
chilcren poate duce la exceptarea de la obligatiile civile. Justinian Institutes
1. Iustinian Institutelor 1. 25 praefatio: "There are certain grounds on which
persons are exempt from serving in the office of guardian or curator ( tutor
vel curator ), of which the most common is their having a certain number of
children, whether in power or emancipated. If a man has, in Rome, three
children living, or in Italy four, or in the provinces five, he may claim
exemption from these as from other public obligations." 25 praefatio:
"Există anumite motive pentru care persoanele sunt scutite de la servirea în
biroul de tutore sau curator (tutore sau curator), din care cele mai comune
este lor având un anumit număr de copii, indiferent dacă sunt la putere sau
emancipated. Dacă un Omul are, în Roma, trei copii care trăiesc, în Italia sau
patru, sau în provinciile cinci, el poate pretinde ca scutirea de la aceste
obligaţii de la alte publice. " [In 9 BC, Augustus' wife Livia, who had
reached her fiftieth birthday) was accorded the ius trium liberorum , even
though she did not qualify under the law: Cassius Dio 55. [În 9 î.Hr.,
Augustus "sotia Livia, care au ajuns la ei cincizeci de ziua de nastere) a fost
acordată de IUS trium liberorum, chiar dacă ea nu a califica în conformitate
cu legea: Dio Cassius 55. 2.]
 Freedmen who have two or more children are exempted from certain of
the obligations which could be placed on them by prior oath by their former
masters as conditions for emancipation. Freedmen care au două sau mai
multe copii sunt scutite de anumite obliga ț iilor care ar putea fi plasate pe
ele, înainte de jurământ de către foştii lor stăpâni drept condiţii pentru
emanciparea. A freedwoman above the age of fifty is exempted from the
same obligations. Un freedwoman în vârstă de peste cincizeci este scutit de
la aceleaşi obligaţii. A freedwoman who marries her master is also
exempted. Un freedwoman casatoreste cu care ea este, de asemenea, scutite
de masterat. BUT, a freedwoman who marries her patronus (former master)
may not sue for divorce. DAR, un freedwoman casatoreste cu care ei
patronus (fostul căpitan) nu poate judecata de divorţ.
 A guardian ( tutor ) is assigned by the Praetor Urbanus to a woman or
virgin who ought to be married according to the Lex Julia de ordinibus
maritandis, for the purpose of presenting a dowry. Un gardian (tutore) este
atribuită de către Pretor Urbanus la o femeie sau de virgin care ar trebui să
fie căsătorit în funcţie de Lege Julia de la ordinibus maritandis, în scopul de
a prezenta o dowry.
 Women who have three or more children (if they are freedwomen, four or
more) are exempted from the law which requires them to have a guardian [
ius trium liberorum ]. Femeile care au de trei sau mai multe copii (în cazul
în care sunt freedwomen, patru sau mai multe) sunt scutite de la care legea le
cere să aveţi un gardian [IUS trium liberorum].
 Various privileges of giving gifts between husband and wife are regulated.
Diverse de a acorda privilegii de cadouri între soţ şi soţia sunt reglementate.
 The marriage of men to underage girls, for the purpose of avoiding taxes
against unmarried men ( caelebs ) or the legal disabilities that went with
being unmarried, were regulated (Cassius Dio 54. 17.7). De căsătorie de
oameni pentru a underage fete, în scopul de a evita taxele împotriva
necasatorit bărbaţi (caelebs) sau juridice care au plecat cu handicap, fiind
necasatoriti, au fost reglementate (Dio Cassius 54. 17,7). A minimum age of
ten years was fixed; marriage had to take place within two years of the
betrothal; twelve was designated as the official age of female puberty. Un
minim de varsta de zece ani a fost stabilit; casatorie, a trebuit să aibă loc în
termen de doi ani de la betrothal; amiază a fost desemnat ca oficial de vârstă
a femeilor de pubertate.
 Unmarried men ( caelibes ) are forbidden to receive inheritances and
legacies. Necasatorit bărbaţi (caelibes) sunt interzise de a primi inheritances
şi legacies. This disability begins for men at twenty-five years of age, and
for women at twenty years of age. Acest handicap începe pentru bărbaţi, la
douăzeci şi cinci de ani, şi pentru femei, la douăzeci de ani. It ends for men
at sixty years of age, and for women at fifty. Ea se încheie pentru bărbaţi, la
şaizeci de ani, şi pentru femei la cincizeci.
 Orbi (widowers) without children are deprived of one-half of a legacy or
inheritance. Orbi (widowers) fără copii sunt lipsiti de o jumătate de o
moştenire sau moştenire.
 Women are given one year by the Lex Julia, later two years by the Lex
Papia Poppaea, from the death of a husband to remarry before becoming
subject to penalties. Femeile sunt dat un an de Lege Julia, mai târziu la doi
ani de către Lege Papia Poppaea, de la moartea unui soţ pentru a remarry
înainte de a deveni subiect pentru a sancţiunilor. Women are given six
months from a divorce to remarry. Femeile sunt dat şase luni de la un divorţ
la remarry. Women are given eighteen months from a repudiation to
remarry. Femeile sunt date optsprezece luni de la o repudiere a remarry.
Eventually, this had to be changed to three years (Suetonius Augustus 34). În
cele din urmă, aceasta a trebuit să fie schimbate la trei ani (Suetonius
Augustus 34).

 Patrons are given certain rights of inheritance against freedmen of theirs


who have married but do not have three children. Patroni sunt prezentate
anumite drepturi de moştenire a lor împotriva freedmen care au casatorit dar
nu au trei copii
Concubinatul
Concubinatul era o uniune stabilă între două persoane de sex diferit,
căreia îi lipseşte affectio maritalis, adică intenţia celor două părţi de a se
considera soţ şi soţie.
Concubinatul apare ca o consecinţă a numeroaselor impedimente la
căsătorie prevăzute de dreptul pozitiv.În cazurile respective de imposibilitate
de accedere la beneficiile unei căsătorii legale, acesta apare ca o modalitate
de convieţuire stabilă şi onorabilă a acelor persoane.
Datorită acestor trăsături el nu era privit defavorabil din punct de
vedere moral, dar, onstituind o cale de ocolire a dispoziţiilor legale, nu
producea efecte juridice.Spre exemplu, copiii născuţi din astfel de
uniunierau socotiţi nelegitimi ( vulgo concepti).
O concubină era recunoscută de legea romană in absenţa soţiei
legitime.Provenea dintr+o clasă socială inferioară celei a omului cu care
trăia şi se gospodărea, iar copiii lor, nefiind din punct de vedere juridic egali
cu copii făcuţi cu soţii legitime (uxor), erau numiţi spurii (falşi), spre a-i
deosebi de cei lalţi (naturales).
Tatăl acestor copiii era obligat să-i întreţină ca pe nişte copii legitimi
şi în absenţa copiilor cu adevărat legitimi, să le asigure după moartea sa a
şasea parte din averea sa.
O altă caracteristică a concubinajului în dreptul roman era că legea nu
pretindea de la bărbat şi femeie jurământul de a rămâne nedespărţiţi până la
moarte.

1.Vladimir Hanga – Drept roman, Cluj-Napoca, 1999, op. Cit pag 133
În conformitate cu teoria posesorie a căsătoriei sine manu,
concubinatul apare ca o detenţiune pe plan juridic, deoarece se întemeiază ,
ca şi aceasta, pe o stare de fapt, sdică pe convieţuirea celor două părţi ( ţn
detenţiune corpus), căreia îi lipseşte affectio maritalis ( în detenţiune animus
possidendi), adică tocmai intenţia reciprocă a celor doi soţi de a se
considera soţ şi soţie.
Legile Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus şi Papia Poppaea au permis
concubinatul, atât provizoriu, cât şi permanent, însă prima dintre ele a
stipulat că doar femeile de un rang inferior bărbatului puzeau fi concubine,
iar copii lor erau declaraţi nelegitimi, cu excepţia căsătoriei celor doi între
timp.
În dreptul lui Iustinian situaţia copiilor născuţi din concubinat (liberi
naturales) se îmbunătăţeşte, ei primind un drept la alimente şi unul de
moştenire, însă de proporţii reduse, la averea tatălui lor natural.
Datorită răspândirii sale şi a opiniei sociale favorabile acestei uniuni
permanente, concubinatul se transformă intr-un fel de căsătorie de rang
inferior (inaequale coniugium).
Odată cu căderea Imperiului Roman ( cca 410 DC), instituţia
concubinatului se demonetizează, ajungând , încetul cu încetul, să capete
conotaţia pe cere o are în ziua de azi, adică aceea de uniune nelegitimă.

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