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Before an attempt is made to start with a research project, a research proposal should be compiled. For the
beginner researcher, this is usually the most difficult part. It is, however, the most important aspect of the
research project and should be considered carefully by the researcher. This does not only require subject
knowledge, but also insight into the problem that is going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure
to research envisaged.

The research proposal can be envisaged as the process (step by step guidelines) to plan and to give structure to
the prospective research with the fina1 aim of increasing the validity of the research. It is therefore a written
submission to spell out in a logic format the nature of the design and the means and strategies that are going to
be used.

    

The title is usually only formulated after the research problem and subproblems have been stated in a more or
less final format. The research project title should demarcate the following:

` the WHO or/and WHAT is researched;

` the WHERE;
` the WHEN;
` the HOW; and
` an indication of the ENVISAGED SOLUTION or possible NEW PRODUCT.

Also see Research Topic.



   
   

       
    
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It was previously mentioned that research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to
the problem. Problem statement is therefor the axis which the which the whole research revolves around,
because it explains in short the aim of the research. Prospective researchers can search within their own
subject field for suitable problems. What should, however, be mentioned, is that not all identified problems
within a scientific field of study is suitable for research.

The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem identification).
The question that he/she should ask him/herself is: Are there questions about this problem to which answers
have not been found up to the present? The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead
to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possibly concluding solutions to the stated
problem.

The following aspects are important when formulating a research problem:

` The research problem should always be formulated grammatically cor rect and as completely as
possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless words.
There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are.
` Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into subproblems
is of the utmost importance.

The following serves as an example:

` [ain problem (Aim of the research project should be clearly stated)

` Subproblems ([eans to reach the set goal in a manageable way contribute to solving the problem)

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you should continue to formulate the relevant hypotheses.

Also see Research Problem.

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From the literature it is concluded that a hypothesis is a tentative statement, that implies a proposed answer to
a problem, setting accountability and responsibility of effective research procedure as high priority (De Wet,
[onteith, Steyn & Venter 1981 :76).

It should, however, be emphasized that in no way a hypothesis statement can claim to be the only solution to
the problem. It serves only as a point of departure - the chain between the theory and the research that leads to
the broadening of knowledge (Smit 1983:19).

Hypotheses are thus tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by means of research.

Because hypotheses give structure and direction to research, the following aspects should be kept in mind
when formulating a hypothesis:

` Hypotheses can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough knowledge
regarding the nature, extent and intensity of the problem.
` Hypotheses should figure throughout the research process in order to give structure to the
research.
` Hypotheses are tentative statements/solutions or explanations of the formulated problem. Care
should be taken not to over-simplify and generalize the formulation of hypotheses.
` The research problem does not have to consist of one hypothesis only. The type of problem
area investigated, the extent which encircles the research field are the determinating factors on
how many hypotheses will be included in the research proposal.

A research hypothesis is usually stated in an explanatory form, because it indicates the expected reference of
the difference between two variables. ln other words it verifies the reference that the researcher expects by
means of incorporating selected research procedures.

The research hypothesis may be stated in a directional or non-directional form. According to Landman
(1988:86) and De Wet et al, (1981:80) a directional hypothesis statement indicates the expected direction of
results, while a nondirectional one indicates no difference or no relationship.

ln order to assist you in formulating a research hypothesis, you should ascertain the criteria used in
formulating hypotheses.

 


 




According to Srnit (1983: 20-21 ) the following criteria are of importance in formulating hypotheses. A
hypothesis should:

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` be in accordance with the general theme of other hypotheses statements in the same field of
study, and should be regarded as valid;
` be. co-ordinated with the theory of science;
` be a tentative answer to the formulated problem;
` be logical and simplistic;
` consider available research techniques (to be able to analyze and interpret the results);
` be specific; and
` be relevant to the collection of empirical phenomenons and not merely conclude value
judgements.

  

 


From the aforementioned it is clear that hypotheses can be formulated in more than one way.

Smit (1983:21) demonstrates the latter by using the words ...@ and ...
 when formulating a hypothesis. The
following serves as an example:  first-year students pass through an orientation programme
 they will be
better equipped for study success.

You schould take note that the results after the word , are not necessarily true, but could be, in cases
where the wording after the word @ is true.

   


Landman (1988:12) explains the term hypothesis testing as follows:  






 
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For the testing of a hypothesis, knowledge of applicable variables of the researcher is an important
assumption. An explanation of the term literature survey with regard to research context will be explained
below.

Also see The Hypothesis.

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In this section a precise indication is given of the scope of the research with indication of the assumptions
made, limitations and delimitations of the research before the research is started.

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An indication is given of how the researcher interpreted and is going to use terminology/ concepts in the
research report. This is very important, because some concepts/terms are often used in different meanings by
different authors.

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The researcher should indicate and defend why it is necessary to undertake the research. The benefits that will
result from the research and to whom it will be beneficial should be indicated.

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To conduct research regarding a topic, by implication means that the researcher has obtained sound
knowledge with regard to the research topic. It is therefore imperative that the researcher, at the time of the
submission of the research proposal, clearly indicates what theoretical knowledge he possesses about the
prospective research. A literature search therefore will entail the literature the prospective researcher has
already consulted.

An overview of the literature anticipates the background knowledge of the researcher and a possible
classification of the content for the purpose of stating the research problem. This should also reveal the
importance of the contemplated research. A literature search therefore simplifies the formulation of
hypotheses for the researcher.

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According to De Wet et al. (1981; 40 - 41 ) the aim of a literature study is to:

` give all-round perspectives on the latest research findings regarding the topic;
` indicate the best method, scale of measurements and statistics that can be used;
` interpret the research findings in a better way; and

` determine the relevancy of the prospective research.

It should further noted that the research design must be accompanied by a preliminary list of references
consulted by the researcher during the preparation of the research proposal. The list should include the mast
recent publications on the research topic. It must however be emphasized that this reference list by no means
is sufficient to complete the research project - it must be augmented during further literature searches as the
research process continues.

Also see Data Collection.


 
 

  
 

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A thorough literature study is an indispensable component of all research. It familiarises the researcher with
both research which has already been done in his field as well as with current research. A literature study
makes the researcher aware of what the current train of thought is, as well as the focus of existing and
acceptable thought regarding a specific topic. lt also helps him demarcate the boundaries of his research
theme. When doing this, he finds ideas for his own research theme and for possibly processing his data.

The researcher also gains personally by his literature review. It fosters a certain attitude and leads to the
attainment of certain skills:

* It develops the ability to recognize and select the significant and the relevant, without getting lost in
trivialities.

* It helps in gauging the quality of research material and in planning his research accordingly.

* It develops a critical attitude regarding others' research as well as his own efforts.

* It trains him to be an astute observer especially in respect of certain obstacles, making it possible for him
to avoid them.

* Knowledge of relevant literature helps the researcher to define the boundaries of his field.

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The literature study helps the researcher to:

* select a research problem or theme. Relevant literature enables the researcher to discover where
inconsistencies, wrong designs and incorrect statistical conclusions occur.

Often research reports are concluded with recommendations regarding research which still needs to done. The
researcher's thinking can be shaped in this way, which in turn will enable him to:

* define the boundaries of his field;

* establish the size and extent of his research;

* consider the procedures and the instruments which he will use in his research. After having considered
other researchers' procedures and instruments, the researcher becomes more sophisticated in the choice of his
own;

* see his own problem in better perspective through a better understanding of the underlying theory. This
enables him to establish whether his research will make a contribution and what the value of his contribution
would be;

* avoid unnecessary (non-purposeful) repetition of research already undertaken. A researcher often

develops a brilliant insight into how to tackle a problem, only to discover, through a study of relevant
literature, that someone else has already done so;

* better evaluate the significance of his own findings. This applies especially in respect of which techniques
were used, and which contributions were made to gaining a better understanding of the problem, etc;

* formulate his hypotheses with sharper insight;

* carry out his research more purposefully. In time he learns to eliminate the unnecessary. He learns from
the successes and failures of others.

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In studying works dealing with earlier (and acceptable) research, two types of sources, especially, come to the
fore:

* Comprehension literature, ie books and articles by experts in which they state their opinions, experiences,
theories and ideas on concepts and constructs within a specific problem area, as well as their opinions on what
is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, valuable or worthless regarding insight into specific concepts or
constructs. For the young researcher it is very useful because it helps him to understand the validity of
correctness of theories (outdated, existing or newly formed) better. It also shows him where there are
shortcomings in a specific field (thus requiring research). It also shows its strengths which he may wish to
pursue.

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* Research literature: This includes reporting in respect of research already undertaken in the field (and is
currently drawing attention) and gives the researcher a good indication of successes and problems in respect of
research procedures, design, hypotheses, techniques and instruments.

* The results of studying these two types of literature are thus a personal frame of reference, i.e. an insight
into the body of basic knowledge, possible differences, underlying theories, et cetera.

* It furthermore leads to a greater awareness of those matters within the field which have already
sufficiently been demonstrated and proved, as well as those matters still requiring more in-depth research.

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Primary sources of a specific type of information are the original works, books, magazine articles, films,
sound recordings, et cetera, which reflect the information firsthand. Secondary sources include commentaries,
explanations, elucidations et cetera, which other writers have done on the primary sources.

It is desirable (especially in historical research) that, where possible, the primary source should preferably be
consulted. T here are, however, problems with consulting primary sources.

* The source is out of print, has been destroyed or is unobtainable. Then secondary sources have to be
consulted.

* The primary source is in a foreign language, rendering it inaccessible for the researcher. Translations have to
be used with the expressed knowledge that such translations are possibly inaccurate or even incorrect.
Sometimes it helps to read an expert's comment on the translation.

* The primary source is so complicated and advanced that the researcher cannot understand it. It then helps to
read explanations in technical dictionaries, encyclopaedias or elementary handbooks.

This, does not mean, however, that secondary sources are of no value whatsoever. The researcher could
possibly encounter many useful references to primary sources in his study of secondary sources.

&   

 

Consulting specifically focused documentation systems can be very useful. These are systematically arranged
sources of reference or literature dealing with a specific subject which have appeared. They have many
additional references to related themes. The following are some examples of the most useful indices and/or
sources of information:

* The Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) which has a "Current Index to Journals in
Education" (CIJE) series. Every English article of any significance dealing with Education which has been
written since 1969, has been included in this series and has been indexed and cross-referenced according to
key words.

* The system of documentation of the "Deutsches Jugendinstitut" in [unich (Germany): All German and
most English literature is read, briefly summarised, printed on cards and bound in a book. The cards can be
torn out and filed. An example.

* The "Encyclopaedia of Educational Research" (very similar to the ERIC);

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c 
* The "Review of Educational Research" (very similar to the ERIC);

* The "British Education Index" (very similar to the ERIC);

* The Institute of Contemporary History (INCH) at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein's
documentation systems. At this Institute all South African magazines and newspapers are read, cuttings are
taken and documented according to key concepts. RAU is linked to the system by telephone. If one dials a
relevant number, the cutting appears on a television screen. Photostats (very indistinct) are available at 20
cents per page.

* The system of documentation and computer printout service of the HSRC. This contains printouts of
research which has been done in South Africa in specific subjects.

' +  

The following general guidelines should be useful when making notes:

1.6.1 Start with the most recent works and work back to earlier (timeless) works: your chances of adhering
to outdated or faulty theories are then much smaller. Earlier misunderstandings and obscurities can be
eliminated at this point. The recent works should lead you to older works by referring to them - not vice versa.

1.6.2 You should preferably start with the works of recognized writers dealing with the specific theme. For
example, research on human thinking which does not refer to writers such as Ausubel, Fenerstein, Bruner or
Piaget is incomplete. Then too, it would be unforgivable not to read the original works of such writers.

1.6.3 Further, it is worthwhile starting with articles, treatises and dissertations. This kind of literature is
usually very well-documented and will quickly put you on the track of other relevant sources.

1.6.4 Before reading a source in its entirely, you should read the summary, precis or abstract of the book or
article in order to ascertain whether or not it is at all relevant. This will save much time and will spare you
much frustration.

1.6.5 Before making notes, you should skim through the whole chapter, paragraph or section in order to
ascertain whether, and if so how, the section links up with your own problem. This will help to determine the
kind of notes to be made. [uch valuable time can be saved in this way.

1.6.6 Work on cards and not on scraps of paper. Write your notes directly on to record cards, and save
yourself the double trouble of rewriting. (You will also eliminate the possibility of unnecessary errors made
while rewriting your notes from scraps of paper on the cards). Cards (as a result of their stiffness and uniform
size) are easier to handle and file than scraps of paper or the backs of envelopes.

1.6.7 For this reason, it is a sound habit always to keep a few record cards on hand (in the pocket of your
jacket, in your handbag) so that ideas can be jotted down as soon as they occur. Such ideas may occur in the
bus, while you are waiting to see someone, or while listening to a lecture or presentation.

1.6.8 You should select a comfortably sized card. I personally fine 150 cm x 100 cm (6" x 4") the most
useful. It is small enough to fit into a jacket pocket and yet big enough to allow for plenty of information.

c

   

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1.6.9 In order to facilitate filing and sorting, and to allow for flexibility, a single piece of information
(thought, opinion) should be entered on a single card. You should preferably only write on one side of the
card. In cases where more than one card is used to enter a specific argument (or episode), cards which belong
together can be kept together by means of elastic bands.

1.6.10 The source and a relevant page number should be clearly entered on each card. This will later
eliminate many frustrations.

1.6.11 Each card should have a suitable heading/key word. This facilitates filing and retrieving information.
Apart from this, it already serves to structure the chapters of the research report.

1.6.12 You should try, as far as possible, to summarise the writer's thoughts in your own words. This
eliminates the danger of plagiarism, and will force you to try to understand the information. You should only
rewrite verbatim those thoughts which you cannot paraphrase better. In such cases you should ensure that you
rewrite the quotation absolutely correctly. Each punctuation mark, each capital, must be correct. Be careful to
spell correctly.

1.6.13 You should clearly distinguish on your cards if you have written (1) a direct quotation; (2) a
paraphrased summary or your own comment.

1.6.14 Very long quotations should rather be photostatted and pasted on to the cards - this will save time
and eliminate unnecessary rewriting errors.

1.6.15 Neat handwriting is not a requirement. Retyping notes, or first taking them down in shorthand and
later rewriting them neatly, is an unnecessary waste of time.

1.6.16 You should plan ahead and acquire a sturdy filing system. Initially, shoe boxes are very useful.

1.6.17 A final remark - each source should be dealt with as accurately as if you will not handle it again.

(  

  
   


 

   
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* The sources which should be included depend on the final format of the research report. For example, fewer
sources will be mentioned in an article than will be done in a thesis or dissertation.

* There are, however, timeless sources (e.g. Beknopte Theoretische Paedagoaogiek by Langeveld which was
written in the Forties). Sometimes too, the researcher wishes to indicate an historical image of the rise of a
direction of thought, and then he needs to reach far back.

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Observation means that a researcher studies or observes a specific situation or type of situation.

2.1 There are 5 steps which together make up the observation technique (of the classic scientific method):

2.1.1 The natural phenomenon is observed

2.1.2 Conclusions are drawn

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2.1.3 Hypothesis and premises are formulated or predictions are made. All three these are based on
observations.

2.1.4 Subsequently a procedure is designed which may be used to test the hypotheses.

2.1.5 Further steps follow concurrently, as well as simultaneously: the further extending, refining and
restructuring of existing/new theories.

This method developed rapidly once observation was supplemented by:

* the classification, organization and structuring of the observed information and

* combining observation and an evaluation technique.

This development was made possible by especially the development and use of aids such as the microscope
and the television camera etc. Further, there was a gradual change from the observation of natural phenomena
to the studying of simulated conditions in laboratories.

2.2 The technique of observation is especially suitable when research is comparative, evaluative,
experimental or when it takes the form of a survey. However, it is a very expensive form of research and is
mainly use for "deep" or "below the surface" investigations. In the case of surface research, the technique of
questioning is preferable.

However a technique of observation can be used here too.

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The four most important data-gathering techniques in which questioning plays a role are:

- interviews

- questionnaires

- check lists

- critical incidents.

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In the interview, the researcher talks to the respondent and obtains information directly.

 

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a) Flexible. In-depth.

b) Situation can be adapted.

c) Reasons for answers can be sought.

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d) Clues can be followed up.

e) Yields a higher percentage of answering.

 
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a) Time.

b) Costs.

c) Difficult to analyse responses.

d) Subjectivity.

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Structured or unstructured.

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The questionnaire is usually more superficial than the interview. It is usually used in group work. The
questionnaire is especially useful to obtain information about reasonably big groups.

   
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a) Relatively low costs.

b) Can involve large groups.

c) Usually information that can be easily interpreted.

d) Each question is answered.

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a) Inflexible.

b) Information not in great depth.

c) Individuals may ignore the questionnaire.

     
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Closed questions

Only indicated responses are allowed.

Open-ended questions

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Any response is allowed.

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If a researcher has ensured that he has made provision for all the possible alternatives to each question, and
that the respondent need merely tick the answer, the questionnaire is called a check list. A check list is
structured and the questions are closed.

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a) Convenient to answer.

b) The statistical processing of data is uniform.

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The respondent may be irritated by not being able to find his specific chosen answer among the given
alternatives.

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This is used if the researcher wishes to gauge in great depth what the respondent's opinion is or how he feels
about a matter. A situation (incident) is presented to the respondent, who must then voice his opinion.

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Often the information which the researcher hopes to obtain is so difficult to obtain that he/she prefers to use
existing media to "measure" (or, stated in anthropological-personological terms: to evaluate the respondent's
position with regard to some or other construct).

5.1 One of the most common forms of measuring is physical measuring, e.g. the mass, length of a child; his
endurance, as reflected by the number of push-ups which he can do in one stretch; his nutritional condition as
reflected by the thickness of the skin when tested at the triceps.

5.2 Then there are numerous objective tests used in educational research. Here one distinguishes between:

* aptitude tests

* proficiency tests

* achievement tests.

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The researcher supply here a careful and detailed analysis of the proposed research procedures he/she intends
to follow.

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Action research is regarded as research that is normally carried out by practitioners (persons that stand in the
field of work). It is a method 
 for instructors/trainers. It enables the researcher to investigate a
specific problem that exists in practice. According to Landman (1988: 51) this requires that the researcher
should be involved in the actions that take place. A further refinement of this type of research is that the
results obtained from the research should be relevant. to the practice. In other words it should be applicable
immediately. This means that the, researcher, as expert, and the person standing in the practice, jointly decide
on the formulation of research procedures, allowing the problem to be solved (Jacobs 
  1992: 431).

Action research is characterized according to (Jacobs 
  1992: 45) by the following four features:

Problem-aimed research focuses on a special situation in practice. Seen in research context, action research is
aimed at a specific problem recognizable in practice, and of which the outcome problem solving) is
immediately applicable in practice.

- Collective participation. A second characteristic is that all participants (for instance the researchers and
persons standing in the practice) form an integral part of action research with the exclusive aim to assist in
solving the identified problem.

- Type of empirical research. Thirdly, action research is characterized as a means to change the practice while
the research is going on.

Outcome of research can not be generalized. Lastly, action research is characterized by the fact that problem
solving, seen as renewed corrective actions, can not be generalized, because it should comply with the criteria
set for scientific character.

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Historical research, as the term implies, is research based on describing the past. This type of research
includes for instance investigations like the recording , analysis and interpretation of events in the past with
the purpose of discovering generalizations and deductions that can be useful in understanding the past, the
present and to a limited extent, can anticipate the future (Landman 1988: 65). Historians should consequently
aspire to getting to the original events that took place and therefore the researcher is dependent on the
availability of documentary sources.

According to Klopper (1990: 62) collected data for historical research should pass the following test before it
can be applied for research purposes namely:

` external evidence or criteria that will account for the authenticity of the information should be
included;
` internal evidence or criteria should be included that will explain the meaning of the data.

Although the chronological sequence of events should be precisely acknowledged , researchers should bear in
mind the fact that mere compilation of chronological events is not considered research in itself. An

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investigation can only be regarded as scientific research when the researcher interprets the events that took
place by pointing out their relationship to the problem investigated, and explaining their meaning.

On account of the voluminous data that historians collect, it is extremely important that attention should be
given to a specific plan for the obtaining and organizing of information as well as the retrieval thereof, before
this type of research is attempted.

Lastly, it should be mentioned that historical research also encompasses research concerning the origin,
development and influence of ideas of the past. As examples, aspects like the origin, development and
influence of communism, democracy, capitalism etc can be mentioned. Should you like to do this type of
research you can consult the recommended literature listed in the bibliography.

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The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminology synonymous to this type of research is: describe,
write on, depict. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present
situation in order to elucidate it.

Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or
conditions and degree in detail of the present situation (Landman 1988: 59). The emphasis is on describe
rather than on judge or interpret.

According to Klopper (1990: 64) researchers who use this method for their research usually aim at:

` demarcating the population (representative of the universum) by means of perceiving accurately

research parameters; and
` recording in the form of a written report of that which has been perceived.

The aim of the latter is, that when the total record has been compiled, revision of the documents can occur so
that the perceptions derived at can be thoroughly investigated .

Because the total population (universum) during a specific investigation can not be contemplated as a whole,
researchers make use of the demarcation of the population or of the selection of a representative test sample.
Test sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research. In descriptive research the following
steps should be included:

` Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problem being tested should be explicitly
formulated in the form of a question.
` Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulated problem enables the researcher
to divide the problem into smaller units.
` Problem reduction.
` Hypothesis formulation.
` Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test sample.
` Information retrieval. The application of appropriate information retrieval techniques to comply with
the criteria set for authenticity and competency, is relevant.
` General planning. Any research requires sound planning.
` Report writing. The report entails the reproduction of factual information, the interpretation of data,
conclusions derived from the research and recommendations.

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You should make sure that you understand the meaning of the terminology used. Consult the recommended
sources for detailed explanations. However, further reference must be made to aspects related to test sampling.

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As mentioned previously, when descriptive research is exposed, demarcation of the population become
unavoidable. Test sampling therefor forms an integra! part of this type of research.

Two important questions arise frequently when test sampling is anticipated by researchers, namely:

- How big should the test sample be?

- What is the probability of mistakes occurring in the use of test sampling (instead of the whole
population)?

Special care should be taken with the selection of test samples. The results obtained from a survey can never
be more authentic than the standard of the population or the representatives of the test sample, according to
Klopper (1990: 64). The size of the test sample can also be specified by means of statistics. It is important for
the researcher to bear in mind that it is desirable that test sampling be made as large as possible. The most
important criterium that serves as a guideline here, is the extent to which the test sample corresponds with the
qualities and characteristics of the general population being investigated. The next three factors should be
taken into consideration before a decision is made with regard to the size of the test sample:

- What is the grade of accuracy expected between the test sample and the general population?

- What is the variability of the population? (This, in general terms, is expressed as the standard deviation.)

- What methods should be used in test sampling?

` 

When you attempt descriptive research, you should take care that the test sample reflects the actual population
it represents. The following example holds validity for the latter: you cannot make a statement regarding all
first-year students if you do not include all first-year students in your research. If you do make such a
statement, you have to select enrolled first-year students at all the tertiary institutions or a balanced
proportional manner, and include the latter when you select your test sample for your research.

Landman ( 1988: 91) points out that, when a test sample does not truly represent the population (universum)
from which it is drawn, the test sample is considered a bias sample. It then becomes virtually impossible to
make an accurate statement or to predict about the population.

4 Experimental research

This type of research is known in literature by a variety of names. Synonyms are, for instance: the cause and
consequence method, before and after design, control group design and the laboratory method. Landman
(1988: 82) summarises experiential research when he states that it is research designed to study cause and
consequence. A clear distinction between the terms experiment and experimental research should be evident.
In the former there is normally no question about the interpretation of data in the discovery of new meaning.
Experimental research, however, has control as fundamental characteristic. The selection of control groups,

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based on proportional selection, forms the basis of this type of research. Experimental research is basically the
method that can be applied in a research laboratory. The basic structure of this type of research is elementary:
two situations (cause and consequence) are assessed in order to make a comparison. Following this, attempts
should be made to treat the one situation (cause) from the outside (external variable) to affect change, and then
to reevaluate the two situations. The perceivable changes that occurred can then be presumed as caused by
external variables.

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Because: control is a fundamental characteristic of this type of research, control groups are a prerequisite.
Control groups are selected from a group of selected persons whose experience corresponds with that of the
experimental group. The only difference is that they do not receive the same treatment (Landman 1988: 58).

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In order to do experimental! research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms dependent and
independent variables. In experimental research it is a prerequisite that the researcher should be able to
manipulate the variable and then to assess what the influence of the manipulation on the variable was.

A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values. Objects are
usually not considered as variables - but their characteristics are. As example the following can be considered:
a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics of the transparency are variables, for
example the colour, design etc. In other words, a transparency as an object can take on different values.

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According to Landman (1988: 98) the independent variable is the circumstances or characteristics which the
researcher can manipulate in his effort to determine what their connection with the observed phenomenon is.
This means that the researcher has direct control over the variable. As example of an independent variable, is
study methods.

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The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change, disappear or
appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example, learning content that should be
mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while the manipulation of study methods by means
of different teaching methods, is the independent variable.

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The importance of control in conducting experimental research has been pointed out earlier. A further pre-
requisite for this type of research is validity.

Validity is a term used in research methodology that indicates the extent to which a test complies with the aim
it was designed for. (You should ensure that you understand the terminology used.)

- Internal validity

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Internal validity means that the perceived difference in the independent variable (characteristics that change)
is a direct result of the manipulation of the obtained research results, and therefore possible to conclude. In
experimental design, emphasis is placed on the way in which reference between independent and dependent
variables should not be confused by the presence of uncontrolled variables (Landman 1988: 97).

- External validity

External validity means that the results of the experimental research should be applied to a similar situation
outside the experimental design. The results of the experimental research can then be confirmed in similar
situations. (The findings are then considered general.)

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Experimental research, where the researcher manipulates the independent variable, whilst the dependable
variable are controlled with the aim of establishing the effect of the independent variable on the dependable
variable, is also applicable.

The term ex post facto according to Landman (1988: 62) is used to refer to an experiment in which the
researcher, rather than creating the treatment, examines the effect of a naturally occurring treatment after it has
occurred. In other words it is a study that attempts to discover the pre-existing causal conditions between
groups.

It should, however, be pointed out that the most serious danger of ex post facto-research is the conclusion that
because two factors go together, one is the cause and the other is the effect.

Jacobs et al. (1992: 81) refers to the following procedures when conducting ex post facto-research:

- The. first step should be to state the problem.

- Following this is the determination of the group to be investigated. Two groups of the population that
differ with regard to the variable, should be selected in a proportional manner for the test sample.

- Groups, according to variables, are set equal by means of paring off and statistical techniques of identified
independent and dependent variables.

- Data is collected. Techniques like questionnaires, interviews, literature search etc:. are used to determine
the differences.

- Next follows the interpretation of the research results. The hypothesis is either confirmed or rejected.

Lastly it should be mentioned that this type of research has shortcomings, and that only partial control is
possible.

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A detailed proposed time schedule is supplied.



 
   

A detailed indication of the funds needed to undertake the research. This is necessary where the researcher
intends to apply for funding from the FRD, etc.

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A list of all the qualification the researcher obtained up to date.

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The list of resources used will only include resources referred to in the research proposal. Use the APA style.
An information pamphlet is available from the library.

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Although the research proposal is considered the preliminary planning of a research problem, it should comply
with the following requirements:

` It should preferably be typed in double spacing on size A4 paper.

` A margain of 4cm is required on the left side of the paper.

The following should also accompany the research proposal:

` A front page.
` The name and surname of the researcher.

` Opening words to the effect of:

` Research proposal prepared for a project with the following title: ...................

Apart of the aforementioned format, Leedy (1987:107-108) recommends the following guidelines to assist you
in structuring your presentation logically:

` The programme and its milieu

` State the problem.
` State the subproblems.
` State the hypotheses.
` Demarcate the terrain.

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 ` Define the terminology.
` Indicate the importance of the study.
` Review related literature

The calculation and interpretation of data:

` Relevant data.

` Research methodology.

` The proposed handling of each subproblem.

Subproblem 1

` Data required.
` Where will you find the data.
` How will you obtain the data.
` How will you calculate/interpret the data.

Subproblem 2

..........................

Framework for the prospective study

Landman (1988: 88) holds the view that preparing a research proposal is an important task, especially when
the researcher wishes to obtain funds for the research project. He emphasizes that the research proposal format
should include the following:

` The statement of the problem.

` Hypothesis formulation.

` The significance of the problem.

` Definitions, assumptions, limitations and delimitations.
` Review of related literature.
` A careful and detailed analysis of proposed research procedures.
` A time schedule.
` Budget

What should however be emphasized is the fact that the research proposal forms part of the research project,
and is not merely a means to acquire funding. If you want to obtain funds for your research project, a definite
recipe does not exist for preparing a successful application. The basic guidelines given by Leedy (1985) and
Landman (1988) should suffice.

A well prepared research proposal is characterized by an orderly logical outline. It should be emphasized that
various disciplines and different research types, requires different approaches and methods.

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De Wet, JJ; [onteith, JL de K; Steyn, HS & Venter, PA 1981 +%

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 Pretoria: Butterworth.

Landman, WA 1988 +%




 Pretoria: Serva.

Leedy, PD 1985 " Third Edition. New York: [c[illan Publishing
Co.

Smit, GJ 1983 +%


#! Pretoria: HAU[.

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