CEFE Andragogik

Basic elements for CEFE- 1 Introduction
TRAININGS
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1 Introduction
You have probably often heard the words “adult education” in Education and
connection with CEFE courses. At the same time you are adult educa-
confronted with the words didactics, experimental learning, tion
methods of adult education, communication.... Often, however,
the clear delineation of the meanings behind these words has
been lacking.
‘Education’ is understood to be the generic term encompass-

ing everything, a humanistic education, societal and social
education and technical-professional education; in other
words, everything which promotes an individual in his or her
individual existence. Adult education is a part of the category
entitled education.
Chapters 2 to 8 offer a insight into the field of adult education Orientation:

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and the special features of procedures within CEFE courses.

In the following section you will see a brief description of the
initial questions and most important content of the individual
chapters:
First of all, questions arise regarding adults as autonomous 2: Adults'

beings. For example, thought must be given to the degree to thought struc-
which the existence, attitudes and thought structures of an tures
individual have been shaped by his or her life history and ex-
periences. Thinking about these things offers the advantage of
making it easier to understand adults’ reactions, as well as to
anticipate them and to react accordingly. This area is dealt
with in Chapter 2.
In Chapter 3 you will learn about how adults take in new in- 3: Learning
formation: How does this information get into the brain, and process
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what happens to it once it is there? How is it that it is “stored”

somewhere and is available at a later point in time, i.e. some-
thing is learned? Furthermore, the question is posed regarding
which factors have either a positive or negative influence on
the intake of new material, and the opportunities to influence
this process which are available to the trainer.
The fourth chapter introduces you to the tasks and tools of 4: Design of
trainers. Target group analysis, learning objectives and the learning situa-
most important methods are explained here. tions
CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 1

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Directly from the fourth chapter, the fifth chapter will contain a 5: Experiential
presentation of the experiential learning cycle, which forms the learning
basis on which CEFE seminars are conceived.
Another important question which also results from the fourth 6: Visualisation
chapter is as follows: How can diverse results of complex
learning situations, discussions and group work be recorded
and presented in a way visible to all? The sixth chapter will
present information on the various media which you can use
for visualisation, the important advantages and disadvantages
of the individual media and provide you with some important
rules for their use.
An exchange of experiences, opinions, etc., is always carried 7: Communica-

out by means of communication. Communication is therefore tion
the connecting link between yourself and the participants. In
chapter 7 you will find a basic model for communication. This
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model can help you to understand “misunderstandings” in the

context of CEFE seminars, to rectify them and even to avoid
such instances.
In the eighth chapter you will encounter a presentation of vari- 8: Self concept
ous training styles and an accompanying question as to which
trainer style is the correct one. This chapter concludes with a
few questions regarding typical seminar situations.
The ninth, and last, chapter is a test. If you have registered to 9: Test
participate in a ToT, then prior to the course you can send the
completed test to the institution where you will be attending
the ToT. The trainer of the ToT will, in this way, be able to
form an impression of your learning preconditions and direct
his planning towards your specific needs.
In conclusion it should be noted that the “basic elements” por- Concentration

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tion relates to the presentation of key themes which are im- on relevant
portant for trainers within the context of structuring their CEFE themes
courses with adults. The goal of this section is to provide a
graphical overview of relevant questions concerning adult
education in CEFE seminars.

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7 Self concept
CEFE participants Trainer of the trainer
Prerequisites of adults Tasks and tools of the trainer
1 Adult Education Trainers’ 3 Didactics

support
Life environment experiences for the Analysis of target group
relationship to reality desires learning objectives methods
and motives learner
4 Experiental learning
2 How do adults learn?
5 Visualising
Taking in and processing
information steps of the
learning process
6 Communication as the connecting link between participants and trainers

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Basic elements for CEFE- 2 Adult education
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2 Adult education – Approaching

an adult in his role as a partici-
pant in CEFE courses
This opening chapter of the manual should give you a little Orientation:
glimpse into the mind of an adult individual. You will learn why A glance into
we are giving special thought to adult education. You will also the “heads” of
get an introductory look at themes which we will be dealing adults
with in more detail in later chapters.
2.1 How do adults interact with "reality"

and the consequences for trainers
Let us begin with the assumption that each individual, with the Personal in-
help of his sensual perception, thought, feeling and memory, struments for
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forms his own view of the world, thereby creating his own real- mastering
ity. Every person develops personal strategies and mecha- situations
nisms in order to be able to master the situations which arise arising in eve-
in daily life, and as a result tests these strategies and instru- ryday life
ments to see if they are functional and successful. Those in-
struments which are functional and successful are maintained,
while those which are less successful are either discarded and
replaced or modified. At the same time, one person’s use of
an instrument may lead him to his goal, while the same in-
strument is unusable for another person. There are no correct
or incorrect instruments. All of this is equally true for young
people as well as for adults.
As a person grows older and more experienced, the person’s Unconscious

instruments become ever more polished and stable. And gen- protection of
erally speaking, the further a person has travelled on his jour- proven be-
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ney through life, the greater the frequency with which his/her haviour in or-
instruments have already proven themselves. Practically every der to avoid
situation which forces an adult to question his instruments uncertainty
leads to doubts and insecurity. Doubt and insecurity are feel-
ings which people generally seek to avoid. Individuals do as
much as they can to protect themselves from such feelings by
ceasing to open their instruments to question, making them
sacrosanct. This is generally an unconscious process.
How is an adult to determine that an instrument is not suitable Conscious or

for solving a problem? He finds himself in new situations in unconscious
which his old and proven instruments are employed and avoidance of

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thereby proven ineffectual, or rather – when compared with problem situa-

other instruments – they do not function very well. As a result, tions
it is usually only in borderline or crisis situations that the per-
Justification
ception of one’s own strategies and a critical contemplation of
through exter-
such, as well as a comparison with the strategies used by oth-
nal causes
ers, result in a change or expansion of instruments. The adult
individual consciously or unconsciously avoids such crisis
situations in every day life by not testing his instruments and
avoiding their comparison with others. Instead, personal fail-
ures are often credited to external circumstances, e.g. bad
luck, a lack of information, etc. Children also display this strat-
egy quite often towards others, yet they generally are aware of
their own ‘guilt’.
As a rule, when adult individuals attend educational courses, Participants

they already possess individually proven and relatively estab- can be ex-
lished mechanisms with which to deal with private and profes- pected to re-
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sional life situations. As long as the information being supplied sist when you
to these individuals is ‘neutral’ (e.g. a foreign language), these draw attention
strategies and instruments will be far from obvious. However, to faulty
if you as a trainer were to point out that an entrepreneur has to strategies
plan his marketing activities in advance, for example, you
But remember:
would encounter resistance if some of the participants were
this does not
entrepreneurs who usually made their decisions ad hoc and
mean adults
were of the opinion that this method had proven itself suc-
are less able to
cessful. We have to expect such resistance because our
learn!
strategies collide with those of the corresponding participants.
As trainers, we are easily tempted in such situations to as-
sume that adult learners are less able to learn. Yet a refusal
or obvious “non-learning” from such individuals generally has
nothing whatsoever to do with the ability to learn, rather much
more with the protection of their own strategies and thereby of
their own personality.
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For you as a trainer, the goal is to break through the partici- Breaking
pants’ protective wall. You might accomplish this, for example, through the
by designing specifically-targeted problem situations in which protective wall
the participants are forced to take a critical look at their own by creating
strategies. In CEFE seminars you should create as many such specifically-
situations as possible. This occurs via the so-called “partici- targeted prob-
pant-activating” methods: Within the framework of these lem situations
methods a participant is presented with a problem, and he has
to deal with this problem actively. The experience from this
action is then jointly reflected upon in the group. For this rea-
son we call this learning “experiential learning”. In the course

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of many years in which this approach has been proven and Experiential
further developed in CEFE courses all over the world, a very learning cycle
special method of action has been developed which is re-
flected in the structure of the exercises. This will hereafter be
referred to as the experiential learning cycle.
The question as to how stable an individual’s outlook, or better A participant’s

yet, his strategies and instruments are, is not primarily a result instruments
of a person’s actual age, rather of the amount of experience and their sta-
and problem situations which he has gone through. Therefore bility are de-
it is useful to judge a group of participants according to their termined by
experience. Which problematic situations have the participants his experi-
in this group experienced? Economic crises or wars, or even ences
minority status, a long-term lack of responsibility or easily-
achieved prosperity? Have all of the participants experienced
this? Furthermore it is important to know the educational Experience is
background of the individual participants, both formal and in- the most im-
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formal. This can also provide information concerning the par- portant ele-
ticipants’ thought processes. All of these questions constitute ment of target
important components of the didactic planning which takes group analysis
place prior to a CEFE course: We call this target group
analysis. This will be dealt with more closely in the chapter
Didactics: How to design learning situations.
In addition, for adults it is of particular importance that there be Adults have to

a chance for the comparison of their instruments with those of compare their
others in order that they may judge their success themselves. own strategies
They are more likely to be persuaded by the directly visible with those of
success of a different strategy than by a trainer lecturing down others
to them. This is also a marked contrast to children. Children
Problem situa-
are much more prone to ‘believe’ that activities in which adults
tions in groups
have allowed them to take part are important and viable. As
successful application is generally necessary in order to con-
vince adults, it is a good idea to experience problem situations
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in groups. In this way the results of their own strategies can be

compared with those of others, and conclusions can be drawn
where necessary concerning changes in their own repertoire.
Finally, in the course of our discussion of how adults generally Your specific
deal with ‘reality’, we would like to take a brief look at your role perception of
as a trainer. In a seminar you are an adult amongst other re- reality
sponsible adults. You are neither ‘better’ nor ‘cleverer’ than the
participants – you have developed your own specific thought
processes in your mind and your own individual view of the
world as a result of your childhood, life history and cultural en-
vironment – just as the participants have done in their own

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individual ways. However, as a result of the position conferred Participants’

upon you, ‘trainer’, you are confronted with certain expecta- expectations
tions for your role by the participants. You, too, have expecta- for your role
tions for yourself. How do you perceive yourself within this
area of conflict? What do you want to be to the participants,
and what are your goals? What possibilities are open to you
and what do you view to be the limits of your freedom of action
and influence? We will deal with this question in greater depth
in the chapter The trainer’s self concept.
To conclude this first chapter, a few practical reflections

should be presented which arise from the topics previously
discussed and are important for your work as a trainer:
• Adults do not like being lectured or talked down to. They Not everyone
have their “own minds”. They have their “own thoughts”. will understand
You, as a trainer, are also no more than an adult with your your explana-
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own thoughts. Therefore you should accept that even when tions
your explanations are plausible and viable for one partici-
pant, they may be incomprehensible or out of the question
for another.
Refusals to
Those who are learning deal with the subject matter in an learn
extremely autonomous way on account of their individual
life histories. Often a refusal to learn is also due to an indi-
vidual’s life history, and is initially, at least, ‘the right way’ for
the individual in question.
• As a trainer, you are not dealing with absolute truths either, Your views are
rather imparting views which appear to be correct to you on based on your
account of your life history. The only important difference life history
between you and the participants is that you are better in-
formed than the participants (in both the subject as well in
the methodology). Yet it is up to the participant to decide if Didactic work
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the information you provide is important to him or not. It is is the prereq-

here that didactic work begins: In order for an adult to be uisite for being
ready to accept information which appears meaningless to able to change
him due to his perceptual and thought structures, you have an adult’s ex-
to break through his firmly established relationship to the planatory
environment. By means of your didactic planning and your structure
implementation of this planning during the course, you have
to reach a point where the participant begins to doubt his
structures and his explanatory models. Only his doubt in his
‘proven’ explanatory models can open up the way to other
methods of interpretation.

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• As people we can see ourselves from above. We are able

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Observation
to recognise that we are unable to comprehend the world from the meta
objectively. We can see that we are all different. We realise perspective
our limitations through comparison with other people and Distance from
through contemplation of our surroundings. As a trainer, your feelings
you should repeatedly practice your ability to perform this
so-called ‘observation from the meta perspective (bird’s-eye
view)’. It isn’t enough for you to recognise that the partici-
pants do not understand one another – you have to recog-
nise why this is the case (differing explanatory models and
what they are) and react accordingly. You should also ob-
serve the processes between you and the participants and
analyse them from the meta perspective. This can spare
you excessive personal consternation when there are
problems in the seminar. By taking the meta perspective
you can gain a distance to happenings in the seminar and,
when necessary, from your own feelings.
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2.2 What do entrepreneurs expect when

they attend a CEFE course?
The first question we must ask ourselves is why adults wish to Why do adults
learn in the first place. As a rule, children are not even asked wish to learn?
whether they wish to learn, and are also not given any reason
for doing so. Society dictates that a child has to learn, and for
most children it seems only natural that they have to learn in
order to find their place in society. For adults this is different.
This is more of a conscious decision for them. They have very
specific reasons for wishing to learn something, and they are
the ones who decide when, how and with whom they will learn
it.
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Now we are going to search for reasons for the entrepreneurs

taking part in your CEFE course. For this purpose we are go-
ing to deal with general motives for which adults attend further
education courses, in addition to considering in more detail the
actual reasons for participation in CEFE seminars.
One thing which surely belongs here is the need to learn. The need to
When adults register for a CEFE course, they do so either with learn
the aim of trying to set up shop independently, or they are al-
ready self-employed and have noticed personal deficiencies in
specific areas. Ideally you could assume that participants
come to a course already possessing a general knowledge of

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their problems and that they are open to the content of the
course. This may not be the case, however. There may be
participants who have been obliged to attend by funding insti-
tutions, or there could be participants who heard through the
grapevine that CEFE courses are good, but who actually be-
lieve that they already know everything they need to know.
Specific needs to learn often prove to be initially counterpro- Danger: view-

ductive for joining a CEFE seminar: The participant pays for ing the need to
an action and expects a service which he or she has very learn as being
clearly defined. Educational material is to be given to him in a purely the
structured written format from outside. The participants see transfer of
themselves as the consumers of a service and therefore be- knowledge
lieve that they do not have to do anything, that the trainer will
supply them with knowledge. This type of participant expects
seminars to be conducted as lectures. They expect to be sup-
plied with extensive written material containing the exact in-
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formation they have just heard. They do not expect to play an

active role in the seminar.
One way of counteracting this problem is to provide informa- How this can
tion beforehand. Also it is often the case that the style of the be counter-
CEFE courses is already familiar through the stories of past acted
participants, or clearly demonstrated by the participants’ suc-
cessful implementation of what they have learned in the CEFE
courses. In this case, you can assume that the participants
have high learning expectations, combined with a readiness to
play an active role in this process themselves.
Alongside the learning desires, there are further expectations Affective de-
which adults wish to fulfil by means of further education, and in sires
many cases these are of greater importance that the learning
desire: These are the affective and social-communicative de-
sires. By affective desires we mean the area of feelings and
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attitudes. A participant in a further education course wishes to

feel comfortable, and to have the feeling that “I’m getting
something out of this”. These participants want to know that
they are respected, and to a certain degree they are also
looking for a change of pace, hoping in this way to get a bit of
excitement. Registering for a CEFE course is also frequently
accompanied by uncertain expectations regarding the de-
mands which will be placed on the individuals therein. As a
result, the participant expects to be confronted with these
fears in one way or another.

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Finally, further education is in many ways a social event: A Social-

person has the chance to meet other people, perhaps estab- communicative
lishing important personal and professional contacts, or is desires;
searching for a forum for an exchange of experiences, looking
for new stimuli and for people who are in the same profes-
sional situation to develop contacts for the future. These mo-
tives are categorised as social communicative desires and
are also labelled contact motives. In some cases, CEFE
courses will be located squarely within leisure activities, while
in other cultural circles they are primarily to be seen for their
professional aspects. The greater the degree to which partici-
pation in a CEFE course is due to learning motives, the less
likely it is that the participant is aware of these motives. They
are present latently, however, and should be taken into ac-
count. When participants are familiar with what happens dur-
ing CEFE courses from others, then they are sure to expect a
stronger personal bond to the other participants and/or more
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intensive group processes than in other further education

measures.
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Basic elements for CEFE- 3 How do we learn? - a brief theory
TRAININGS of learning
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3 How do we learn? - a brief theory

of learning
In the following sections you will find information concerning Orientation
the following fields: Chapter 3.1 concerns itself with the ques-
tion as to what exactly is to be understood by the term learn-
ing. The ways in which people process information are dealt
with in Chapter 3.2. In Chapter 3.3 you will find out a bit about
how learning occurs, in other words the individual steps which
occur whenever something is learned. Finally in Chapter 3.4
we will deal with the individual things upon which learning can
be dependent. In this section you will find information con-
cerning the meaning of learning ability, as well as the degree
to which people can be categorised according to the different
types of learning. Chapter 3.4 concludes with a presentation of
some typical types of learning resistance and practical advice
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concerning how you can deal with them.

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3.1 What do we mean by “Learning”?

Learning describes a goal-oriented process of change be- Learning is a
tween two points of time. The term “learning” is an attempt to process
describe something which cannot be observed.
A person enters a situation with certain prerequisites for Prerequisites

learning and learns something new which, at a later point in for learning
time, can be designated as a learning outcome. Whether the and learning
time period within which this learning occurs stretches over outcomes
years, weeks or even just a few seconds is dependent upon
what learning outcome is to be observed. A person may re-
quire several weeks to learn the correct pronunciation of a for-
eign language, learn a telephone number in a matter of sec-
onds, yet take years to learn how to deal with people properly.
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This understanding of learning is based upon a view of people People choose

as beings of independent thought and action, exercising indi- what they wish
vidual responsibility, who are active and goal-oriented in mak- to learn
ing decisions about their learning. There is no automatic
“learning mechanism” waiting to be activated by some random

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stimulation from the environment. Adults in particular learn that

which they want to learn, because it appears to make sense to
do so. The things which a person learns will later enable them
to master life’s situations.
We refer to the ‘competencies’ which a person gains via Learning en-

learning. By competencies we mean the mechanisms, models, compasses the
strategies, value concepts and skills available to an individual. acquisition of
The term competency also refers to the fact that a person competencies
chooses from amongst these models and strategies in accor-
dance with the situation, where necessary adapting them to
the situation at hand and employing them to deal with life’s
situations.
Learning takes place within the individual. As a trainer you are Proof from
not able to see inside those people seeking to learn something subsequent
with your support. It is only later, through the changed behav- behaviour of
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iour of the participant, that you will be able to see whether or the achieve-
not something has been learned. If, for example, the learning ment of a
objective of an exercise is that “in difficult situations the par- learning objec-
ticipant seeks additional information”, and by means of the tive
processing, i.e. the process of acquisition after the experi-
ences in the seminar, the participant has shown that he has
gained cognisance of this, then it will be possible in the course
of a new exercise to see from the participant’s behaviour if the
learning objective has been achieved. If the participant still
does not seek new information in the next exercise or even in
the remainder of the course, this does not mean that nothing
has been learned. His learning success can also present itself
weeks or months later, when he encounters a comparable
situation in “real” life and is able to utilise the knowledge
gained from the course in this situation. This means that you
will by no means always be able to determine whether or not
something has been learned within the framework of the
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seminar. This open understanding of learning is also in accord

with the framework of the CEFE central model for experiential
learning.

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3.2 How do we process information from

our environment?
Do you, too, watch the news on television and find that after- Reading or
wards all you can remember are the first and last reports you hearing some-
saw? Has there also been an occasion where you have read a thing and not
text and thought that you had understood its content, then being able to
were asked to repeat its most important details, only to find remember it af-
that you were unable to? terwards – only
a problem for
Weren’t you concentrating? Is your ability to retain information adults?
less than it should be? Or was this simply a normal occur-
rence? Is this always what happens when someone tries to
remember something? Are adults particularly prone to this,
being in the popular conception more forgetful?
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The everyday experiences described above are easier to un- The brain as a
derstand once you take a closer look at the way in which the three-level fil-
human mind takes in and processes information from the envi- ter
ronment.
As a rule, the information processing function of the brain is

viewed as a three-level filter. These levels are defined as the
ultra-short-term memory, short-term memory and long-term
memory. The volume of information grows ever smaller from
one level to the next. In the end only a fraction of the informa-
tion with which we are bombarded every day ends up within
our long-term memory.
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What happens in ultra-short-term memory? Ultra-short-

term memory
Approximately 10 million pieces of information are sent to the
brain from the sense organs (eyes, ears, sense of touch, etc.)
every second, yet we are only aware of processing a small
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fraction of these. All of these impressions remain in our brain

cells for a number of seconds in the form of electrical currents.
This is why ultra-short-term memory is also known as “percep-
tion memory”. Most of these currents disappear within a short
time without leaving behind any lasting traces. The information
they contained is thereby lost. Only those impressions which
are particularly pronounced – and of which we are therefore
more aware – manage to reach the next level of memory. This
occurs due to the fact that the intensity of the electrical cur-
rents is great enough to bring about chemical changes in the
brain.

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What happens after this in short-term memory? Short-term

memory
Only those impressions strong enough to result in chemical
bonds are able to reach the short-term memory. But even
these connections are not particularly stable, and they can be
destroyed once again if too much new information is intro-
duced within a short period of time. As a result of memory
lapses after accidents, it has been discovered that information
remains in the short-term memory for approximately 20 min-
utes before it is finally stored in the from of proteins in long-
term memory. If anything occurs during this period which dis-
turbs the production of these ‘memory proteins’ (e.g. the shock
resulting from an accident), the conversion to long-term mem-
ory is impaired.
Short-term memory is only able to receive about seven pieces

of information simultaneously. For this it does not matter
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whether it is dealing with individual items or related factual

information. You can imagine this memory as a bookshelf in
which no more than seven books may be placed. If you want
to put as much information as possible into this bookshelf,
then you must either make the books very thick, or write them
in very small type.
What happens to the information in long-term memory? Long-term

memory
The longer and more intensive your dealings with a set of in-
formation are, the greater the chance that the protein produc-
tion is successful, thereby creating lasting “deposits” in the
brain. As a result of these, a person will no longer forget this
information. The fact that older people often have detailed
memories of their childhood experiences is an example of the
fact that information which has managed to reach long-term
memory is stored there forever.
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We can compare long-term memory with a library. This library

looks different than the bookshelf in short-term memory; it has
room for an infinite number of books. So in this library the
problem is no longer the number of books, but rather how we
are to find a book if it has not been used for a while. There-
fore, just as in a large library, it is important that we develop a
good system with which to arrange, and later find, these
books. The fact that a piece of information has been stored in
long-term memory does not necessarily mean that it can be
called up at any time. It is much more probable that it has
been “misplaced” somewhere and that we will only be able to

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find it once we are able to remember the path by which it was

put there, or when we come into contact with specific stimuli
from our environment. Here is an example: Try and remember
the names of all the other students from your last year at
school. Chances are that you will not be able to do this. How-
ever, if someone were to give you a list which included all the
correct names, as well as an additional thirty names, you
would probably have no problems crossing off all the names
which did not belong.
Which pieces of information are able to make it through these Information

stages and complete their journey into the long-term memory? which suc-
As a rule, information stands a good chance of making it past ceeds in
a filter when it: reaching long-
term memory
• triggers emotions in the learner, i.e. an individual’s curiosity,
his/her interest or even anger,
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• awakens associations within the learner, i.e. the new infor-

mation is able to latch on to things the individual is already
aware of, thereby “making sense”,
• is repeatedly used by the learner, or called upon repeatedly

by the user to aid in achieving his or her tasks.
The direct pedagogical consequence of this knowledge is as Stimulate emo-

follows: You should always try in the seminar sequence to tions and cre-
stimulate the learners’ emotions in some way, to create links ate linkages!
to things already known or to relate important information e.g.
with an anecdote, a joke or something similar. Always include
phases for review in your planning, and consolidate that which
has been learned by applying it, for example, or by creating
new educational material out of that which has already been
learnt.
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Alongside these conditions which apply to the same extent to Individuals’ dif-
everyone, there are a number of differences in the manner in ferent ways of
which each individual processes information: Have you ever processing in-
had the experience that you have listened to exactly the same formation
report on the radio as a friend has, yet when discussing it later
with this same individual you notice that they were able to re-
member many more details than you were? Have you also
met people who were very good at remembering smells? Are
you yourself a person who is good at remembering details
from pictures, photographs, etc.?

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Every person perceives information through different chan- Different sen-

nels. By channels, we mean hearing, seeing, smelling and sory channels
taste. For seeing we must make a further distinction between through which
reading and looking at pictures, objects, etc. There are people information is
who are very good at absorbing and processing information taken in
when listening to a speech, but who do not do well when pre-
sented with the same speech in written form. There are people
who always desire to use their hands in order to ‘get a grasp’
of something. Every (healthy) person is able to take in infor-
mation via all of these channels, but it is plain that this infor-
mation is retained and processed with varying degrees of suc-
cess. It is good idea to try and find out which type of person
you are. This makes it easier for you to learn. You can accom-
plish this by means of a number of tests.
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The test will help you to determine through which of the four channels
(seeing, hearing, reading, touching) the test person is best able to store
information in his or her long-term memory, and which forms of learning
are best combined with one another. In order to carry out this test you will
require a partner.
1. Testing reading memory
Please give the test person the following ten words to read. The subject
is allowed to view each word for a total of two seconds. Directly after
the words have been viewed, you are to give them thirty seconds’ worth
of arithmetical exercises from the box below. Then you are to give the
subjects thirty seconds to remember the words and to name them
(measure the time exactly!)
Tissue, piano, thimble, window, oven, blanket, handle, coat, lawn,

chimney
Please make note of the number of words the subject was able to
name.
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2. Testing auditory memory (hearing)
Read the following ten words to your partner out loud, at two second
intervals and speaking clearly. Then you are once again to give your
partner 30 seconds worth of arithmetical exercises and 20 seconds to
remember the words he or she has heard and to name them.
Can, slipper, carpet, jug, shuttlecock, mascara, sugar, lamp, scales,

cupboard
name.
3. Testing visual memory (seeing):
Please gather the ten objects (or similar) from the following list into a
bowl and lay them on the table in front of your partner at two-second
intervals. Afterwards give him another thirty seconds worth of mental
arithmetic exercises and then allow him twenty seconds to remember
and name the objects.
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penny, flannel, key, notebook, apple, knife, record, pencil, thimble, but-
ton
name.
4. Testing haptic memory (touching)
Once again gather the ten objects from the following list into a bowl and
blindfold the person who is to be tested. Now, every two seconds, place
an object into the person’s hands which the subject will be able to rec-
ognise after briefly touching it. Then another thirty seconds of mental
arithmetic exercises and twenty seconds to recall the objects.

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glasses, fork, toothbrush, glass, book, eraser, bottle, watch, scissors,

shoe
Please make note of the number of objects the subject was able to
name.
5. Testing combined memory:
This time the test subject is allowed to see, hear, read and touch the
objects. Once again you are to gather the ten objects from the following
list. In addition, write the names of these objects on a small piece of pa-
per. Now place one object in your partner’s hands once every two sec-
onds, at the same time placing the piece of paper with the name in front
of him and saying it loudly and clearly. Afterwards you are to give the
test person another thirty seconds of mental arithmetic exercises and
twenty seconds to remember and name the objects.
ring, soap, hammer, hat, paint brush, stone, note, pen, plate, bread
Please make note of the number of objects the subject was able to
name.
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The objects within the test can be adapted as required. They should be
easily recognisable and often-used objects. Particularly for test 4, the ob-
jects should have distinctive shapes.
Examples for mental exercises
3x7, 3÷3, 5x5, 2x10, 5x5, 2+17, 8x5, 11-4, 1+6, 35-6, 9-3, 10-7, 8÷4, 7x2,
2÷2, 4x4, 5÷1, 17-4, 8x7, 6x7, 9+3, 7x7 ....
Evaluation
This test should show you through which channels you are particularly
good at taking in information. The values only reveal tendencies. The re-
sults of the individual tests represent the quality of the channel. Should
your results be a four or five for all tests, the channels are of equal value.
Any deviation towards higher values indicates a preference for the channel
in question. If you have a 2 for both reading and hearing, while having a 5
for seeing and touching, you shouldn’t be surprised if you have problems
retaining information from books. As a rule the result for the combined test
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should be at least as high as the best result, and it is often even higher.
The difference to the other values should show you how important it is for
the test person to receive stimulation over more than one channel when
learning.
(This test was taken from: Vester; F.: Denken, Lernen, Vergessen, Munich:
dtv 1985, p. 153 ff)

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Regardless of which channel you make the most use of when Stimulate as
receiving information, you are also perceiving something many channels
through the other channels. This is why it is best to absorb as possible
important information over as many channels as possible.
Take the example of the evening news on television. Here
most of the spoken information is also supported by pictures.
These can either be films or graphics.
If possible, you should also speak with the participants about

the various channels and challenge them to discover which
type they are. Participants who lack extensive learning experi-
ence will be able to improve their retention of information. Par-
ticipants who have had ‘bad scholastic experiences’ can in this
way determine one of the causes for these experiences: It is
possible that when they were at school the channels through
which they are best able to receive information were not
stimulated.
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In conclusion we can say that: Conclusion
• When something is forgotten, it generally is due to the fact

that too much information was presented at one time, that
this information had not yet found its way into the long-term
memory and that it was pushed aside by new information
and/or experiences.
• As a trainer, you can play a large role in ensuring that in-

formation is able to reach the long-term memory. Create
linkages to things which have already been learnt, give the
participants the opportunity to contemplate the things being
taught and to explore their feelings about them, and include
regular phases of review in your plans.
• People absorb information from their environment through a

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number of different channels.
• People are not able to absorb information through the vari-

ous channels with equal effectiveness.
• For this reason, in your seminar you should present infor-

mation in such a way that it can be taken in through more
than one channel.

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3.3 How can we describe the learning

process? – The steps of learning
In the following section we will introduce an easily applicable Model of the
model of the learning process1 which can be used as an ex- learning proc-
planatory tool as well as for planning. It is based upon the ess
premise that people are autonomous and responsible beings
who act in a goal-oriented manner.
‘Learning’ cannot be seen. As we have already said, learning Four types of

occurs when a person has acquired new competencies when new compe-
compared with a point of time in the past. In other words, the tencies:
individual has ‘changed’ between these two points in time. In
relation to the human mind, learning signifies that new infor-
mation has been stored in the long-term memory. New com-
petencies make it possible for a person to act in a different
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manner. Competencies can be broken down into four main

groups:
a) Cognitive competencies describe the ability to express, by - Cognitive

means of memory and/or thought, specific knowledge
and/or to find solutions to certain tasks and problems.
b) Psychomotoric competencies describe the skill with which - Psychomo-

certain materials or tools can be employed. toric
c) Affective competencies encompass a person’s ability to de- - Affective

velop and, when necessary, to change, his or her attitude
towards people, things or facts. This can, for instance, be
used to designate a CEFE course participant’s interest in
carefully drawing up a business plan.
d) Social communicative competencies describe the ability to - Social—

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shape relationships to other people. This refers, in effect, to communi-

the ability to express oneself in a comprehensible manner, cative
to listen to others and to be able to deal with conflicts.
1
Numerous people have differing theories concerning the actual learning process. Within
the framework of this manual it isn’t possible to provide an overview of the various ap-
proaches. Please refer to the following works for an extensive treatment of the subject: Hilgard,
E. R./Bower, G. H.: Theories of Learning, Engelwood Cliffs (N. J.) 1975.

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As a trainer, you cannot always see (directly) whether or not Three steps of
something has been learned because it may not be expressed the learning
in the form of a behaviour which is visible to you. As touched process:
upon earlier, learning can take place over both shorter and
longer periods of time. So what exactly is happening during
this time period? Or, to use the terminology which we have
employed previously: Which steps characterise the path from
the learning prerequisites to the learning outcomes. Re-
gardless of whether the learning takes place within the frame-
work of an organised learning event with a trainer or on an
independently-controlled basis, that which occurs during a
successful learning process can be summarised in three
steps:
Motivation
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Interest in a topic
Consolidation
Repeating and applying
something new Acquisition
Acquiring something new

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1. The interest which brings a person either to read a book, Motivation

enrol in a course or to listen to a trainer.
We call this step motivation. It is important that a level of

moderate motivation be reached. Neither disinterested
boredom nor hysterical over-motivation is conducive to
learning.
2. The step known as acquisition, where the individual ac- Acquisition

quires something new.
Here it is important to know which learning outcome is to

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result from the learning process. If you are learning com-

pletely on your own, you should first decide which informa-
tion you are seeking. When doing this you may find it help-
ful to formulate a specific question, e.g. “What is the differ-
ence between fixed and variable costs?” If you are within an
organised teaching-learning situation, it is enough for the
trainer to know which goals he or she is pursuing. This is
also the procedure for most CEFE exercises and simula-
tions. In these, the participants generally do not know which
goals are being pursued within the individual exercise. The
trainer, however, must be aware of the goal being aimed for
in order to control the processing and generalising.
The following could all be part of the acquisition phase: group

discussions, reading an article or a chapter from a book and
summarising the key points, listening to a presentation and
asking questions afterwards, jointly evaluating an experi-
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ence and drawing conclusions from it, yet also watching as

someone demonstrates something, and then doing this
oneself.
3. In the step known as consolidation that which has just been Consolidation
acquired is repeated and thereby transported into the long-
term memory. Typical examples for this consolidation step
are review questions and frequent application. As a result of
this, that which has been acquired is repeatedly recalled
into consciousness and thereby consolidated. As a CEFE
trainer you can promote consolidation by presenting new
exercises which offer an opportunity to make use of com-
petencies acquired thorough previous exercises and to fur-
ther develop them.
Let us use, as an example, your efforts this very moment to The three
learn something about the basic elements. You have an inter- steps through
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est in learning something about this field because you wish to which you
work as a trainer. You are looking for concrete answers to pass when you
your questions in this section. A few years ago, before you learn about the
had even thought about working in this field, you probably basic elements
would not even have touched this handbook. Whether or not of learning
you are motivated at this moment in time is dependent, for
example, on whether or not you have ever thought about how
learning actually works, or if you think the explanations for the
three steps have been presented in an interesting manner.
The acquisition phase encompasses a variety of activities

which may take place at different points in time: on the one

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hand you are reading the various chapters, perhaps making

notes, writing down questions concerning things which are not
clear, or speaking with a colleague about the things you read
yesterday. Perhaps you are also beginning to play close at-
tention to your environment in order to observe how other
people perceive reality. On the other hand, perhaps you are
then attending a ToT and are able to work through a number
of these fields there with the trainer’s help. You will consoli-
date those things which you saw in the acquisition phase by
going through the key points the next day, rereading individual
passages, asking yourself comprehension questions, explain-
ing to a colleague what learning is, or trying to act out a new
CEFE exercise with your friends.
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3.4 Ability to learn – what does it depend

on?
Now that you have been introduced to a few of the psycho-
logical basics of learning, this chapter will help you understand
what learning is dependent on in concrete learning situations.
At the same time practical examples will be drawn from this for
actual work as a trainer.
3.4.1 Adults’ ability to learn

The intensity with which a person pursues the three steps of
learning and the effectiveness with which an individual takes in
and processes information are both dependent upon the indi-
vidual’s learning ability.
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Learning ability or intelligence may indeed be congenital to a Congenital

certain degree. Further, the first months of life are important
for the development of the basic structures in the brain. This Influenced by
involves the creation of links between the nerve cells in the the first
brain. The denser and more diverse this network is, the more months of life
information it will be able to process at a later point in time. Yet
the most decisive factor in the development of an individual’s
learning ability is the intensity with which a person’s intellec-
tual development is promoted. A person’s ‘talents’ need to be Formed by the
discovered and encouraged. They do not simply appear of intensity of its
their own accord. You can safely assume that adult individuals encourage-
who come from a societal background which was not condu- ment over the
cive to such encouragement possess many previously undis- course of life
covered talents. Yet it is also true of all other people that they
only use a small portion of their talents: Once they realise that
they have a talent for something, they begin to further develop
this talent. Then there is no longer time to discover additional
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talents. (Example: A high-performance athlete is sure to be

able to do something else as well!)
Learning ability is determined by three types of factors: Influencing

factors
1. Cognitive factors, e.g. the ability to analyse and classify or
previously stored information which can be accessed.
2. Individual cultural and social value factors; these influence

internal attitudes towards specific leaning material, towards
the approach or even towards the other participants.

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3. Interactive-social factors: Is the person in question capable

of sharing his thoughts with others, does he understand
other people? What is the state of his communicative
competence?
These factors vary greatly from one individual to the next, and
as a result each individual’s learning ability varies as well.
Learning ability is, more than anything else, the outcome of
learning processes, and it has an effect upon every subse-
quent learning action.
It was long assumed that a person’s increasing age influences Learning abil-
learning ability. Yet recent experience and the latest results of ity and age
international empirical studies have shown that this is not the
case. Illnesses may occasionally have an influence on learn-
ing ability, but age itself does not. Studies have clearly shown
that learning ability during the years of adulthood is very
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strongly linked to school education, the demands of the work-

place and even stimuli to which the entire generation has been
subjected.2
In other words, increasing age does not result in any decrease Structural
in learning ability, rather a change in structure: it is possible, changes in
for example, that mental retention and learning speed de- mental abilities
crease. This decreasing mental capacity can be compensated
for by optimising other capabilities, e.g. through the differenti-
ated ability to target and arrange information, or by particular
care in and motivation to learn. For this reason it is very possi-
ble that the overall intellectual capability of an adult may re-
main relatively stable until a very advanced age.
Individual differences in learning ability increase with advanc- Individual dif-

ing age. Differences in learning performance within an age ferences in
group are often larger than the differences between different learning ability
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age groups, which have a similar pre-history concerning their

development and the fostering of their learning ability.
2
Literature related to this research: Baltes, P.B., S.L. Williams: Cognitive development
and modifiability in adulthood, and Baltes P.B., G.V. Labouvie: Adult development of
intellectual performance; both in ; Elsdorfer, C., M.P. Lawton: The psychology of adult
development, American Psychological Association 1973)

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In the actual seminar situation, the degree of learning motiva- Learning suc-
tion depends, among other things, upon which expectations cess and
the learner has for his or her own learning success. One of the learning re-
things upon which the expectations for learning success are wards influ-
based is the individual’s previous experience with learning. If a ence the moti-
person feels as if he or she has never been able to learn vation to learn
things which other people can, they will have low expectations
for their own learning success. Positive experiences lead to a
correspondingly high level of expectations. When great ex-
pectations are dashed, this can lead to discouragement and
vice versa.
Finally, the participant’s learning motivation is also influenced

by the expected learning reward. Rewards for learning include:
strengthened self-confidence, increasing confidence when
dealing with job-related situations, recognition from the group
or trainer, etc. A high level of expectations regarding the
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learning reward can provide motivation, just as the non-

fulfilment of high expectations can result in decreased motiva-
tion for future learning experiences.
The expected and actual learning outcome, as well as the ex-

pected and actual learning reward, therefore influence both
learning satisfaction and learning motivation not only for the
process at hand, but for future learning processes as well.
In conclusion, a few more sentences concerning concentra- Concentration

tion: As a rule, adults are no longer used to taking in and
processing information for hours on end. Their ability to con-
centrate on pure information gathering is generally particularly
weak in the afternoon. Basically, adults are not any less capa-
ble of concentration than younger people, simply less able to
do so with regard to taking in a continuous stream of informa-
tion being projected at them. This means that as a trainer you
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are, so to speak, imposing your own interpretative model upon

your listeners. They are completely capable of concentrating
for longer periods of time, even in the afternoon, as long as
they are able to employ their own experiences and thought
structures. If they are in agreement with an exercise’s pur-
pose, they are able to concentrate for much longer periods
than are younger people! It is a very good idea to take breaks
while you can still see that their attention level is high: This
means that the participants’ interest to continue after the break
will be strong. If, however, you wait to take a break until after
the participants have already made their tiredness clear on
numerous occasions, chances are that motivation has bot-

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tomed out. In this case, it is difficult to rebuild motivation after

the break. If you wish to impart information – complementing
the exercises - in the form of lectures, you should limit yourself
to about 15 minutes.
3.4.2 Learning types

For your didactic procedure, it is important to know whether
people have common characteristics which could be relevant
for learning.
You will observe the participants in the seminar. You will see Learning be-
how curious individual participants are. You will see, for in- haviour
stance, which participants are obviously setting themselves a
new challenge and which prefer to hold back, waiting. You will
see whether a participant tries to understand the most impor-
tant terms and clearly separate these from other terms. Or you
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will find a participant who is always trying to relate everything

to complex situations in everyday life. What you are able to
observe in this manner is what we like to call “learning behav-
iour”. After you have held a few seminars, you will realise that
every person is a little different, but that there are constantly
recurring forms of learning behaviour, within the framework of
a certain CEFE exercise, for example.
We can put together similar behavioural patterns in a respec- Learning styles

tive category. We call the formation of these categories
“learning styles”: Learning styles are directly derived from ob-
servable behaviour. We understand learning style as a rela-
tively stable, cognitive pattern for acquiring and processing
knowledge and for solving problems. A person's learning style
does not only depend upon his individual experiences but also
upon the particular learning situation. In other words, depend-
ing on the exercise, a person's learning style can also vary
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within a certain range.

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We try to use the learning style to infer the kind of person be- Learning types
hind it. As a result of their appropriation of reality and an in-
crease in experiences, adult persons have developed certain
basic personality characteristics such as care, self-confidence,
optimism, hesitancy or, for instance, a lack of self-confidence
with relation to learning. Learning types can be inferred with
the help of these characteristics. By observing people it is
possible to recognise various patterns of behaviour. With
these patterns, it is possible to classify the people into one of
these categories.
Current behavior, dependent on the situation,

Learning behavior which can be observed by you as the trainer.
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Relatively stable, cognitive models for acquiring

Learning style and processing knowledge and for resolving problems,
generally dependent on the situation.
Stable model for acquiring and processing knowledge

Learning type and for solving problems, regardless of the subject,
based on fundamental personality characteristics.
Abstract term for the ability of a group/individual

Learning ability to take and process new information.
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What are the advantages of getting to know several learning Advantages of

types? getting to
know several
For each category, as a trainer, you can develop mechanisms learning types
to be able to deal with people who correspond to this type. In
this way, you may not be able to do justice to every individual
aspect of a person but it will help you for all future seminars.
Certain forms of behaviour in a person even become “familiar”

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after a very short time and you are able to allocate them to a
basic category. Then you can consider how you wish to ap-
proach the person, according to their learning type; how you
can motivate them, for example, or how you will be able to
give them special assistance. This makes your work as a
trainer easier.
Older people are no longer as easily pliable with regard to a

certain learning style. As a trainer, this means that you have to
adjust to totally different learning styles and not assume that
the participants are going to change their learning styles over
the course of a one or two-week seminar. Instead, you have to
do justice to the different learning styles and use them profita-
bly for the seminar.
There is a whole range of varying approaches for forming General ap-

learning types. In order to give you an insight into these approaches for
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proaches, two of them are outlined here: forming learn-

ing types
For example, let's differentiate between success-oriented
(type 1) and failure-avoidance oriented (type 2) learning. A
learner of the first type is always looking for a challenge in or-
der to achieve success. He is not demotivated by a failure, but
instead looks for the causes of the failure to then achieve suc-
cess. This type of learner places high demands upon himself.
Conversely, the second type of learner sets his targets in such
a way that he can be sure not to fail. He is very frightened of
failure. This type of learner tends to set himself lower targets.
Another concept differentiates between “convergent” and “di-

vergent” types of learners. The convergent type is described
as a traditional person who thinks and learns using expected
methods. The divergent type is a creative maverick, who also
enjoys using new learning methods.
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A third important approach is the Kolb approach from the sev- The Kolb ap-
enties. It is based on the idea that people learn in different proach
ways. Using a test developed by Kolb, the course participants
perform a self-evaluation of these learning styles. The results
of this test are calculated and 4 learning types are formed fol-
lowing the cognition theory of Piaget, from Switzerland.

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Before Kolb's four learning types are described, you can try
the learning style test yourself:
Learning style test in accordance with Kolb (1976)
Below you will find nine lines with four terms on each. Read
the four terms on each line and put these terms into order:
give 4 points to the term which best describes your learning
style and then give 3, 2 and 1 points to the other terms in de-
scending order. The term which worst describes your learning
style is awarded 1 point. The points 4 - 1 may only be awarded
once on each line.
You will probably find it difficult to choose the term which best
characterises your learning style. Try and do the best you can.
The goal of this test is to describe how you learn and not to
evaluate your learning capability.
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1. differentiating trying out committed practical

2. taking up ideas meaningful analytical objective
3. feeling observing thoughtful active
4. agreeing like taking risks examining conscious
5. empathic productive logical questioning
6. abstract considering set active
7. related to the thoughtful future-oriented pragmatic
present
8. experience observation plan/outline experimental
9. intensive reserved rational responsible
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CE (2,3,4,5,7,8) RO (1,3,6,7,8,9) AC (2,3,4,5,8,9) AE (1,3,6,7,8,9)

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To evaluate:
Now vertically add the scores in each column, but only the
scores of the lines in that column (i.e. for the column CE the
scores for the words differentiating, abstract and intensive are
not taken into consideration).
You get a score for each column. Each column characterises

a learning style. The highest point score indicates your pre-
ferred learning style.
Distinctions are made between the following learning styles:
• Concrete Experience (CE) = being involved in a new expe-

rience; experience-oriented, by feeling, social, empirical,
exemplary from a casuistic viewpoint.
• Abstract Conceptualisation (AC) = creating theories to ex-

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plain observations; analytical, logical, examining rationally,

systematic, theoretical, structured, conceptual.
• Active Experimentation (AE) = using theories to solve

problems; active, systematic, trying out, project-oriented,
working in small groups, extroverted.
• Reflective Observation (RO) = watching others or develop-

ing observations about one’s own experience; careful per-
ception, objectively collecting data, introverted, thoughtful,
distant, appraising.
Adults are generally masters of several learning styles. A

learning type can now be determined in accordance with
Kolb's idea by subtracting two learning styles from one an-
other.
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Make two scores from the numbers calculated above:
a) the score for AE minus the score for RO
b) the score for AC minus the score for CE
The results from a) and b) can be positive or negative. The

two scores are drawn on the axes of the following chart and
form the co-ordinates for one point. Depending on the result,
this point lies within one of the quadrants.

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Percentiles
-12
0- -10
-8
10- -7
-6
20- -5
Accomodators -3 Divergers
30- -2
40- -1
0
50-
60- 1
70- 2
80- 3
AE - RO
90- 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -11
Convergers 6
Assimilators
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
18
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100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Percentiles
AC - CE
AE = active experimentation
RO = reflective observation
AC = abstract conceptualisation
CE = concrete experience
An example:
AE - RO = 16 - 12 = 4
AC - CE = 18 - 14= 4
The point described thus falls into the lower left-hand quad-
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rant. Each of these quadrants corresponds to one of the

learning types described below:

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The various learning types:
• Assimilator, who tends to integrate new tasks and informa-

tion into the view of the world which he already has.
• Accommodator, who is prepared to be flexible and adapt to

new situations and to correct his method of interpreting.
• Diverger, who prefers divergent, i.e. prefers unusual, self-

willed (although not always “successful”) thought.
• Converger, who has an effective, tried and tested pattern

for solving problems.
Kolb's test is relatively old. It has the disadvantage of being The value of
based exclusively on self-evaluation, although it has proven learning style
itself in practice. There are other tests on this subject, some of tests in shap-
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which can be found on the Internet or found out about from the ing your semi-
Internet. In addition to the tests, there are also general trea- nar
tises. As a starting point for your search you can have a look
at the Internet sites3 .
For you as a trainer, tests on learning styles and learning

types can have several advantages.
• If every learner recognises which type he tends to belong

to, the efficiency of the seminar can increase because the
participants are able to formulate their requirements more
clearly.
• In the seminar you can emphasise appropriate points in

processing, for example, when you know which proportion
of your participants belong to each group. Imagine that
most of your course participants are assimilators. In this
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3
Mills, Dennis W.: Applying What We Know - Student Learning Styles,
http://www.csrnet.org/csrnet/articles/student-learning-styles.html
Learning Styles Inventory: what is your personal learning style?
http://www.howtolearn.com/personal.html
Telecommunications for Remote Work and Learning, Pedagogy, Learning Styles.
http://www.cyg.net:80/~jblackmo/diglib/styl.html
Algonquin, Learning on the Internet - A General Education Course.
http://www.algonquinc.on.ca/edtech/gened/

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case, it is particularly important that participants realise,

during active experience in the seminar, that their strategies
are not sufficient. A diverger would perhaps not be prepared
to accept the approaches worked out together by the group
because he has his own “more unusual” ideas.
• A classification into various learning types is also an exten-

sion of the target group analysis, since you receive addi-
tional, individual information about the participants, which
can have an effect on your didactic planning.
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3.4.3 Dealing with learning resistance

Throughout the entire second chapter and also in the first
chapter, reference was made to the learning resistance which
can arise during a seminar. Below you will find some important
reasons for why learning resistance can occur and some prac-
tical tips for dealing with it. The compilation is also a summary
of the most important elements in this chapter:
The person ... When learning

1. ... constantly feels that too little is demanded of him. resistance oc-
curs
2. ... feels that too much latent demand is being placed upon
him.
3. ... rejects you as a trainer.
4. ... does not accept the sense and necessity of the learning
requirement.
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5. ... has the feeling that you are not explaining the subject
matter clearly.
6. ... does not agree with your methodical process.
7. ... suffers from a lack of self confidence due to previous,
negative learning experiences.
8. ... feels that his set method of interpreting and values
scale are being brought into question and tries to protect
them.
9. ... is frightened of too much personal criticism.
10. ... is not motivated in the set learning situation.
11. ... does not receive adequate study help from you.
12. ... does not receive adequate help from you with consoli-
dation.
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13. ... is given too much varying information by you and

cannot process it.
How to deal with learning resistance: What to do?
In many cases (e.g. with points 3, 4, and 5) it is a good idea Wait

just to wait for the seminar to take effect on the participants.

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With regard to the problem of an individual not feeling suffi- Involve partici-
ciently challenged, it can be useful to include the person in pants who are
question as an expert when carrying out specific seminar over- or under-
situations. In this way, the other participants can share in their stretched to a
knowledge and the person himself learns from the new de- greater degree
mands made of him.
In the same way, you should constantly include participants

who feel that too many demands are being placed upon them
and make their questions a focal point. These questions are
very often significant for the other participants. Learning capa-
bility also depends on self-confidence and the demands
placed on an individual. If people do not expect to achieve
anything, they do not achieve what they would otherwise be
capable of. As a rule, at least at the beginning, it is difficult to
establish the self-confidence level of each individual partici-
pant. Show that participants that you expect them all to per-
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form to the required standard. Encourage participants who find

it more difficult to speak in the group by listening to them at-
tentively. Ask if something was unclear. This shows the person
concerned that what he says is important for you.
During the planning stage and over the course of the seminar Continual
itself, you should try to find out as much as possible about analysis of the
each individual participant on your course. The more your target groups
know about the target group, the less you risk putting too helps to avoid
many or too few demands on the participants. What is their incorrect
background, which type of profession have they pursued or evaluations
are they currently pursuing? What are their goals for the fu-
ture? What training have they had? What experiences did they
have at school? What formal qualifications do they have? Give
yourself a clear picture of the participants' attitude to training.
Try to determine how the participants themselves judge their
requirements and their learning capability.
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Pay extra attention to body language4 and try to determine

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Body language
from this whether participants feel that too many or too few is an indicator
demands are being placed on them. Organise regular evalua-
tion sessions, where the participants can give suggestions.
CEFE course often represent possible changes with regard to Dealing re-
individual basis convictions, attitudes and personal character- sponsibly with
istics. During their lives, adults have developed a relatively justified resis-
stable concept of themselves. If every adult was totally flexible tance
and capable of learning with regard to questions relating to
identity, he would go from one identity crisis to the next. As a
result, a certain resistance from adults towards appeals to be
flexible serves the purpose of providing justifiable self-
protection (points 9 and 10 of the learning resistances listed).
As a rule, for learning processes which address personal

characteristics you should react sensitively to each participant
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and place fewer demands on their learning achievements than

with other learning content. In this way, you also avoid be-
coming frustrated yourself.
4
Body language is an important component of communication. In the following there are
examples of methods of interpretation:
• A closed stance is, for example, characterised by crossed arms lying protectively
across the body; the back is slightly rounded and the shoulders hang slightly for-
ward. The head is lowered, with eyes to the ground: this prevents making eye
contact with others. This is a defensive type of stance.
• The defensive stance can be intensified by the person turning their whole body
away from the person or group. If all the participants are sitting in a circle, the
situation can arise where one person is constantly sitting outside of the imaginary
circle. This can be an indication that this person regards themselves as an ob-
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server and may not feel part of the group,

• An open stance is normally indicated by arms hanging down in relaxed manner, a
straight back, a relaxed sitting posture etc. The person with an open stance turns to
the others, thus signalling his/her constant willingness to listen to them, to ap-
proach them and to be receptive to suggestions, arguments, etc. For this reason,
trainers are often advised to turn their back on the group as seldom as possible,
even when writing on the flipchart or using upright boards.
• Someone is speaking to a second person who, instead of watching and actively
listening, is doing something else at the same time. This type of behaviour indi-
cates a lack of interest in what the other person is saying and, consequently, a lack
of respect.
• A person constantly shies away from another person. This indicates that the sec-
ond person has violated the intimate realm of the first person.

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Since you may basically assume that participants in CEFE Motivation of

seminars are motivated, point 10 refers to individual learning participants as
situations. For new learning situations, adult persons make an the result of
analysis of their expected learning achievements. What benefit benefit consid-
will this learning achievement probably have? How can I relate erations
it to my own real-life situation? What is the required effort and
will the effort be worth the expected benefit? Of course, this
process does not always occur as consciously as it is depicted
here. The participants who come to your seminar do not have
a catalogue of contents which they definitely want or do not
want to learn. On the contrary: they usually only start to think
of these considerations in the set learning situation itself,
which can be designed by you the trainer.
Experiment and vary your repertoire in order to make the par- Motivational
ticipants receptive to new objects and situations. The motiva- aids in individ-
tion of adults is increased, the more they know about the ual learning
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background and the more links they can create to the knowl- situations
edge which they already have.
It can also seem demotivating if you do not allow participants

to give full expression to their individual learning methods.
Therefore, accept if individual participants take notes, for ex-
ample, to use these to help them understand the seminar at a
later stage.
Further, with regards to studying and consolidation, you

should constantly check to see whether you are giving enough
assistance. The CEFE exercises support these considera-
tions.
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Learning resistance can lead to aggression towards you. First Aggression

of all, it is sensible not to take this personally. You should towards the
avoid making individual participants look stupid in front of the trainer as a re-
group. You will most probably succeed in silencing the person sult of learning
in question but will hurt their self-esteem and usually cause resistance
them to shut off permanently. (This does not mean that you
cannot put your foot down if necessary during discussions,
even if this could be unpleasant for one or more participants).
You should look for the causes of the aggression and then try
to solve the problems which have arisen by explaining and by
involving the other participants in a group discussion. Accept
the suggestions and criticisms of the participants. If you de-
termine that the learning resistance of a participant is deeper,
you can have a one-to-one discussion. As a second step, you
should reflect critically on how you behave as a trainer.
In the following chapter we will use what we have learnt about

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adult learning to consider didactics.

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Further literature
Butler, Kathleen: Learning and Teaching Style: In Theory and Practice,

Gabriel Systems, Inc., Box 357, Maynard, MA, 1984.
Buzan, Tony: Make the Most of Your Mind, New York: E. P. Dutton, 1984
Buzan, Tony: Use Both Sides of Your Brain, New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974.
Clark, Barbara: Optimizing Learning, Merrill, 1986.
Decker, Franz: Grundlagen und neue Ansätze in der Weiterbildung. Hand-

buch der Weiterbildung für die Praxis in Wirtschaft und Verwaltung; Bd. 7;
München, Wien: Hanser 1984.
Gagné, R. M.: The conditions of learning, New York, 1977.
Galyean, Beverly: Mind Sight, Learning Through Imaging, Center for Inte-
grative Learning, 207 West Manson, Santa Barbara, CA., 93101, 1983.
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Hilgard, E. R./Bower, G. H.: Theories of Learning, Engelwood Cliffs (N. J.)

1975.
Kolb, David: The Learning Style Inventory Technical Manual. Boston 1976.
McCarthy, Bernice, 4-MAT in Action, Creative Lesson Plans for Teaching

to Learning Styles Through Right/Left Mode Techniques, Excel, 1983.
McCarthy, Bernice, The 4-MAT System, Teaching to Learning Styles

Through Right/Left Mode Techniques, Excel, 600 Enterprise Drive, #101,
Oak Brook, IL 60521, 1981.
Novak, Joseph and Bob D. Gowin: Learning to Learn, Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 1984.
Rudinger, G.: Intelligenz im Alter., Diss. Bonn 1971.
Schale, K. W./Parham, J. A.: Cohort-Sequentail Analyses of Adult Intellec-

tual Development. In: Dev. Psych. 13 (1977), S. 649 ff.
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Siebert, Horst: Didaktisches Handeln in der Erwachsenenbildung. Didaktik

aus konstruktivistischer Sicht. Neuwied, Kriftel, Berlin: Luchterhand 2. Aufl.
1997.
Sund, Robert: Piaget for Educators, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill,

1976.
Vester, Frederic: Denken, Lernen, Vergessen. Was geht un unserem Kopf

vor, wie lernt das Gehirn, und wann läßt es uns im Stich?, München:
Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag ,12. Aufl. 1985.

Basic elements for CEFE- 4 Didactics: How to design
TRAININGS learning situations
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4 Didactics: How to design learning

situations
This chapter and the next (5) are intended to give you con-
crete help in designing the seminar.
Pete and Paula are two trainers who hold CEFE seminars. Pete and Paula
Paula has already run a whole series of seminars. Peter is
starting his first seminar in the next few days. Their questions,
problems and ideas lead you through this chapter.
Chapter 4.1 is dedicated to the question of what is to be un- Orientation

derstood under the term didactics. Chapter 4.2 is concerned
with the reasons for a target group analysis, what is to be
taken into account with a target group analysis and which con-
clusions can be drawn from the information acquired. Chapter
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4.3 is based on the subject of learning objectives. Here, the

reason for determining learning objectives is explained. Fur-
ther, you are shown how to formulate learning objectives.
Chapter 4.4 presents various methods and integral methods
which can be used in the seminars. In the last Chapter, 4.5,
the two trainers collect all the most important points to make a
successful CEFE training program.
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4.1 What does didactics mean?

Paula meets Pete in a restaurant and can tell immediately by Pete and Paula
the look on his face that something is wrong.
Paula: ”Well Pete, you look like you've had it, what's the
matter?”
Pete: ”Ah, I've just read a lot about the way which we per-
ceive reality and how we learn. My head's spinning
because there's so much to take into account! I'm
starting to wonder how a trainer can manage to think
of everything and get a useful CEFE seminar off the
ground.”
Paula: ”Oh no, it sounds as if you're feeling a bit depressed.”
Pete: ”Well, I hope that I'll now get some practical indica-
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tions on how I should structure a CEFE seminar. A

friend told me that I should read something about the
field of didactics and claimed that this is where I will
find the necessary information, is that right?”
Paula: ”Yes, basically, if ...”
Pete: ”Okay, what's didactics then?
Paula ”Imagine that you are a small businessman and don't
know anything about marketing, but you need the ba-
sic instruments in order to ascertain whether your
product will take off.”
Pete: ”Yeah, okay, but that hasn't got anything to do with my
seminar!”
Paula: ”Just wait a moment! Now imagine that there is some-
one else who knows that you should learn something
about marketing and also knows that you want to.
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Imagine that he supports your learning process so that

after a certain time, you can actually carry out a real
marketing study, for instance. ”
Pete: ”And that's - didactics?”
Paula: ”Yes, all that is covered by the field of didactics!”

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The information from the dialogue can be summarised as fol- Definition ap-
lows: proach
Didactics is concerned with the selection of subjects suited

to certain target groups and questions of methodical struc-
turing within the framework of seminar situations and other
situations where something is to be imparted.
This requires knowledge of the structures and contexts of the

subjects and the learning and motivation structures of the par-
ticipants or the target group.
For learning situations within the framework of the CEFE

seminars, didactics means looking for answers to various
questions in the run-up to a course. These include both ques-
tions of a general type and those which already have a more
specific nature. Some important questions are listed below:
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General questions: Questions in

the run-up to a
1. What are the conscious (and unconscious) expectations of CEFE course
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the participants with regard to the seminar and how can I

include these in the course of the seminar?
2. What reasons or motives do the participants have for at-
tending the seminar?
3. What previous knowledge and abilities do the participants
have and how can I link up to these directly?
4. In which professional (and private) action situations do the
participants find themselves and how can I relate the
seminar both thematically and methodically to their expe-
riences?

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5. Which central theme is dealt with in the course? What are

the long-term basic objectives which should result for the
participants in this course?
6. How much time is available for the seminar and at which
times will the seminar be held (whole days, half days,
evenings...)?
7. Where is the seminar to take place - what do the rooms
need to be like?
Questions related specifically to the seminar situation:
8. Which learning objectives can the group of participants

achieve?
9. Which exercises shall I choose?
10. How should the exercises be sequenced?
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11. Which materials do I need?

12. Which problems could arise with the individual exercises?
13. How can I have an effect on the individual stages in the
learning process?
As all these questions are to be answered before the begin- Didactic action
ning of a seminar, you can assume that didactic action is means prepa-
mainly concerned with the preparation of CEFE courses, i.e. ration
with the planning and decision-making before the start of the
seminar. At the same time, detailed planning does not prevent
the seminar progressing in a creative and flexible manner. It
also does not prevent phases of self-study. A trainer who, be-
fore the seminar, thinks about the points at which he would
like to make use of spontaneous activities and creativity, and
at which points he would like to collate, structure and work on
results, supports the learning process of the participants.
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While a charismatic trainer acting solely in an intuitive manner Fascination

may leave participants with the feeling of having attended an and learning
exciting and integrated seminar with a fascinating trainer, par- progress
ticipants in a consistently planned seminar will be more likely
to have the impression that they have achieved progress in
learning, which will equip them with a better handling appara-
tus in the future. Liking or being enthusiastic about the
trainer's personality is only of secondary importance with re-
gard to its effect on the learning progress.

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Didactics preparation also means that trainers mentally adjust Preparing men-
to surprises, i.e. they are prepared for unexpected interpreta- tally for unex-
tions, questions, participant suggestions, resistance and other pected situa-
incidents. Within the framework of a CEFE training, this atti- tions
tude could, for example, become noticeable in the following
situation: During the evaluation of an exercise the emphasis of
the discussion is on group dynamic processes and not on the
learning objective which you wish to achieve as the main point
of this exercise. The planning which is now required is more a
question of ad hoc planning, where you have to compare your
previous planning with the new development in no time and
consider how to deviate from the previous plan, integrate the
new development and still reach your goal. You must decide
within the space of seconds how and whether to change your
schedule and whether you are going to modify your objectives.
Such a procedure requires a lot of composure, a lot of experi-
ence and, above all, the will to constantly reflect on these ex-
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periences.
At the beginning your preparation will consist of an exact and Anticipating

firmly structured plan. Deviations from your plan will confuse resistance
you and make you feel unsure. With each seminar try to use
the opportunities which the participants present to you with
their contributions and to work on your competence as a
trainer. If you do not approach your run-up planning too rigidly
but instead interpret it as extensive preparation, you will be
able to react confidently to the majority of uncertain situations.
Consider which questions or resistance could arise. Act out
possible discussions in your mind. Sometimes in the run-up, it
is also useful to ask friends and acquaintances how they
would react in certain situations.
In the following chapters it will become clear that the areas Close link be-
learning objectives, methods and target group are closely tween the ar-
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linked. The interesting and demanding task of the trainer is to eas of didac-
operate within this area of conflict. tics

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4.2 A trainers first duty: to analyse the

target group and the conditions of
learning
Pete has to prepare a CEFE seminar on the subject of costs Pete and Paula
and is already a little worried about it. He now asks Paula for
help.
Pete: I've been thinking about a lot of questions concerning

preparation. A lot occurred to me and I had no idea
where I should start.
Paula: Well, have you made a start?
Pete: Yes, I started with the question which seemed to me
to be most obvious.
Paula: And what was that?
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Pete: The institute which I am working for wanted to know

what times they should schedule the CEFE course for.
So it's precisely this question which I started with. The
course is designed for 40 hours. At first I thought,
okay, the course is designed for 40 hours, that's 5 full
days. But then later I thought perhaps it should be
done on half days because now I know that you can't
continually take in an unlimited amount of information.
Paula: So, did you solve the problem?
Pete: Well, now that you're asking......
Paula: No, I'm sure that your ideas on taking in information
are correct. Have you given any thought to whether
the participants will even be able to participate every
day over a period of two weeks?
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Pete: No, I'll probably have to ask the participants that?

Paula: Have you thought about the fact that it might be im-
portant to ask the participants about other things as
well?
In this dialogue Pete and Paula talk about the target group. In Target group:
the context of didactics, the target group is understood as a adults, busi-
group of people who are taking part in a seminar, a course, ness people,
etc. With regard to certain criteria they are similar. Within the individuals
context of a didactic analysis, you should first regard the group
as a whole. In CEFE courses this group always consists of

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adults who are or are becoming business people. First of all, in

the run-up, you have to give a lot of consideration to the target
group of these adults. Then, the next consideration is to con-
centrate firmly on each individual person who has signed up
for your seminar, or who has already been selected for the
seminar by the institute performing the seminar.
These are two different aspects. The first aspect has to do Typical re-
with the 'requirements', which adults and business people quirements of
typically bring with them. The second aspect is concerned with adults
'concrete requirements with relation to the learning objectives
in the CEFE courses'. The first aspect has already been ex-
amined in detail in chapter 2 and chapter 3.
The second aspect of the concrete requirements which indi- Requirement of

vidual participants bring with them is directly significant for the concrete
forming learning objectives. The objectives of the entire semi- target group.
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nar and of each individual exercise should be geared to the

special requirements of the participants, or as many of the
participants as possible. (It is never actually possible for the
objectives to be equally appropriate for all the participants.)
Pete thinks about exactly what he wants to know about the Pete and Paula
participants in order to carry out his didactics planning:
Pete: I would really like to know whether the participants can

write and do arithmetic. I would also think it's important
to know how they live and, very important, what they
are planning to do after the CEFE course?
Paula: Let's try and find some different areas which are im-
portant and find some questions for these areas.
Pete: I wouldn't only be able to use this catalogue of ques-
tions in this course, but for all the courses, selecting
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the appropriate questions each time.

Paula: You could develop a type of standard form and you
would have a list from which you could select further
questions depending on the situation.
Pete and Paula find six different areas and have formulated
questions for these areas:

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1. Specific social origin. Questions:

• Where did the person grow up; where do they live now?
• How many different places have they lived in?
• Do the surroundings encourage work motivation?
• How has the person dealt with unfamiliar things so far? Is the person
curious or does he or she avoid confrontation?
• How do they communicate with each other in their social surround-
ings?
• What is the predominant level of language in their social surround-
ings?
• Were family life and their social surroundings characterised by mu-
tual respect?
• Was the person encouraged to gain formal qualifications?
• Gender also forms a part of the area. As a rule, in all cultural circles,
men and women have had their own specific, varying role experi-
ences which influence both their willingness to participate in CEFE
1
courses and their behaviour during the course.
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2. Current life situation. Questions:

• What is the participant's family situation?
• Does he have friends or acquaintances who are self-employed?
• What is the economic situation of the person and his family?
• What is the effort or sacrifice involved for the person to participate?
• In their endeavours in further education does the person encounter
acknowledgement or resistance?
3. Previous knowledge. Questions:
• Which schooling has the participant had?
• Have they had any type of professional training?
• How did they start their professional life?
• Have they attended any previous further education course?
• Does the person, as a result of their profession, already have spe-
cialist knowledge in the field which is the subject of the course?
• What is the person's level in basic areas (language, mathematics)?
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• What were the person's learning experiences during the time they
were at school (if they attended school regularly)?
• Did they have the feeling of learning easily or with difficulty?
1
As a trainer, you will also often be responsible for structuring organisational outline con-
ditions. If, for example, you want to achieve a high participation level among women in a
region where they are mainly responsible for bringing up children, it is sensible to ar-
range the times of the CEFE course to suit the women’s requirements and to fit it in with
possible childcare arrangements etc.

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4. Professional experiences and current professional situation.

Questions:
• How long has the person been working?
• In which area/areas has the person already worked?
• What is their current profession (with job description - if required)?
• If CEFE courses do not take place on whole days, you can try to find
out the degree of emotional and physical strain in the professional
surroundings.
• Has the person been successful in their profession so far?
• Have they had any experience of failure?
5. Experiences with CEFE or similar courses. Questions:

• Have they already attended a CEFE course (does he/she know the
method?)
• Do they have experience of acquaintances in their environment
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having taken part in CEFE courses and successfully implementing

the results?
• Have they already attended further training events on the subject of

this course; if yes, what was the content? (What knowledge does the
person have of the content?)
6. Planning for future self-employment. Questions:
• Which professional perspectives result from the CEFE course?
• In which area/branch are they planning their business?
• When will the person start to earn their livelihood?
• If appropriate, which steps have already been taken?
• What are the financial resources required?
• Which possible sources of finance are available to them?
According to which questions Peter selects, he can, for in- Results from
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stance, form a picture according to the questionnaire of the question-

whether the participants are used to organised learning and naire
group work and of the degree of receptiveness and concentra-
tion. From this, he can conclude how frequently to discuss a
certain subject and how to cope with possible conflicts. He can
also estimate which attitude they have towards learning,
whether they are familiar with the method of experiential
learning and how much he has to take learning resistance
into account. In the end, he gets an insight into their expertise.

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Some of Paula's and Pete's questions can be classified in the Homogeneity/

'border area' between the typical requirements for adults and heterogeneity
the concrete requirements with regard to the learning objec- of the target
tives in the CEFE course. A certain schooling and a certain group and
social background may be standard for the region where the consequences
participants come from. These prerequisites can just as easily for determining
vary individually. In other areas too, some of the answers will learning objec-
be similar depending on the region and target group. The tives
more similar the individual people in a target group with regard
to their learning requirements, the more homogenous the
group. Then it is basically easier to formulate learning objec-
tives. You will also come across heterogeneous target groups;
these are groups where the learning requirements of each in-
dividual person are different. This makes it more difficult but
not impossible to formulate learning objectives. The exercises
in part IV address this problem, by presenting two different
types of learning objectives in the exercises: One section in-
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corporates the minimum objectives to be achieved by every-

one. A second section includes additional 'higher objectives' to
be striven for, which you can choose to try or not, depending
on the circumstances of your own, specific group. With the
higher objectives, it is a question of proposals which you can
change and supplement as you wish. Each time you have to
consider which objectives you wish to try and achieve with the
selected exercise against the background of the particularities
of your group of participants. An example makes structuring
clearer.
In order to obtain the information mentioned above, it is nec- Questionnaires

essary to send participants questionnaires for registration in in advance
good time. You will find examples for questionnaires in Part III
Organising. Often these questionnaires are sent directly by
the institutes which are carrying out the seminar. In any case,
you can always check the questionnaire before it is sent to see
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whether the questions are adequate from your point of view. If

necessary, supplement the questionnaire with questions which
you consider to be useful for the special seminar subject and
the roughly-established target group, using the categories
mentioned above as a guide. It is also possible to use basic
tests (e.g. mathematics). In some cases this questionnaire is
first used to pre-select the participants, with the questionnaires
from the selected participants also being used for target group
analysis.
Admittedly, you cannot obtain all your information solely by

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these means. It is difficult to ask questions about social origin.

As a rule, participants are not able to answer questions about
their learning experiences; their willingness to open up to oth-
ers can only be determined indirectly.
As a result, the target group analysis should not stop with your Continue to
efforts in advance. It is a continual accompaniment to the update the tar-
seminar. Every day you learn something new about your par- get group
ticipants. You get to know their learning requirements and analysis
readapt the planning for the next day or evening of the semi-
nar to these learning requirements. The learning requirements
are the competencies, which an adult brings to the learning
situation. After every successful learning process, you can
assume that the participants have changed learning compe-
tencies and, as a result, changed learning requirements.
These changed learning requirements are again taken into
consideration when structuring the next exercise.
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4.3 Second trainers duty: to define objec-

tives of learning
The following conversation between Pete and Paula is an in- Pete and Paula
troduction to this subject.
Paula: "What, you are going to hold your first seminar next
month? That's great!”
Pete: "Yes, it starts in two weeks - and a full course straight
away ... I'm already quite nervous."
Paula: "I can understand that. Tell me, what are your objec-
tives for the participants?"
Pete: "Well, they should learn how to think in a business-like
manner!"
Paula: "Yes, that was my objective formulation before the first
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seminar too. So after half the seminar I asked myself

whether they were thinking in a business-like way ...."
Pete: "And, what happened?"
Paula: "I had no idea of how to measure whether they could
or couldn't!
Pete: "Why, that's easy, look for information, perseverance
and awareness of costs and ..."
Paula: "Stop! Let's take perseverance - what exactly are the
participants supposed to be able to do? Should they
themselves be clear about that? Should they have
done it themselves in several exercises? Or what
about cost awareness; what is that supposed to
mean? Are they supposed to know that they should
never spend more than they can afford? Are they sup-
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posed to know that by causation/saving costs the op-

erating results change considerably? Are they sup-
posed to be able to name the different types of costs?
Or are they even supposed to have checked their
project with regard to costs and have already devel-
oped possibilities of reducing costs?”
Pete: "Oh, I haven't even thought about that!"
Paula: "You know, that often happens; trainers only have a
really rough idea of where they are going but don't
give any consideration to formulating these objectives
more precisely."

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Pete: "How can these objectives be more precisely deter-

mined, then?"
The objectives which are discussed in this dialogue are de- Learning ob-
scribed as learning objectives. Learning objectives describe jectives are
what a participant should be able to do at the end of a semi- related to the
nar. Learning objectives are concerned with a concrete target participants
group and, consequently, should be formulated in such a way
that they can be achieved by this target group in the time in-
tended. Therefore, the trainer needs to give extensive consid-
eration to the prerequisites of the participants, both before
the start of the seminar and during the course of the seminar.
Learning objectives always comprise what should be learnt Integral parts

(content) and a description of what the participants should be of the learning
able to do with regard to this content (behaviour). objectives
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The following definition can be made with this information: Definition ap-
proach learn-
Learning objectives are objectives which a trainer ing objective
determines for the participants before the begin-
ning of a seminar or before the beginning of a
CEFE exercise. In the context of one or more ar-
eas of content, the final behaviour of the partici-
pants is defined as the desired result of the
learning process.
Formulating learning objectives before the beginning of a Advantages of

seminar and constantly adapting these objectives during the determining
seminar has the following advantages: learning objec-
tives
• Trainers consider precisely what they wish to achieve with
the target group concerned.
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• Trainers can consciously and justifiably deviate from learn-

ing objectives which have already been formulated, change
them and use them as a new line of orientation.
• Trainers have a measuring instrument with which they can

determine, at the end of a seminar and at intermediate
stages, whether the participants have achieved what the
trainers envisaged.

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Determining learning objectives prevents neither a participant- Learning ob-

oriented procedure, nor a flexible reaction to unexpected jectives as ba-
events. It serves as a basis and supporting aid for structuring sis and sup-
the seminar. In the CEFE exercises you are given sugges- port
tions for learning objectives which you should check and
change with the help of information you have collected con-
cerning the specific participants.
Below you will find the basic rules for formulating learning ob-
jectives.
1. Learning objectives always have to be formulated from the Basic rules for
participants point of view. formulating
learning objec-
Example: Participants know the elements of the productive tives
problem solving cycle.
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2. Learning objectives always comprehend a content: What

shall be imparted?
3. Learning objectives always describe the desirable behav-

iour: Which behaviour, referring to this content, is the par-
ticipant expected to show at the end of the learning proc-
ess?
4. In addition, a learning objective may contain certain condi-

tions, e.g. within a certain time limit participants elabo-
rate..... or participants elaborate via sheets of paper.... etc.
Anyway conditions are not an obligatory element of learning
objectives.
5. Further, a learning objective should do justice to the general

requirements of the target formulations. The objective
should be determined firmly and realistically. It consists of
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one sentence and is formulated in the present tense.
Some examples to explain the above rules: Examples
1. Participants know the 7 basic elements of the SCAMPER

model for product innovation.
2. Participants identify modifications and improvements to a

given product by utilising the SCAMPER model.
Learning objectives can be formulated for four different areas Four catego-
of behaviour: ries of learning

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Head: includes all cognitive processes like thinking, objectives

understanding, analysing, evaluating etc.
Heart : includes personal attitudes and opinions.
Interhuman: refers to social-communicative aspects.
Hand: includes every psychomotoric action.
In CEFE-seminars, the area "Hand" does not have the same
importance as the other three areas. Therefore, the following
paragraphs refer only to the other three areas.
There is a big difference between knowing the function of a Different

marketing tool and being able to decide on the implementation stages for each
of the tool concerned in an application situation, or modifying area of behav-
the tool according to a situation. For this reason, there are iour
different levels for each area of behaviour. Superior levels al-
ways contain inferior levels. The definitions are not always
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clear and may overlap. Nevertheless, by choosing the corre-

sponding verbs a clear position within each area of behaviour
can be made.
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Area:
Head - cognitive
to evaluate, to decide, to formulate criteria,

to judge, to assign, to select, to estimate
Evaluation effects, to appreciate, to estimate impact,
to conclude, to choose
to integrate, to put together, to combine, to

Synthesis construct, to deduce, to plan, to modify, to
check, to justify, to order, to classify, to
generalize, to develop a theory/hypothesis
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to discover, to find out, to explore, to

determine, to observe, to differ, to classify,
Analysis to confront, to compare, to interpret, to
investigate, to examine, to experience,
to develop
to apply, to transfer, to organize, to predict,

Application to calculate, to classify, to arrange, to
explain, to clarify, to report, to describe, to
distinguish, to sort (out)
to enumerate, to indicate, to state, to

name, to describe, to define, to draw, to
Knowledge/Comprehention formulate, to denominate, to show, to
report, to depict, to stress, to summarize,
to translate, to interpret
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Area:
Heart - affective
to be convinced of, to create a hierarchy

Characterization of values, to have principles, to orientate
by a value or a one's own behavior, to be determined, to
value system evaluate according to, to change attitudes
according to, to develop a philosophy of life
Organization of a to appraise, to evaluate in the right way,

system of values (relating to prove, to appreciate, to classify, to compare,
values to environment) to categorize values, to establish priorities
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to accept, to prefer, to feel obliged, to

Valuing approve, to agree, to tolerate, to admit,
to recognize, to be convinced,...
Responding to agree, to be willing, to orientate, to

participate, to follow, to delight in something,
to feel satisfied doing ..., to feel attracted by
Receiving to follow, to perceive, to note, to become

aware of, to take into account, to realize,
to consider, to know, to hear, to find out
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Area:
Interhuman - socio-communicative
The importance of this area has been increasing steadily, as private
and professional lifesituations can only be coped with successfully
by means of communicative interaction with other people. The
description of this area is a relatively new approach. A basic
framework of this area follows below.
to deal with arguments, to give one's opinion,

to encourage others to make a statement or to
pose a question, to give feedback, to receive
feedback, to bear conflicts, to understand
someone else's position and to copmpare/
to cooperate confront it with one's personal view, to speak
up, to ease or to increase tensions, to accept
the evaluations/opinions of others, to discover
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the rules of working together, to elaborate

conflict solutions, to find a compromise, ...
to perceive, to undestand what other members

to understand others of the group say, believe, feel and think, to
interpret the motives and intensions of others
to make a point, to describe one's feelings,

to express oneself to express one's opinion, to transmit, to
formulate, to report, to react to the behaviour
of others.
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Some examples: Examples of

learning objec-
Participants accept the necessity of quality control. tives
Participants invite other group members to give their opinions.
Participants analyse their own problem-solving behaviour.
Participants know the elements of productive problem resolu-

tion.
Participants develop appropriate strategies for problem solv-

ing.
When you first formulate learning objectives for a CEFE exer- Consequences
cise, you will normally do this automatically in the cognitive for your prepa-
area. However, the spectrum of human behaviour also in- ration
cludes values and communication with others. In this respect,
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it is also useful to consider possible learning objectives from

the other two areas and formulate them if you think it appro-
priate. In this way your participants have the chance to experi-
ence more complex learning processes.
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4.4 Third trainers duty: to select methods

Pete has now had the questionnaires back and evaluated Pete and Paula
them. He has quite a clear picture of his participants.
Paula: ”How is it looking with your participants?”

Pete: ”Well, according to the information I've got a really
homogenous target group, most of them have compa-
rable basic schooling. They all come from a small re-
gion so I can assume that they all have similar back-
grounds of experience. Almost all of them want to be-
come self-employed practically straight after the
course. They haven't got any business knowledge,
their opinions on my example dialogues have shown
me that they probably shy away from conflict.”
Paula: ”You've already got a lot of important basic information
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there.”
Pete: ”Yes, and they were only excerpts....only what does
that mean for the structure of my course?”
Paula: ”Basically you are dealing with adults who want to be-
come business people and who haven't attended
seminar-type events for a long time. As a result, we
have to consider which method of imparting is basi-
cally useful for this target group. Then you have to de-
fine each of the concrete learning situations and apply
appropriate methods for these learning situations. ”
Pete: ”Well great, what does appropriate mean then?”
Paula: ”You have to think about which methods are particu-
larly suitable, against the background of the prerequi-
sites for learning and objectives which you have se-
lected for this learning situation.”
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Pete: ”Hmm, now I already know from CEFE that exercises

are performed which actively involve the participants.
Paula: Yes, you are right. In CEFE a specific didactic-
methodical form was decided on: Experiential learn-
ing. You can read exactly what this is later in chapter
5 of this manual. Within this form itself you find differ-
ent methods. To create a general overview for you
and to be able to better judge later what experiential
learning is, we should have a look at some of the most
important, methodical, basic forms, okay?”.

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Pete: ”I don't have much choice, do I?”
During the next few hours, Pete and Paula study some im- How to impart?
portant, methodical forms: The main question is how to impart
to the participants the learning content which they have se-
lected and put into concrete terms by formulating the learning
objectives.
Here, there are basically two recognised forms in pedagogy: 2 Basic forms
1. The traditional form is the one where the trainer dominates. 1. Trainer
Here, these whole-class teaching methods differ from other dominates
methods which are geared more toward discussion and the
involvement of participants. With the classical whole-class
teaching method, the trainer dominates the seminar; he
gives presentations, asks questions and judges whether the
answers from the participants are right or wrong. He steers
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the course of the seminar; the participants react. With

methods directed more strongly towards group discussion,
the seminar leader is more responsive to the statements of
the participants and, at many points, mediates the discus-
sion between the participants.
As the presentation also has a part to play in the modern Rules for giv-
forms described below, Pete and Paula also compile some ing a presenta-
rules for a good presentation: tion
• prepare the presentation (objectives, structure, ques-

tions),
• during the presentation, keep making the structure of
the presentation clear,
• speak briefly and succinctly,
• present the content in a simple way,
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• make the presentation livelier by using varying gestures

and facial expressions,
• avoid a monotone speaking style,
• speak slowly and clearly,
• use visual aids,
• maintain eye contact with the group,

•
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be aware of the reactions of the participants and react

to them (e.g. if they show signs of fatigue ask some
questions).
These rules also apply generally for every explanation which

you give.
2. A modern form is participant action. Initiated by stimulus 2. Participant

from the trainer, the participants work independently in dominates
groups or alone. The action comes from the participants;
the participants steer the proceedings; the trainer mainly
reacts to the suggestions of the participants.
There are several methods within the context of the second

form which can be described as methodical, integral methods
because they span a long period and have various phases,
within which other methods can also be applied.
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Business games Business game

Business games are aimed at acquiring knowledge of the
greater circumstances and interactions and gaining experi-
ence with the decision-making processes. They are an exer-
cise for understanding all components relevant in decision-
making and developing independent decision-making and
planning strategies. Analytical and creative thinking and ability
to form hypotheses is encouraged. Moreover, you will placed
in the position to be able to transfer this knowledge later.
Business games comprise three phases:
1. In the introduction the reason for the game is presented and

the situation within which the participants should work is
described. The situation is based on a real-life business
situation but in a simplified form. According to a starting
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situation, certain facts are laid down beforehand.
2. In the action phase the participants act in a way where they

acknowledge the rules of the game as their reality for a pe-
riod of time stipulated in advance. They identify with certain
roles and, within the framework of these roles, make deci-
sions which will influence the course of the business game.
This phase can last several hours or even days.

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3. After the simulated business situation has finished, it is fol-

lowed by the reflection phase with the trainer. This serves to
evaluate what has happened, on the basis of the observa-
tions, impressions and experiences of the participants and
to develop their general knowledge for dealing with similar
situations.
During the reflection phase, the trainer plays more of a central

role. He mediates the discussion, creates impetus with key
questions, interrupts discussions which are not leading to-
wards achieving the learning objectives, collects results and
structures and visualises them. In the context of developing
general knowledge, a short presentation or the use of pre-
pared worksheets is also conceivable. Viewed as a whole, the
participants are also involved in these phases to a high de-
gree.
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A lot of work is required to prepare a business game: Descrip-

tions of the situation, agreements, letters, evaluation materials
etc. all have to be prepared.
Role-play Role-play
Role-plays aim to make the participant empathise with a role

and discover, “play out” and understand previously unknown
parts of their own personality or ways of behaving which they
have not yet practised. They learn flexibility and tolerance by
putting themselves in a position to understand the thoughts,
feelings and actions of other participants. The intention is to
improve the power of observation and the ability to analyse
and communicate. The role-play, like the business game, also
encourages decision-making and problem-solving abilities.
In the role-play one more or less precisely-defined role is used

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as a guiding principle for acting in a certain situation. Like in

the business game, the defined situation is a simulated ex-
cerpt from reality, although, in most cases, it is more restricted
than in the business game. The roles of the participants can
either be precisely determined and laid down to a great degree
(guided role-play) or creative and free to fulfil a basic task (role
making). Not all the participants are directly integrated into the
role-play. Mostly, some participants have an observatory func-
tion.

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Like business games, role-plays can be divided into three

phases: introduction, action phase and reflection phase. The
action phase is considerably shorter than in the role-play. In
the evaluation phase, the results from the observation can
also be included. The remarks on the business game with re-
gard to the role of the trainer and the degree of participant in-
volvement also apply for the role-play.
With role-plays you can prepare a description of a situation

and role cards. In addition, it can also be useful to prepare
observation sheets, or at least key questions for the observing
participants.
As the separation between role-play and business game is Business

often not clear, it is a good idea to summarise by speaking games and
about simulation exercises in general. Simulations are active role-plays are
learning methods. They reduce reality down to a certain, sim- simulation ex-
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plified framework, where parts of reality are simulated. In this ercises

way, you are transferring reality into a game situation, which
makes it possible for the participants to identify with the exer-
cise and the role which they play in this exercise.
The case study is to be mentioned as another participant- Case study

oriented method. Case studies describe a real or fictitious
situation. The task for the participants is to analyse the situa-
tion presented to them from a theoretical standpoint and con-
sider possible solutions. The case study does not simulate a
situation or how to deal with it, it is more concerned with
studying and analysing the situation.
It encourages independent and constructive thought and

makes it possible to develop problem-solving approaches. The
ability to interpret, discuss and solve conflicts is also strength-
ened.
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I would also like to mention reconnaissance and expert ques- Reconnais-

tioning: Using such methods, participants have the task of sance and ex-
analysing the reality outside the seminar rooms, in accordance pert question-
with previously laid down criteria, e.g. using a questionnaire, ing
with the objective of creating a marketing plan, for instance.
The questionnaire is not simulated and is actually a real ques-
tionnaire for passers-by. The results are evaluated with the
participants.

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The methods shown can be represented in an overview:
trainer-centred participant-oriented methods

methods
description of whole-class teach- role-play, case study reconnaissance,
the methods ing, seminar dis- business questioning (e.g.
cussion game market analyses)
degree of presentation proce- simulation analytical real-life procedure
reality dure, descriptive procedure procedure
representation
demands procedures which active learning procedure which are decision-
placed upon are receptive, in- making and action and work-oriented; related to
partici- formation and behaviour and information
pants knowledge-oriented
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Participant-oriented methods do not mean that the seminar The role of the
leader does not influence what happens in the seminar. His trainer in par-
didactic work is more focused on the area of preparation, ob- ticipant-
servation and targeted mediation of the evaluation. A well oriented meth-
thought-out role-play with cards, materials and aids for the ods
course of the discussion and evaluation process usually re-
quires a lot more preparation work than a presentation or a
trainer-participant discussion. It entails intensive reflection on
the target group, if necessary with individuals, so the trainer
can decide in advance which role will be assigned to which
person, for instance. With participant-oriented methods it is not
the activity of the trainer but that of the participant which is the
focal point. The competence of the trainer has an indirect ef-
fect. He is responsible for the fact that simulation rules are set
up, accepted by everyone and observed. The trainer has to
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observe the game closely. Due to their complexity and variety

of tasks, these methods are often performed by more than one
trainer at the same time (team teaching).

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It should be pointed out that you do not always have to deter- Dominance of
mine a learning objective and select appropriate methods for the content or
this as the first step after analysing the target group. It is also dominance of
possible to basically consider the use of methods for a target the method?
group and select certain methods or integral methods in ad-
vance, or parallel to the concrete formulation of learning ob-
jectives. Such a procedure influences the determination of
learning objectives: Only content which can be imparted using
the methods determined will be selected.
The following is recommended: Co-ordination

of subject-
1. Subjects which you regard as important for a target group matter and
but which do not suit the integral method which has been methods
selected, should be imparted using another method.
2. Try to make the most of the opportunities to use a wide

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repertoire of methods.
It is sensible to co-ordinate the content to be imparted with the

methods.
CEFE is a good example here: Together with the knowledge Co-ordination

of the basic content which is to be imparted, you should also with CEFE
be aware that, in order to hold a successful seminar, you must
select certain methods to impart content to adults within the
context of the promotion of small and medium-sized enter-
prises. Therefore, for CEFE there is a “method case” specially
tailored towards the target group, which basically uses simula-
tion exercises, within the context of which, classical imparting
methods, e.g. short presentations by the trainer, can also be
used.
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4.5 Fourth trainers duty: to create appro-

priate conditions for adult education
Then Pete and Paula try to put together some requirements
for Pete's work with the adults in his first CEFE course. They
believe the following rules of thumb to be important:
• Create an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect.

• An open atmosphere: Try to get the participants to give
objective and constructive criticism to the other members
of the group, thus opening themselves up to criticism.
• At the same time always put the objective of promoting the
professional competence of the participants at the fore-
front.
• Provide room for emotion. Thinking and learning are not
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exclusively cognitive processes. All thoughts and learning

processes are based in emotionality. What a person thinks,
or thinks they know, about another person or fact cannot
be separated from the feelings and emotions they have for
this person or fact and how the person or fact affects them.
Good feelings can encourage the learning process, bad
feeling can block it.
• Make breaks flexible and in line with the needs of the par-
ticipants (as far as permitted by the course of the method
selected).
• Make the seminar more relaxed by using for example en-
ergisers.
• Give participants the opportunity to include their own expe-
riences and value scales.
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Further reading
Siebert, Horst: Didaktisches Handeln in der Erwachsenenbildung. Didaktik aus konstruktivistischer

Sicht. Neuwied, Kriftel, Berlin: Luchterhand 2. Aufl. 1997.
Twardy, Martin (Hrsg.): Kompendium Fachdidaktik Wirtschaftswissenschaften. Düsseldorf: Verlagsan-

stalt Handwerk, 1983.
Euler, Dieter: Kommunikationsfähigkeit und computerunterstütztes Lernen. Düsseldorf: Verlagsanstalt

Handwerk, 1989.
Knoll, Jörg: Kurs- und Seminarmethoden. ein Trainingsbuch zur Gestaltung von Kursen und Semi-
naren, Arbeits- und Gesprächskreisen. 6. überarb, Aufl. Beltz: Weinheim, Basel 1995.
Müller, Kurt R.: Teilnehmerorientierung und Lebensweltbezug im sozialisationstheoretischen und

bildungspraktischen Zusammenhang, in: Studienbibliothek für Erwachsenenbildung/ Pädagogische
Arbeitsstelle, Deutscher Volkshochschul-Verband. Bd. 5, Vermittlungsprobleme und Vermittlungsauf-
gaben, zsgest. von Hans Tietgens. Frankfurt: Pädagogische Arbeitsstelle 1993.
Müller, Kurt (Hrsg.): Kurs- und Seminargestaltung: ein Handbuch für Mitarbeiter/innen im Bereich von
CEFE CEFE
Training und Kursleitung. Neuausg. - Beltz: Weinheim, Basel 1991.
Bloom, Benjamin S.:Taxonomy of educational objectives. I. Cognitive domain, New York: Mc Kay
1972.
Krathwohl, David. R.: Taxonomy of educational objectives. II Affective domain. New York: Mc Kay,
1971.
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Basic elements for CEFE- 5 The Experiential Learning in
TRAININGS CEFE
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5 The Experiential Learning in

CEFE
In the previous chapters several references have been made Orientation
to the CEFE exercises and experiential learning. CEFE exer-
cises, of which the CEFE seminars mainly consist, are based
on the approach of experiential learning.
In the first sub-chapter you will find some information about

how experiential learning came about (Chapter 5.1). Chapter
5.2 is dedicated to the description of the general structure of
the experiential learning cycle. In Chapter 5.3 the concrete
structure of experiential learning in CEFE is described. In
Chapter 5.4 you will find explanations of the structure of the
exercises in conjunction with an example. In this sub-chapter
you will also find an example of an energiser. In the subse-
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quent Chapter 5.5, there are some explanations of why CEFE

uses experiential learning.
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TRAININGS CEFE
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5.1 How did experiential learning come

about?
In the sixties and seventies, as a result of the psychological New view:
work of Piaget and Gagné, the reductionist view of human be- people = acting
haviour was replaced by a non-reductionist view of human on own re-
behaviour. With the reductionist view of human behaviour, the sponsibility
implication was that the human brain reacts to external stimuli and objective-
in the form of a black box whose function is predominantly oriented
chemical, leading to predictable reactions. The new view sees
the person as a being which acts and reacts in a self-
determined, objective-oriented manner.
Experiential learning can be regarded as a further develop- Definition ap-

ment of the new non-reductionist view of human behaviour. In proach
the early 1980s, it was particularly characterised by Mezirow,
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Freire, Kolb and Gregorc. They assumed that learning took

place by processing experience, particularly by critically re-
flecting on experience.
Experiential learning takes place when a person acting on

their own responsibility implements his knowledge, capabili-
ties, attitudes and socio-communicative competencies in a
situation and then reflects on this.
From this assumption came the experiential learning cycle

which is described in the following chapter.
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TRAININGS CEFE
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5.2 Which phases make up the experien-

tial learning cycle?
Experiential learning is always the result of an experience: An Based on own
experience is subsequently critically reflected upon. This re- experience
flection again leads to an activity (action), which in turn be-
comes a set starting point for the next reflection phase.
Over the course of time, Kolb further developed this simple

cycle by extending the reflection phase. He differentiated be-
tween the phase of critical reflection and the phase of abstract
conceptualisation. Whereas in the critical reflection we ask
questions about the experience in terms of previous experi-
ences, in the abstract conceptualisation we try to find answers.
We make generalisations, draw conclusions and form hy-
potheses about the experience. The next action phase be-
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comes a phase of active experimentation, where we try the

hypothesis out.
There are now different terms for this cycle in literature, al- Basic structure
though the basic structure is always comparable. Starting with
a concrete experience, observations are made on this phase
in the subsequent phase and the events are reflected upon
critically. In the following phase, an attempt is made to draw
more general conclusions from the concrete experience in or-
der to make it possible to transfer this to new situations. In the
next phase the knowledge is applied in a new situation. This
application leads to a new experience which is then the start-
ing point for the next cycle. At best, knowledge can be gained
in each cycle, so the next cycle starts, in effect, on a higher
level.
In the form presented above, the experiential learning cycle

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takes place in every person without any involvement of a

trainer. In the context of CEFE seminars, it is planned and
performed in deliberate, systematic learning situations.
Therefore, it becomes a didactic-methodical arrangement
which is described in the following chapter.

TRAININGS CEFE
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5.3 How is experiential learning struc-

tured in CEFE ?
In CEFE, each seminar consists of several exercises. The ex- Experiential
ercises follow the approach of the experiential learning cy- learning cycle
cle. Unlike the above-mentioned cycle, which is to be under- is initiated
stood as a depiction of what occurs unplanned in more or less
everyone, the cycle is now initiated consciously by the trainer
after previous didactic planning. The cycle is thus turned into a
deliberate learning situation.
In a deliberate learning situation within the framework of CEFE Confronting a

courses, the trainer first confronts the participants with a problem
problem, a conflict etc., and they have to deal with this.
Following this experience, the experiences are analysed indi- Inductive

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vidually, common points are sought and general conclusions learning in

are derived. This process is described as inductive learning. CEFE courses
Results obtained in such a way are usually more likely to be
accepted by the participants than results presented to them.
You are probably familiar with a totally different procedure Deductive

from your schooldays. In mathematics class, for example, you learning
were first presented with the general rules and then an ex-
planatory example. You will find many other examples for this
type of learning. We describe this procedure as deductive
learning: The action instruction for the case in question is de-
rived from general knowledge.
The individual phases of the experiential learning cycle are Experiential

described below in their actual form within CEFE exercises. learning cycle
The decision to structure learning situations according to this in CEFE
cycle means that you have already decided in favour of induc-
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tive learning, rather than traditional teacher-oriented methods.

TRAININGS CEFE
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Action/Experience
Application
Cycle
of Publishing
Experiential
Learning
Generalising
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Processing
Phase "action/experience": Action/

experience
In this phase the participants “live” a simulated situation which
is typical for business people from small and medium-sized
companies. In addition, the situation is first separated and de-
limited by the trainer. The trainer gives instructions which are
the basic framework within which the participants can act. De-
pending on the intention, the instructions can be either exten-
sive and complete or sparse and even imprecise and incom-
plete. With these instructions you are creating a “world” within
which the participants can act during this phase. At the same
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time, the phase simulates the scenario of incomplete informa-

tion in the real world of the business person: Business people
have to act on the basis of incomplete information and are re-
sponsible for actively searching for further information.
The action phase can be of varying lengths and divided into

several rounds. The participants receive clear instructions on
how much of the time they have for planning and execution
and, for example, for production or buying or selling goods.
Checking that these instructions are followed is a task which
you should carry out consistently. In real life, the market does
not make any allowances for a company which, for some rea-

TRAININGS CEFE
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son, cannot supply the contractually agreed quantity at the

agreed time. Nevertheless, you may change time stipulations
in individual cases. You must announce this in good time for
everyone, though, without hindering the groups which you are
running.
In the action phase, the participants can act freely within the
framework of the conditions stipulated. This phase serves the
development of individual planning, execution and control
tools. When there are situations which also have to be dealt
with in groups, there are further co-ordination processes, con-
flict-solving situations etc.
The publishing phase is a short but important phase which Publishing

directly follows the action phase. In this phase all the results,
strategies, purchasing decisions, etc., are made public for all
the participants and prepared for a comparison. This is best
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performed using charts prepared by the trainer in advance,

into which the results are entered, thus being visible for every-
one. They are an important discussion basis for the following
phase. They have the additional function of clearly emphasis-
ing the end of the action phase and therefore marking the re-
turn to the seminar situation. The process of coming out of the
simulated situation is continued in the first part of the proc-
essing.
The evaluation/processing phase is decisive for the learning Processing

process. If simulation exercises are to lead to learning suc-
cess, the exercise and evaluation of the exercise have to form
a didactic unit in which a learning object, experienced from
many different perspectives and levels of experience, is ex-
amined and discussed. Processing is the most important step
on the way to achieving the learning objectives; the step in
which you have the greatest influence on achieving the learn-
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ing objectives. In this process, the participants - after an initial

phase where there is room for expressing emotion - should
take a critical, reflective distance from the simulation exercise.
A requirement for the success of the evaluation of the action
phase (which is often not adequately observed) is that the
participants slip out of their roles and return to their personali-
ties as learners. For example, if during the simulation the par-
ticipants had to assert certain interests in the conflict with oth-
ers, then it is necessary for them to leave these roles in this
phase so they are able to reflect on and evaluate the interac-
tion with and between the opponents. Clarification of emotions
occurring in the simulation exercise or even of ill-feeling be-

TRAININGS CEFE
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tween the participants must be done before starting process-

ing, otherwise it prevents the seminar continuing efficiently.
To summarise, processing fulfils the following tasks: Processing

tasks
1. Verbalises the emotions of the participants after the exer-
cise has finished, to make it possible to leave the role and
return to the learner personality;
2. Collates the experiences gained by the participants, ena-

bling everyone to share each experience;
3. Reveals prejudices and looks for explanations;
4. Ascertains the decision-making processes and strategies

which were worked with during the exercises;
5. Evaluates the different strategies;

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6. Ascertains the significance of emotions called into existence

by the experience for the course of the individual phases of
the exercise;
7. States and reflects on the different views which the partici-

pants have formed with regard to the processes and expe-
riences.
Normally, you will not manage to perform all these tasks in the Rules for re-
first exercise of a seminar. The participants first have to get spectful be-
used to this type of learning. Therefore, it can be useful to ex- haviour during
plain the basic rules of discussion in processing before, or with the seminar
the help of, the first exercise. The rules of feedback should
also be introduced at this point.
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General rules on feedback: General rules
• Feedback must only be given when it is wanted.

• Feedback should take place as soon as possible after the situation to
which it relates.
• Feedback is a mirror of the reactions to the behaviour of the person
who is given the feedback. The receiver has the opportunity of seeing
himself from another point of view.
Rules for giving feedback: Giving feed-

back
• The objective of the feedback should be explained.
• Feedback should be firmly oriented to the individual case.
• Feedback should be as positive as possible.
• Feedback should be detailed but clear and exactly formulated. (This
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can be checked by having the feedback-receiver repeat it in his own

words. The observer can compare this statement with his intention and
correct it, if required.)
• Feedback is descriptive and not an evaluation. Feelings, perceptions
and assumptions should be identified as such.
• Feedback has to be directed to the individual situation of the receiver.
The receiver must be able to evaluate it constructively.
• The observer cannot influence how and whether the receiver utilises the
information. Feedback is not an incitement for change.
Rules for receiving feedback: Receiving

feedback
• The person receiving the feedback must stipulate exactly what he wants
the feedback on.
• First of all the person receiving the feedback has to listen quietly.
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• The other participants should be informed of the reaction to what is

said.
• The receiver is not allowed to defend himself or start a discussion.

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Processing has to be well prepared. So well, that over the The key for
course of the discussion, you know exactly at which point to good proc-
intervene to bring the discussion back to the important points essing is
or when you can or must behave quietly because the knowl- preparation
edge is coming from the group dynamic. Behaving appropri-
ately here is also a question of experience. In order to jointly
achieve workable results, you must always endeavour to cre-
ate and maintain an atmosphere of trust.
Some example questions after the processing phase:
• How did you feel in your role? (If possible, ask all the participants) Example ques-
• Would you have expected yourselves to behave in such a way, or did tions for proc-
you expect something different? essing
• Did you expect the others to behave the way they did?
• Did you make a conscious decision to behave in the way you did?
• How did you proceed, did you develop new strategies?
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• Why did you use this strategy and not another?

• What were the reasons for choosing the strategy in question?
• Was the strategy successful?
• How could you have been more successful?
• Did your feelings during the simulation exercise, e.g. stress, frustration,
enthusiasm lead you to deviate from your strategy? - Was that good or
bad?
You should visualise the answers to the different questions

and summarise them together with the participants.
The generalising phase: In this phase the participants distance Generalising

themselves from their own case and draw general results from
the experiences. They should look for parallels between the
simulated and the 'real' world and transfer the insights which
they have gained to the real world. In this way, they can
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transform them into general understanding. This understand-

ing must be found together and structured with your assis-
tance. Then you can define the situations in which this knowl-
edge can be applied, so the participants are able to implement
it in new situations.

TRAININGS CEFE
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To sum up, generalising fulfils the following tasks: Generalising

tasks
1. Recognises contexts and transfers to other situations.
2. Works out the general from the specific.
3. Conclusions of the individual participants on how they can

improve their behaviour in the future.
You can assist the generalising phase with prepared handouts Assistance
containing general knowledge. At this point, you can also im- through addi-
plement other methodical elements. For example, you can tional content
give a lecturette in which you present similar cases from real and media
life and applicable solution strategies, or theoretical back-
ground knowledge.
In this manual, you will find a list with details of the reference
literature for each module, so you can create handouts after
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acquiring the corresponding literature.
Below you will find some example questions on the area of

generalising:
• Have you already experienced comparable situations? Example ques-

• Which situations were they? tions for gen-
• How did you behave; why? eralising
• Could the strategy which you applied in the simulation also have been
applied in other familiar situations?
• If not, why not? How can a strategy be successful in simulation but not
in reality, or vice versa?
• Can the strategy which you have just developed also be applied to
other situations?
• How could you describe such situations? Do they have common char-
acteristics?
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• Would you behave differently in the future? How?

• What are the deciding factors for whether you would behave differently
in the future or not?

TRAININGS CEFE
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The 'application' phase. In this phase the learning achieve- Application

ments are applied in a new situation. Application within the
framework of a CEFE seminar is the beginning of a further
exercise, which creates possibilities for the application and
consolidation of what has just been learned. One of the key
results of the exercise is that the participants engage in very
little independent searching for information and have formu-
lated strategies on how they wish to proceed in the future, it is
important to again focus one of the subsequent exercises on
this learning objective. Within the context of the next process-
ing stage, additional consideration can be given to whether the
participants were able to translate their new knowledge into
action. Application outside the course entails dealing with real-
life situations with the help of the newly-acquired tools.
In brief the experiential learning cycle in CEFE contains all the In brief: expe-
elements which have also been described in chapter 3: riential learn-
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ing cycle in
Due to its general occupation with the target group, experien- CEFE as a in-
tial learning was selected as an appropriate, didactic, me- tegral method
thodical procedure. The structure permits the flexible formula-
tion of learning objectives oriented towards the concrete target
group. Generalising is an open phase enabling the inclusion of
additional, methodical elements (e.g. the lecturette).
Over the years, many exercises have appeared and been

thoroughly tried and tested. For you as a trainer, this means
that a large part of your didactic work has already been done.
Now your task is to select exercises which adapt learning ob-
jectives to the concrete group of participants, put the exercises
into a certain order and, if appropriate, further develop individ-
ual exercises.
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5.4 Which information do you find on

CEFE exercises in this manual?
In part IV of this manual you will find almost 90 exercises – a CEFE exer-
selection of tried and tested and new exercises: they have cises in this
been transferred from different authors into a unified pattern, manual
structured in accordance with didactic considerations. All
those working on it are experienced CEFE trainers. Therefore,
the presentation of each exercise also shows the experiences
and subjective attitudes of those working on it.
It is possible that you have different experiences. You should Predeter-mined

view the stipulated procedures as orientation and stimulus for processes
the way you structure the exercise. The basic structure which serve as orien-
is subsequently presented should only be varied if you have tation
good, comprehensive didactic experience. However, the way
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which you adapt the schedule or the materials is your own de-
cision, based on the conditions which you find and on the
learning requirements of your actual group of participants.
Here is a description of the structure of these exercises:
A: The Story Example

In a short form, the story imparts a clear impression of the procedure and
special features, so you can quickly form a picture of exercises which you
are not familiar with.
B: Basic Information Example

This part mainly consists of the learning objectives. Here we differentiate
between the objectives which all the participants have to achieve to enable
the course to continue and additional objectives which you can endeavour
to achieve if the learning requirements of the participants already include
the basic learning objectives. All learning objectives are an orientation aid
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for you. They are compiled for a standard target group and a set position
within the course program. (In chapter 3.3 you will see how to form learn-
ing objectives yourself.) Here, you will also find information about where
this exercise was developed.

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C: Further Information Example

On this page you will find more detailed information about the required time
and materials. All these details refer to the standard version. The time can
vary if you adapt the exercise or play more or fewer rounds than are in-
tended for this version. In this respect, the time stipulation in particular only
serves as an orientation aid.
D: Learning Process – Overview Example

This is a short overview of the structure, schedule and most important
events within the individual phases. This overview is intended as an orien-
tation aid which you can print out and use as a reminder during the course.
E: Integrated Learning Process Organisation (ILPO) Example

In this plan you will find the phases of the exercises described individually:
time details, the most important contents of the phase, what you have to do
as a trainer and a list of the possible activities for participants. This is
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rounded off by tips for every step which the authors have been able to
gather from their own experience.
F: Hints for preparation, typical situations and dangers Example

If relevant, in this section you will find a collection of tips from all the manu-
als and other documents available to the authors, supplemented by hints
from the personal experiences of those working on it.
G: Variations Example
On this page under 1) you will find references for which other parts of the
course this exercise can be used. If no alternative is mentioned, this does
not mean that this exercise cannot be used at another point. If you decide
to use it in a different way, you have to change the learning objectives cor-
respondingly. There are also suggestions from the authors for corre-
sponding learning objectives for alternative uses.
Under 2) Minimising, you will find suggestions on how to shorten the exer-
cise, if necessary.
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Under 3) Substitutions, you will find directions on how to substitute materi-

als required for the exercise, if necessary.
H: Annexes Example
Under this letter you will find prepared charts and master copies of back-
ground information for worksheets, which should make preparation easier.
You can substitute or add your own material. We would particularly like to
point out that the literature list in part IV of every module is particularly
useful for creating accompanying handouts for the generalising phase.

TRAININGS CEFE
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Energisers are one of the things available to assist your semi- The energiser
nar structuring. Energisers are short exercises which can be as the addi-
used at the beginning or the end of a seminar sequence or tional element
between the exercises, where necessary. They have different in CEFE semi-
functions: They are used to maintain motivation or to build it nars
up again. They can also be used as a tool to form teams for
the next exercise or to agree the subject of the next exercise.
You can have a look at an example. You will find a detailed
description of energisers in part IV.
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TRAININGS CEFE
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5.5 Why does CEFE work with the experi-

ential learning cycle?
Afterwards there are some explanations of why experiential
learning is used in CEFE seminars. The explanations are in
the form of a thesis and are partly based on the contents of
the previous sub-chapter.
• Problems are presented as if they are “real experiences”, Independence

leaving space for individual solution approaches. This does
justice to an adult's need to be able to develop their own
ideas independently.
• In this way, learning can come from the person's own direct Wide base of
experience. It also makes it possible to learn from the expe- experience
rience of other participants and to learn with the assistance
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of the trainer, who has an effect on broadening the partici-

pants' horizons by controlling and guiding the evaluation
process. In this way, it integrates a broad spectrum of expe-
rience.
• By having to take on other roles and reflecting on them af- Different per-
terwards, the participants get to know different perspec- spec-tives
tives.
• Learning from experience in everyday life can be restricted Extending

by the person endeavouring to adapt the things which he thought struc-
'experiences' in the world to his existing structures. We tures
have already demonstrated this in chapter 2. A second im-
portant process is the extension of the structures. This pro-
cess requires that set structures, e.g. prejudices, are recog-
nised as such, examined and, if necessary, modified. Gen-
erally, we can assume that in normal life we find the proc-
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ess of extension more difficult than that of adapting. As a

result, we often miss a lot of opportunities for further, con-
structive development chances, which also applies on a
professional level. Of course, adults still change their atti-
tudes in everyday life. Nevertheless, we can still assume
that they are more likely to reflect upon and break up their
existing structures if they are deliberately encouraged to do
so. The problem and crisis situations which are deliberately
created by the trainer in experiential learning and which the
participants are responsible for dealing with, are able to
break down set structures.

TRAININGS CEFE
• Reflecting together on experiences requires setting up and

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Relation-ship
developing a relationship of trust between the participants. of trust
In this way, participants learn how important stable relation-
ships are for their professional development. This could
also have a positive effect on forming teams to start enter-
prises in the future.
• Normally, experiential learning creates a relaxed, happy but Interaction

focused atmosphere. This can lead to participants discov-
ering new ways of interaction.
• Experiential learning is an inductive procedure. The ad- Advantages of

vantage of the inductive procedure is that, through their own inductive ap-
experiences, the participants are much more strongly aware proaches
of the need to reflect upon these areas. In other words, they
are more motivated and open to the subject. As a result,
there is more of a chance of the information going into the
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long-term memory. The phase of acquisition is different

and more intensive than with a presentation, for instance.
The participant is able to study the problem and possible
solution approaches independently. He learns better from
his mistakes than from a “smooth” pre-prepared solution,
which is presented to him from the beginning and which
does not allow him to penetrate the problem.
• The experiential learning cycle does justice to theoretical Support

learning considerations. It supports the three stages of learning proc-
learning: ess
Participants are motivated in several ways: Participants in a Motivation in

CEFE generally want to learn something for their profes- CEFE
sional life. Further, participants are also motivated by the
opening and related activities. Here, you can create a posi-
tive climate for learning which basically opens up the par-
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ticipants for the methods which you want to use and creates
an atmosphere of mutual respect. Motivation is also created
in the concrete, simulated situation: The participants are
confronted with a task which challenges them. Apart from
the motivation they have at the start, during the course of
the exercise they normally develop a concrete motivation,
directed towards the learning content, via which they can
reflect on their own behaviour and that of the other partici-
pants, analyse the advantages and disadvantages of differ-
ent ways of solving problems and find out for themselves in
which areas their own behaviour can be improved. You can

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have a lot of influence on this motivation by the way you act

as a trainer: The clarity of your instructions and particularly
your preparation of processing have a decisive influence on
the motivation of the participants.
Retaining is mostly done in the processing and generalising Acquisition in

phases, at least as far as your opportunity to influence is CEFE
concerned. Of course, there will always be participants who
have already gone through the acquisition phase in the ac-
tion phase. They start to reflect on the way they act, notice
that they have limits and try to find other solutions. There
are just as likely to be participants who do not have a ac-
quisition phase, even within the context of processing with
regard to their personal learning process. With these par-
ticipants, this phase can come later: If they come across
similar situations in real life, what seemed to them to be ab-
stract in processing can suddenly seem applicable.
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The consolidation phase takes place predominantly in the Consolidation

area of synthesis and later application by the participant in in CEFE
real-life situations. Thoughts on possible application are of-
ten introduced by the question: “Which opportunities do you
see for applying this in your future professional activities?”
etc. However, as this is a theoretical question which only
leads to answers concerning activities but not directly to ac-
tion, there is the risk of the consolidation phase being ne-
glected. Therefore, it is important to consciously select the
following exercises: You should open up the opportunity for
the participants to apply what has already been learned and
connect this with a starting point for new learning objec-
tives. This consolidation also serves as a review phase at
the beginning of a new meeting and is best carried out by
one of the participants. In this way, everyone's memory of
what has been learned will be refreshed, once again briefly
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reflected upon and, if necessary, extended by new sugges-

tions on possible alternative action.
The transitions between the different steps are smooth. The

more open the learning situation, the greater the chance
that each adult will go through these phases according to
his individual learning requirements.

TRAININGS CEFE
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Further reading
Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology, ”Learning on the Inter-

net”, 1996. URL: http://www.algonquinc.on.ca/edtech
Banyard, P., & Hayes, N.: Psychology: Theory and Application. London:
Chapman & Hall, 1994.
Brookfield, S.: The Skillful Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
Cross, P.: Adult as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1981.
Dick, B.: Action learning and action research, 1997. URL:

http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/sawd/arr/actlearn.html
nd
Jarvis, P.: Adult & Continuing Education (2 ed.). London: Routledge,
1995.
Kemp, J. Morrison, G. and Ross, S.: Designing Effective Instruction. New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1996.
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th
Knowles, M.: The Adult Learner: A Neglectes Species (4 ed.). Houston:
Gulf Publishing, 1990.
Knox, A.: Helping Adults Learn. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1986.
McKeachie, W. J.: Teaching Tips. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company,

1994.
Pearson, M./Smith, D.: Debriefing in Experience-Based Learning, in:

Simulation/Games for Learning, Journal of Sagset, Vol. 16, Loughbor-
ough/England, 1986.
Peters, J., Jarvis, P., et al.: Adult Education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass,
1991.
nd
Rogers, A.: Teaching Adults (2 ed.). Buckingham: Open University
Press, 1996.
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Thatger, D.: Promoting Learning through Games and Simulations, in:

Simulation/Games for Learning, Journal of Sagset,, Vol. 16, Loughbor-
ough/England, 1986.
th
Travers, M.W.: Essentials of Learning (4 ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan,
1977.
Why experiential training? URL: http://www.cot.com.au/whyexp.htm.

Basic elements for CEFE- 6 How to visualise in learning
TRAININGS situations
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6 How to visualise in learning situa-

tions
The following chapter will begin with an explanation of the im- Orientation
portance of visualisation for the learning process (Chapter
6.1). This will be followed by the most important visualisation
techniques, including an example of its use for the metaplan
technique (Chapter 6.2: Blackboard, Flipchart, Overhead,
Metaplan, Video)
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6.1 What does visualisation mean for the

learning process?
Let us assume that you have decided to use a specific exer- How are the
cise on the following day on account of your planning. You key points of a
have given detailed thought to what the participants, whom seminar to be
you have got to know quite well over the previous two days, retained?
are expected to achieve with this exercise. You have also
thought about the form in which you wish to use this game.
Now you are about to ask yourself what sort of instructions
you need to give for this game. It is clear to you that you must
impart a great deal of information within a short time. You re-
alise that it’s hardly to be expected that the participants re-
member everything if the information is imparted to them in the
course of a brief presentation. Therefore you are wondering
how you might be able to make the instructions visible in addi-
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tion to your oral explanations. You will also be thinking about

how you wish to compile the results. It is also likely that you
will be interested in how you are going to retain the contribu-
tions to the discussion. All of these questions can be reduced
to one thing: How can you ensure that the most important in-
formation be both retained and permanently available for eve-
ryone present?
In chapter 3.2 we discussed the fact that people perceive in- Information in-
formation from their environment via various channels. We take varies
have demonstrated that the ability to take in information greatly be-
through the various channels varies. We have also explained tween indi-
the different learning types . In other words, as a trainer you viduals
are facing people whose means and capabilities for taking in
information vary tremendously.
However, empirical studies have allowed us to determine Experience re-

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mean values for the senses with which people are able to take ceives long-
in information most effectively: On average, the test subjects lasting visibil-
retained 20% of the information they had heard, 30% of what ity for all
they had seen, 50% of what they had both seen and heard,
and even 90% of that which they had seen, heard and experi- Involvement of
mented with, in other words which they had learned hands-on. various chan-
Visualisation is of particular importance to CEFE exercises nels
because the experience is made visible for everyone, and re-
viewed and retained in clear terms. In addition, people as a
rule learn better when they are able to associate the material
to be learned with something they are already familiar with,
something they themselves have experienced, with an actual

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fact, a joke, etc. Visualisation is an ideal way to provide sup-

port for associative learning (symbolic references, illustrations,
etc.). In other words, visualisation makes it possible to involve
different channels and to provide the information with long-
lasting visibility, thereby supporting the learning process.
Visualisation also improves communication, which is one of Improving

the most important components of a CEFE training or any communica-
other learning situation. If communication is impaired, the in- tion
formation which one person is trying to impart to another can-
not flow (communication). It is of the utmost importance that
everyone involved in a communication process recognise
which information is important and how that which is said is to
be understood. This is made clear by visualisation.
As a result, visualisation offers numerous advantages for the Advantages of

learning process and for the communication of the course par- visualisation
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ticipants:
• Various channels of perception are brought together,

thereby increasing learning success.
• Information is retained rather than lost, and it can be ac-

cessed whenever it is needed.
• Information is placed within its context, complex relation-

ships can be comprehended at a glance.
• Communication is improved, for example, by visually cap-

turing learning outcomes or group consensuses for all. Mis-
understandings can be reduced and the information level of
the participants brought up to the same level.
It should be remembered that the preparation for visualisation Visualisation

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in the course also contributes to ensuring the smooth running as preparation

of the training for you in your capacity as trainer: the decision for the trainer
to use the medium of visualisation and the requisite concrete
preparation force you to give detailed thought to the structure,
the individual steps and the goal of a training sequence. This
ensures that you are able to enter into the course well pre-
pared and therefore preside with greater confidence and flexi-
bility.

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Visualisation means reducing, emphasising and transforming How to visual-

information. This can be done by means of ise?
• a few key words,

• symbols,
• links,
• colours,
• objects, e.g. puppets representing the people,
• videos, e.g. showing seminar excerpts
• slides, photographs, pictures and also by means of
• gestures or mime, e.g. in pantomime presentations.
Many publications dealing with the topic of visualisation as- Broad under-
sume a thorough understanding of the necessary techniques. standing of
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For the purpose of CEFE seminars it is helpful to assume a visualisation

range of knowledge as broad as possible. Use as many tech-
niques as you possibly can, give your creativity free reign,
work together with your participants to come up with a variety
of visualisations and thereby ensure a high degree of learning
success.
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6.2 The most important visualisation

techniques and media
For visualisation, you can, of course, use anything which
makes things visible. The following sections will provide you
with information about the most common media, including in-
formation about their usage and tips for how to go about it:
Blackboard, Flipchart, Overhead, Metaplan, Video
6.2.1 Blackboard
The blackboard is the classical medium for visualisation. It is Classical me-
often associated with ‘classical’ school instruction methods. In dium
training rooms the blackboard is often replaced by the white-
board, overhead projector or flipchart. Use of the whiteboard is
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practically identical to that of the blackboard, while the projec-

tor and flipchart are able to fulfil further functions as well. For
this reason, as well as to achieve variety in the materials used,
it is advisable to use all available materials during the course,
even when, to some degree, they are fulfilling the same func-
tions.
Even if there is no blackboard in the training room, it may be

worthwhile to make one. In most countries it is possible to ob-
tain blackboard paint, and this is all you need to paint a large
wooden board. This makes the blackboard a relatively afford-
able and environmentally-friendly medium, for blackboard
paint and chalk are cheaper than modern training materials
and have the added advantage of not producing any waste
material during the training.
When should it be used?

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Unlike the flipchart, words on the blackboard can be wiped Wipeable

away and replaced by other things; the captions for tables can
be kept while the old values are wiped away and replaced by
new ones. The only medium offering similar possibilities is the
overhead projector, and then only if water-soluble ink is being
used.
Information has to be wiped from the board, however, in order For flexible in-
to add new information, after which the information which has formation
been wiped away is no longer there to be used. In other
words, the blackboard is the ideal medium for visualising in-

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formation which needs to be flexibly changed and/or which is

not to be retained in documentary form, making it a form of
“notepad” for the course of the training. For example, this ap-
plies for:
• sketches used to explain individual problems which arise in

the course of training,
• explaining contentious points during a discussion,
• all types of examples which you wish to illustrate on the

spot,
• many brain teasers, when the participants are to be able to

show their attempts to find a solution, as well as
• developing a visualisation during a brief presentation in the

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event that it will not be needed at any further point in the

course of the training.
Notes on usage
• Write in a large and legible script.
• Do not employ too much information in a single blackboard

picture.
• Make use of arrows, circles and other pictures in order to

bring your depiction to life, to emphasise important points
and to demonstrate relationships.
• Make use of coloured chalk in addition to white chalk to

provide emphasis.
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• Depending on the desired learning outcome, you can plan a

blackboard depiction ahead of time, sketch it on a piece of
paper and develop it in the learning situation (this is equally
true for the flipchart and the overhead projector.
• Get your students to illustrate their contributions to the dis-

cussion on the blackboard if this is compatible with the
development of the discussion.

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6.2.2 Flipchart
The flipchart frames commonly available in shops are made of Description of
metal and are generally equipped with height-adjustable legs. the flipchart
The upper end is fitted with metal pins on which flipchart paper
can be hung using the holes provided for this purpose. A fold-
able metal bar is usually present to prevent slippage. A place
is provided at the bottom for the storage of pens. In the event
that a prefabricated flipchart is not available, an easel may
also be used; hooks or large wing nuts must simply be fitted to
the upper edge so that the paper can be hung. The important
thing is that it have a stable base and that the pages may be
removed individually.
In principle, the use of the flipchart is identical to that of the For informa-
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blackboard, with the sole difference being that the sheets of tion which is to
paper may be kept, allowing information to be saved for use be kept
when required at a later date (e.g. to be kept in a spot visible
to all at all times in the training room, or to be used again at a
later point in the course). Flipcharts are therefore more expen-
sive than a blackboard, however, which can also be used for
many courses.
In addition to the functions of a blackboard, flipcharts are es-

pecially suited for:
• pre-planned visualisations, e.g. practice rules, scoring

sheets or the support of imparting knowledge in lecturettes,
• quickly recording statements which should not be lost (e.g.

for brainstorming),
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• core sentences or graphics which are intended for reuse
• for summaries and overviews (documentation of working

results).
Notes on usage
• The paper should not be too thick or stiff, because it must

be easy to flip over the pages.
• Write in a large and legible script.


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• Use pens with a variety of colours.
• Do not write too much information onto the flipchart. Things

which you as a trainer would like to deal with at a later point
in time or which are of interest to you can be noted down on
a card to avoid confusing the participants with too much in-
formation.
• Do not block the view of your participants: Stand next to the

flipchart – if you are right-handed, stand on right side of the
flipchart as seen by the participants; if you are left-handed,
stand on the left side – writing in this position may require a
bit of practice, but it makes it easier for you to direct your
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speech towards the group.
• Try to maintain eye contact with the group while writing.

This is an important reason for only writing down key points
in abbreviated form.
• At the end of the day, all of the paper which has been writ-
ten on should be removed if you are certain that it is not
needed for other seminar units. You can and will be able to
reuse other pages later; the repetitive aspect of this exer-
cise aids in consolidating that which has been learned and
serves as a good motivator when used as a starting point
for a new learning situation.
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6.2.3 Overhead projector

The overhead projector is generally used as an aid for visuali- Diversity of
sation in large halls with a large auditorium. This often creates use
the impression that the projector is standing between the par-
ticipants and the instructor. It is, however, very well suited for
visualisation in small groups as well. The projector can also be
used to support the involvement of the participants: You your-
self can visualise your thoughts and/or course lectures or pre-
pare your own transparencies, e.g. for the presentation of the
results of group work.
The overhead projector has the advantage of never requiring Always di-
you to turn your back to the group. You maintain direct contact rected towards
with the group at all times and are able to perceive all of their the group
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reactions directly. You have the ability to explain something by

first placing a transparency onto the projector and then con-
tinuously adding new information, pictures or other similar ob-
jects which you have prepared ahead of time, revealing these
in stages.
Transparencies are very easy to prepare, e.g. you could also – This medium
if you have access to the technical facilities – simply print out lends itself to
session documents directly onto transparencies. This saves preparation
you the trouble of having to transfer this onto flipchart paper.
Transparencies are also ideal for multiple use, meaning you
can considerably reduce your preparatory work, e.g. for lectu-
rettes.
The projector provides a strong focus of attention onto the

screen, which is very advantageous for lecture situations, but
may prove a hindrance to discussion processes.
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Therefore, the use of an overhead projector is always to be

recommended when:
• the technical prerequisites are at hand,
• you are imparting information in the form of a lecture,
• you are simply presenting information,

• you wish to develop information and argumentation in a

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step-by-step process,
• presentations are intended for repeated use,
• the results do not need to be available in the training room

for an extended period of time,
• presentations do not need to be placed next to one another

– e.g. when comparing group results.
Notes on usage
• Write clearly and legibly.

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• Work with pens of a variety of colours. Red should only be

used for emphasis.
• Attempt to maintain eye contact with the group while writing.

For this reason you should try to note only the most impor-
tant points, and to do so as concisely as possible.
• When you make use of pre-prepared material, do not pres-

ent too much information all at once, otherwise the partici-
pants will not listen to you because they are trying to read
the overhead projection picture.
• Develop complex interrelationships on a step-by-step basis

by placing a piece of paper under the transparency and
pulling it back bit by bit. By placing the paper under the
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transparency you are able to ensure that it does not slip off.
• If you wish to emphasise a particular point on the transpar-

ency, you can, for example, place a pencil on the point in
question – the shadow will thereby appear at the corre-
sponding point on the projection screen – and you will not
be required to turn your back on the group in order to mark
the projection screen.

• Always turn off the projector when you are finished with it
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(this will not damage it in any way). The moment you turn it
back on, the attention of the group shall immediately be di-
rected towards the projection screen.
• At the end of the day you should go through the transpar-

encies in order to see which of them you may wish to return
to for later seminar units.
• Due to its repetitive nature, the use of familiar transparen-

cies which have been created during the course of the
seminar helps to consolidate and serves as a good moti-
vator when used as a starting point for a new learning
situation.
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6.2.4 Metaplan technique

The Metaplan technique has long been established as an im- Important
portant visualisation technique for modern methods of pres-
entation and training. It is also a key component of CEFE
courses.
The Metaplan technique is distinguished by the fact that par- Participant in-
ticipants write down their contributions, ideas or suggestions volvement
onto cards. These cards are then pinned onto walls which
have been covered with packing paper (soft boards), jointly
organised, structured and – once the process has been fin-
ished – glued on. In this way the conclusion which has been
reached is also available for further visualisation.
The act of writing down thoughts onto little cards which are
then pinned up for all to see allows discussions to be not only
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verbal, but also to be recorded in an ongoing written form and

to keep thoughts separated in the organisation. If the trainer
also gathers up the cards from all the participants after asking
a question, this also allows the metaplan technique to keep
contributions to the discussion anonymous. In this way, even
shy or retiring participants can be brought to express their
opinions or feelings.
When should this be used?
The usage opportunities presented by the metaplan technique A wide variety

are immense. It is the most flexible and participatory of the of usage op-
visualisation techniques, for which reason it also includes, to a portunities
great degree, the identification of the participants with the
group result which has been achieved. This means that work-
ing with metaplan cards is generally particularly appropriate
when:
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• the results of a discussion process are to be elaborated on

jointly in the group,
• it is important that all participants express their opinion,
• agreements are to be reached via group results,
• it is important that contributions or thought can be arranged

or differentiated.

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Additionally, the colours of the metaplan cards and the variety Metaplan cards
of forms serve to add further dimensions to working with the and flipchart
flipchart. Many trainers also use metaplan cards as a form of
documentation for lecturettes and for the development of the
material being presented by retaining the most important key
words on different coloured cards. The sequence of the col-
ours can make it simpler to assign the individual themes or
learning steps.
Therefore it is readily apparent that metaplan cards can be

used in one form or another in nearly all CEFE exercises. As a
visualisation technique, however, metaplan is more specifically
described via the group discussion carried out with the aid of
the cards. The following usage notes are also related to this
aspect. For further assistance we have also provided an ex-
ample of the various possibilities for arranging a special sur-
vey (clusters).
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Notes on usage
• Use the utmost care when preparing the materials you are
going to need:
− Upright boards (pin boards, soft boards) should be cov-

ered with the cheapest paper possible, preferably pack-
ing paper. In this way you will be able to write on the
boards, and at the end it is easy to glue on cards as well.
If there are no suitable soft boards available in the train-
ing room, you can also use a blackboard or a large
wooden board covered with sheets of polystyrene. You
should have one board for approximately 6-8 partici-
pants, i.e. for a course with 25 participants you should
have at least three, and preferably four, upright boards.
− You need a sufficient quantity of rectangular cards on
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which the participants can write their contributions, ap-

proximately one third of these should be white cards, in
addition to cards in at least five different colours. Fur-
thermore, you should have a few other shapes on hand:
long rectangles for headlines, circles, ovals for markings
and for structuring, etc.
− All participants will require at least one pen of medium
thickness in either black or blue. Other colours of pens
(red) should only be used for marking.

− Pins in sufficient number. Before the beginning of the

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course you should place the pins on the corners of the

board so that you will be able to reach them easily with-
out having to disrupt the discussion to look for them.
− Marking points in bright or fluorescent colours. This will
allow the participants to determine points of emphasis
and to select topics.
Always make sure that the thoughts and contributions of the
participants during the discussion are always visualised
straight away. If you first allow a discussion of the individual
contributions, the groups contributions are lost and you risk
endangering the fair consideration of all the contributions.
Introduce the participants to the methods and give them the

three fundamental rules for filling out the cards, preferably on
a flipchart where you can leave it hanging for as long as it
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takes for the participants to master these rules:
− Only one thought or statement per card.

− The statement must be able to be understood without
any additional explanation.
− Write clearly and legibly. No more than three lines per
card.
• Make sure that you have come up with a clear and concise
formulation of the question to which the participants are to
provide their contributions. Inform the participants how
many cards they are allowed to use, perhaps counting out
the cards they are to be given, e.g. two red cards and two
blue cards for a pros and cons question.
• Only work with card-based questionnaires when you are

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sure that it will be possible to create a useful structure from

the participants’ answers without spending excessive time.
• Read all of the cards before posting them on the board.
• Never leave out a card of your own accord, always make

this a group decision.
• Arrange the contributions in accordance with clear structural

principles which you explain to the participants beforehand:

− The “cluster” is probably the most important way of

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structuring for card-based questionnaires. You arrange

the cards in accordance with specific content, this is al-
ways necessary when there are either too many cards or
when the questionnaire itself was carried out with the aim
of deriving a structure, e.g. as with brainstorming.
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− Furthermore you may also structure many contributions in the form of lists and
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even place them opposite one another when appropriate, e.g. ideas, problems,
associations, expectations and fears, pros and cons or strengths and weak-
nesses.
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− You can also highlight the interdependent relationships between the

various levels by arranging the cards into trees. This form of pres-
entation can follow the clusters if you wish to deal intensively with a
particular topic. In this case you should take the cards which you
have grouped into clusters and, together with the participants, ex-
amine the relationship between the individual statements.
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A usage example: Clustering a card-based questionnaire according to various

criteria.
As a rule, the first opportunity within a CEFE course to cluster the card-based ques-
tionnaires is with the questions concerning the expectations and contributions of the
participants. We are going to describe two different types of clustering using an ex-
ample question:
Let’s say, for example, that you have given your participants the following question:
“What am I going to contribute to the success of the course?”
You then ask the participants to fill out 1 or 2 metaplan cards in response to this
question. Preferably you will gather all the cards at once and then read out each card
individually in front of all the participants, subsequently hanging each up on the pin
board. Then with each subsequent card, ask the participants if it belongs with the
cards already present on the board, or if it should be alone. In this way, together with
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your participants you will be able to construct groups of cards which we shall refer to
as clusters. You can help to guide the participants towards the subjects for which
clusters are formed by asking questions and making helpful suggestions.
You might, for example, receive the following answers in random order.
− My ideas and my attention − My experiences and fears
− My punctuality − My participation
− My knowledge of mathematics − My attention
− My presence − My learning enthusiasm
− Taking that which has been learned − How to deal with a difficult customer
and applying it
− The readiness to learn something
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− My very best attention level and new

participation
− My ideas and my knowledge
− Not to miss any segments of the

course
− My good mood
− Listening and replying to questions

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The various contributions reveal the following points in common. One topic which is
clearly quite often repeated is the readiness to take part and to be diligent within the
course. The metaplan cards displayed below produce a cluster with the name:
Attention level within the course:
My very best at- My ideas and my My attention My participation

tention level and attention
participation
Additional topics can be summarised as follows:
Individual knowledge:
How to handle a My mathematical My ideas and my

difficult customer knowledge knowledge
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Personal involvement:
The readiness to My enthusiasm to My good mood

learn something learn
new
Listening and re- My experiences Taking that which

plying to questions and my fears has been learned
and applying it
Observing the rules of the course:

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My punctuality My pres- Not to miss any

ence/attendance segments of the
course
This grouping or clustering of the metaplan cards makes it possible for you to see at
a glance that the participants are ready to devote their attention to the course, to
contribute their own knowledge, to become personally involved and to observe the
rules of the course. You can verbally repeat the importance of these commitments to
the success of the course, as well as remind the participants of them during the
course if necessary.

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However, it is possible that an entirely different clustering structure may arise from
the discussion process with the participants:
Being there
My punctuality My pres- To not miss any My participation

ence/attendance segments of the
course
Paying attention
To do my best for My attention The readiness to My enthusiasm to

attention level and learn something learn
participation new
Sharing and taking part

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My ideas and my My mathematical My ideas and my

attention level knowledge knowledge
Listening and an- My good mood My experiences

swering questions and my fears
Other:
Taking that which How to deal with a

has been learned difficult customer
and applying it
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When one or more cards cannot be placed with an already existing topic, an “other”
category is to be introduced. Try to ensure that the clusters produce a structure which
is useful for your purposes. In the example we have chosen here, the clusters have
to create categories with which the participants can name their personal contribution
to the course.

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6.2.5 Video
Possibilities for use
The use of videos in CEFE courses is not common. To date Monitoring self
this instrument has only been used in ToTs and in this event it perception and
is very important that the trainers of the future have the op- exterior influ-
portunity to see themselves in action. Recording learning ences
situations on video allows the participants the possibility to
expand their self perception and to better control their effects
on their immediate environment. Naturally, this is not solely of
importance to the trainer; it is important for entrepreneurs as
well.
Therefore there is absolutely no reason not to record seg-

ments of your CEFE course on video and to show it to the
participants, thereby giving them a chance to observe their
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own behaviour.
One side effect of video recording and the video presentation

of exercise segments is the further consolidation of that which
has been learned, because results are dealt with one more
time. A video recording can also serve the purpose of making
processes comprehensible, and underlining the results which
have been hammered out in the group. This means that video
recordings can serve as a variety-enhancing and effective
technique in CEFE exercises.
In this sense, recording exercise sequences on video can be a

good idea in a number of course segments, e.g.:
• exercises in which feedback is given and practised,
• role plays (this is particularly recommended when you carry

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out the presentation of business plans in the context of role

plays),
• in production simulations, in order to be able to better dis-

cuss behaviour and the allocation of roles.
You should also bear in mind, however, that producing a video The prepara-
which can be used for processing requires a certain amount tion and usage
of effort: You must record the video, view the video, perhaps require a great
even select the parts you wish to present and then cut the deal of work
tape, finally presenting it. For one thing, this means that you
cannot conduct the processing directly subsequent to the ex-

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ercise, rather you will have to return to it once again that after-
noon or perhaps on the following day. You must also seek to
ensure that the utility of this video in ensuring learning success
is proportional to the effort required of you to produce it. In
other words, you should only employ videos for the visualisa-
tion of a few exercises during the course, when you wish to
place particular emphasis on the observation of behaviour. For
this purpose, however, the video is an instrument practically
without equal.
Below you will find some suggestions for the step-by-step

video process in order to make your first attempts easier.
Recording
If you do not possess your own camera, you need to find a

rental service ahead of time. You should pick up the camera
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no later than the evening before it is to be used and make a

trial recording in order to make sure that the camera works
properly.
Most people do not like the idea of being filmed during a

learning situation. The camera can have an inhibiting effect.
There are a number of things you can do to combat this: Set
up the camera one day before you plan to use it and leave it
there throughout the day. This allows the participants to get
used to the camera. You can ask the co-trainer or one of the
participants to film a short sequence of you. Watch this se-
quence together with your participants directly thereafter.
Firstly, you should say how you felt when viewing the clip and
the things which occur to you. Then ask the participants if they
have discovered anything new about you. The goal of this ex-
ercise: The participants are to recognise that this uneasy feel-
ing one gets when watching oneself is not felt by others, be-
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cause what they are seeing appears completely normal.
Speak to the group about any worries they might have and ask
them what they think the advantages of making a video re-
cording are. Do not insist on using video recordings if the
group is strongly against this.
Take care not to film too many scenes. You should think about
which of the expected scenes might be particularly suited for a
video recording beforehand. Place the camera on a tripod –
this prevents wobbly recordings. If you wish to change the tar-
get area of the video recording, slowly and calmly swing round

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the camera. Use the zoom – but do not overuse it. Make sure
that you do not accidentally include objects or the heads of the
participants, etc., which are too close to the camera along the
lower edge of the shot. It is possible that the camera may
automatically focus on these objects – meaning that the things
you are trying to film will be out of focus.
Cutting
It is possible that you will have prepared more filmed material

than you will be able to evaluate with the participants. Make
sure you plan ahead of time for being able to cut the film, and
allow enough time for the selection of the appropriate scenes.
The resulting scenes should not be any longer than 10 min-
utes.
When selecting the scenes be careful not to make your par-

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ticipants look stupid. This can damage their confidence or

make them angry and thereby detract from a relaxed learning
atmosphere.
Procedure for presentation/evaluation
The group should be sitting around the television as they wish

(i.e. no assigned seating). Play the sequence without com-
ment.
Then ask the ‘actors’ how they felt watching the film, what
positive or negative things they have noticed. Ask the partici-
pants what things they have noticed.
Further reading:
LUSO CONSULT GmbH 1993, Handbook on Visualisation, Moderation

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and Objective Oriented Project Planning, prepared by Kerstin Wilde, Ham-

burg.

Basic elements for CEFE- 7 Bases of communication
TRAININGS
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7 Bases of communication
In this chapter you will learn about the communication model Orientation
from Schulz von Thun. It serves as a basis model for commu-
nication. Leading on from this, the individual components of
good communication are explained.
In chapter 7.1,you will find a diagram of the communication

process. In chapter 7.2, a basic communication model is pre-
sented. You can see the basic components for successful
communication in chapter 7.3. A message has totally different
elements. You will learn something about the different compo-
nents in chapter 7.4. The subject is rounded off in chapter 7.5
with practical considerations on the rules for communication
within the framework of your role as a trainer.
You will see that these instructions can make life easier as a
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trainer. If you apply the rules of good communication, you are

better able to impart the learning content and reduce misun-
derstandings. Try to speak to the participants about the rules
of communication too. The participants in a CEFE course
learn a lot - if not predominantly - from each other. If they are
able to observe their communication, this will result in an im-
provement of the overall learning process.
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TRAININGS
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7.1 An outline of the communication process
Idea Message
Confrontation Duplication
Attention Understanding
Intention Confirmation
Distance
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SENDER RECEIVER
In a social situation...
the sender which he the receiver

has certain encodes in which he which are and interprets and
ideas, symbols then sends received by decoded understands
thoughts, (words, his partner the thoughts,
feelings gestures) feelings
and confirms to the sender that he has received the message.

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TRAININGS
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7.2 A model of the communication proc-

ess
Communicating means imparting. Communication is the ex- Definition
change of ideas, thoughts or items between two or more peo-
ple.
The person who wants to a send another person a message is Sender

the sender.
The person who is be informed of something is the receiver. Receiver
In its most simple form, communication comprises 6 stages Six stages

which were described in the previous sub-chapter:
1. The sender has one piece of information (idea, thought, 1 Idea

feeling, opinion, etc.) which he wishes to impart.
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2. The sender has to encode the information. He has to 2 Encoding

translate his thoughts or feelings into sound, words or char-
acters (verbal communication) or into gestures, facial ex-
pression, stance etc. (non-verbal communication), which
can be understood by the receiver.
3. The sender now has to send the message so that it can be 3 Sending
received by the communication partner.
4. The receiver picks up the message via one or more per- 4 Picking up
ception channels: If this occurs perfectly, without any falsi-
fications, he now has an exact duplicate (a perfect copy) of
the message sent.
5. The receiver has to decode and interpret the message, 5 Decoding

making it his own, in order to understand it properly.
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6. The receiver must confirm that he has received the mes- 6 Confirming
sage, i.e. he has to send a message back to the sender to
say that he has received, duplicated and understood the
message.

TRAININGS
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This is not a simple process. In reality it does not run as Interruptions

smoothly as depicted here. Communication which leads to an are frequent
exact duplicate of the message which has been sent hardly
ever occurs. Interruptions, which can lead to misunderstand-
ings or non-understanding, can occur at every stage. To keep
misunderstandings to a minimum, it is important to observe
the rules of good communication.
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TRAININGS
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7.3 Basic components of good communi-

cation
In order to be able to communicate well with each other, con- Conversation
versation partners have to be in the position: partners
• to confront the partners in the conversation have to:
• to direct their full attention towards the partner,
• to connect the clear intention with the communication,
• to duplicate and understand the message which has been

sent,
• to confirm receipt and understanding of the message.

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These components are examined individually in detail below:
Confronting
Confront literally means: stand facing.
The ability to face a person, a thing, a problem or a situation is

the requirement for entering into communication with some-
thing.
In this context confronting means: Definition of

confrontation
The ability to be able to anticipate, stand up to and face a per-
son, task, thing or situation, in a calm and composed manner.
Each person is better at confronting certain persons or situa-

tions than others.
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If someone finds it rather easy to confront something, he can

concentrate on it more easily, direct his attention to it more
easily, implement his intentions more effectively and, as a re-
sult, cope better with the situation in question.
If someone avoids certain people, problems or conflicts and Advantages of

cannot cope with certain situations, he does not have the abil- confrontation
ity to confront them. As a result, the situation is not improved
and the problems are not solved.

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The ability to confront can be increased with practice. This

ability is often described as conflict ability.
Attention
Attention is the arbitrary or non-arbitrary orientation of our Definition of at-

consciousness. Something is only 'there' or we are only aware tention
of it to the extent that we devote our attention to it. People and
things in the outside world, as well as our own ideas or
thoughts, can also stimulate our attention involuntarily, i.e. di-
vert it.
Concentration is the active, deliberate devotion of attention to Concentration

persons, things or thoughts.
Good communication requires: Requirements

for good com-
• undivided attention for the conversation partner and thing;
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munication
• that the attention is directed more outwards (to the partner)

than inwards (own thoughts);
• that external influences are not allowed to create a diver-

sion;
• that the entire message from the partner, including invol-

untary “accompanying information” is attentively picked up,
and not only individual aspects.
You can recognise the attention level of your partner by the

amount of attention he pays, his eye contact and understand-
ing.
Intention
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Part of good communication is the intention to impart some- The task of in-
thing, and for it to be imparted in such a way that it arrives at tention
the receiver. A clear intention gives the communication em-
phasis, urgency and the ability to assert itself.

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Showing a clear intention is demonstrated by
• appropriate volume;
• clarity of expression;
• receiver-oriented language.
A lack of intention is demonstrated by unclear, hesitant speech

which is too quiet, digresses and does not get to the point.
Duplication and understanding
Duplicating a message means receiving and picking it up per- Definition of

fectly without any falsifications. A exact duplicate, an exact duplication
copy of the message is produced.
Duplication occurs when: Requirements

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for duplication
• the sender sends his message in such a way that it is
clearly receivable and easy to understand;
• the receiver listens attentively;
• the receiver does not falsify the message with his own in-
terpretations, assumptions or supplements.
Real duplication is the requirement for understanding but does Duplication is

not guarantee it. There is also purely mechanical reproduction the require-
of messages which were picked up, learned off by heart but ment for un-
not understood. derstanding.
Understanding takes place when a message is received, du-
plicated, adequately evaluated and classified. Understanding
is demonstrated by working with what has been received, ap-
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plying it usefully and being able to classify it.
Confirmation
Confirmation is a sign that you are listening attentively or that Definition of

you have received, duplicated and understood a message. A confirmation
confirmation is not even an answer or a reply. It does not nec-
essarily mean that you agree with the message, either.

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A partial confirmation (look, nod of the head, an ‘aha’) is a sign Two types of
that you are listening and a request for the sender to continue confirmation
talking. A full confirmation is a sign that the message has ar-
rived and been understood.
Absence of confirmation, just like premature confirmation,

which seems like an interruption, often leads to the message
being repeated. The sender does not have the feeling that his
message has arrived. Frequent lack of confirmation leads to
aggression or resignation.
Take note of these components of good communication. If the Summary

participants demonstrate difficult behaviour, express dissatis-
faction or lack some learning achievements, this can be
caused by communication problems with you, the trainer, or
amongst the participants themselves.
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7.4 The components of a message

The object of communication is imparting a message from the A message has
sender to the receiver. Each message has four sides, which four sides
have to be properly recognised and taken into consideration
during communication. Both in the role of the sender and that
of the receiver, you have to learn “to communicate from four
sides”. This particularly applies to trainers and presenters,
whose tool is communication.
The four sides of the message are its factual content, the Information
sender opening themselves up, the relationship and the ap- about:
peal:
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1 Factual content
Each message contains a piece of factual information, i.e. a The contents

depiction of facts from the viewpoint of the sender. The
factual information should be easily comprehensible and
clear.
2 Opening oneself up
A message does not just contain information concerning the The sender
facts but also information about the sender.
From the message, you can tell how the sender sees him-
self and how he would like to be seen by others. However,
you can also find traits in the message which the sender
himself is unaware of.
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Therefore, opening oneself up can include both deliberate

depiction as well as involuntary revelation of one’s charac-
ter traits.
3 Relationship
A message also shows the position of the sender in relation The relation-
to the receiver, what he thinks of him. Therefore, the mes- ship to the re-
sage also includes information concerning the relationship ceiver
between the sender and the receiver.

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This side of a message is often demonstrated by intonation,

gestures and other non-verbal accompanying signals as
well as the chosen formulation.
4 Appeal
A sender does not normally send a message, “just so”. A The desire to
message is nearly always linked with the attempt to have an influence
influence on another person. The sender does not only
want his message to be understood, he also wants it to
have an effect.
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7.5 Application: the role of the trainer in

the communication proces
Mastering communication is an important tool which is avail-
able to you as the trainer to maintain your position in the group
and fulfil your tasks.
Both in the role as sender, when imparting knowledge and in- Observe rules
structing and guiding the exercise and the group work, and the for strength-
role of the receiver, when reacting to questions or participant ening your
behaviour, you have to know and observe the rules of good authority
communication in order to develop and maintain your author-
ity. If you can communicate properly as a trainer, the partici-
pants will increasingly find that they can communicate better
too.
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The following rules will help you to improve your communica-

tion in the role of the sender and the receiver.
The trainer as sender

1. The trainer must be in the position to confront his audi- Rule 1
ence.
The trainer must stand in front of a group and be able to Be critical and
question himself, raise objections and criticisms and, at the composed;
same time, remain calm and composed in difficult situa- deal with dis-
tions. He must be able to deal with passivity and disinterest turbances
of participants just as well as with unrest, diversions, inter-
ruptions, misunderstandings or mistakes. He must be able
to handle the most varying characters and ways of behav-
ing.
The ability to confront all this is necessary to be able to deal

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with it in a controlled manner.
2 The trainer should be able to direct the major part of his at- Rule 2
tention outwards, i.e. towards his listeners.
Only a small part of his attention should be directed toward Directing atten-
himself. If the trainer is well-prepared, has mastered the tion outwards
course content and only has to think a little about what he is
going to say next and not about the effect he is going to
have, he still has enough free attention which he can devote
to his participants.

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If his attention is devoted to the exterior surroundings, the

trainer will be better able to observe, anticipate and deal
with the participants reactions.
3 As a sender the trainer should behave in a clear, simple Rule 3

and decisive fashion.
He must be able to express his ideas and thoughts in a lan- Adapt the lan-
guage which can be understood by the participants. This guage to the
means that, depending on the participant group, he should participant
be able to portray the content in varying ways, in order to group.
adapt it the participants' ability to understand and also the
mood and level of feeling. This can also be included in
preparation with the target group analysis.
A clear and unambiguous message prevents the partici- Be clear and

pants getting confused. If the trainer himself is unsure of his unambiguous
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subject, he should also show this clearly and unambigu-

ously.
4 The trainer needs the ability to assert himself. Rule 4
The trainer's main areas of expertise are the didactic struc- Be an expert in
turing of the course, steering group dynamic processes, the areas of
leading discussions and the methodical procedure in the didactics and
course. His role as an expert on individual questions of cor- communica-
porate development is a subordinate one. In every course tion.
there will be participants who know more about individual
questions than the trainer.
In order to maintain his authority as a trainer, he normally Assert yourself

has to assert his suggestions about the didactic procedure with didactic
in the course. These suggestions should prove themselves. competence
This means that the trainer should assist the participants to
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learn, so they can acquire new competencies. Here, good

target group analysis and didactic preparation of the
course are also imperative.

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5 The trainer has to master all four sides of the message. Rule 5
As a sender the trainer has to Master the four

sides of a
• be able to clearly impart the information (factual content); message
• be recognisable, predictable and calculable as a person

(open himself up);
• be able to create a good atmosphere (relationship);
• correctly judge the wishes and objective needs of the par-

ticipants, in order for his suggestions to be successful and
to be able to assert himself (appeal).
The trainer in the role of the receiver.

1 The trainer must be able to duplicate the participants con- Rule 1
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tributions well.
The trainer should be able to completely pick up and repeat Pick up par-
participants’ contributions, correctly summarised. In participants' con-
ticular, this is repeatedly required in the phase of process- tributions and
ing and generalising the exercises. By practising, he can duplicate them
get to the stage where he can give concise summaries of well: summa-
even the longest discussion passages. With queries of ex- rise and visu-
pectations or opinions, he must be able to write these alise
statements on the flip chart at the same time, without di-
verting too much from what the participant is saying. It is
useful to master the most important visualising tech-
niques.
The ability to duplicate is particularly important, because

even slight changes give the participants the feeling that
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they have been criticised or that what they said has been
improved on.
2 The trainer must impart to the participants the reassurance Rule 2

that they have been understood.
Every participant has the basic need to be understood and Impart the
accepted. For most, it is more important to be understood feeling of hav-
than to be agreed with. Anyone who believes that they have ing been un-
not been understood tends to keep repeating their message derstood
until it “arrives”.

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If the trainer can demonstrate by attentive listening, con-

crete summarising, interpretation and confirmation of the
participant's contribution that he has understood him, the
participant, for his part, will also be more willing to listen and
even to be receptive different opinions and criticism.
The trainer must also learn to understand and recognise the Picking up
hidden and secret messages of opening oneself up, the hidden mes-
relationship and the appeal side. sages
Many situations can only be dealt with properly, if those as-

pects of a message of which one is often not wholly con-
scious, are thematised and reflected upon.
3 The trainer must properly confirm participants' contribu- Rule 3

tions.
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With correct confirmation the trainer can both encourage Guide partici-
shy or silent participants to talk, and stop those who are too pants contribu-
talkative. Receiving confirmation gives the participant the tions with ap-
feeling that he was right to make a contribution. The ab- propriate con-
sence of confirmation leads to aggression or resignation. firmation
The confirmation should not sound mechanical and it Find the right
should be appropriate to the message; i.e. neither “over- level
confirmation” (too much good, too much praise) nor “under-
confirmation”.
Even if the opinions which have been voiced cannot be ac- Acknowledge
cepted in every case, the participant should feel that he has other opinions
been acknowledged as a person by the trainer.
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Further reading
GTZ 12988, Moderatorenkurs Zielorientierte Projektplanung, Kursunterla-

gen, compiled by Peter Siebenhühner, Eschborn
Schulz von Thun, Friedemann: Miteinander Reden 1, Störungen und

Klärungen. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH
1997.
Schulz von Thun, Friedemann: Miteinander Reden 2, Stile, Werte und Per-
sönlichkeitsentwicklung. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch
Verlag GmbH 1997.
CEFE CEFE
CEFE CEFE

Basic elements for CEFE- 8 Think about your self-concept!
TRAININGS
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8 Think about your self-concept!

In this chapter, four different trainer styles are presented in Orientation
chapter 8.1. In chapter 8.2 you will find a few hints concerning
the correct behaviour for a trainer. In the final part, section
8.3, you will find a list of some of the questions arising in con-
junction with typical seminar situations which you, in your
seminar preparation and mental attitude for a training, may
find to be helpful.
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8.1 Different trainer styles

Just as there are different types of learning among those Four different
learning, there are also very different trainer styles. The be- trainer styles
havioural characteristics of trainers can be broken down into
four different trainer styles. These four styles serve as “theo-
retical” cornerstones and are hardly to be found in real life in
this form.
With the aid of the description of the four styles, you can ana-
lyse your own behaviour as a trainer and modify it if neces-
sary.
Laissez-faire style
A trainer who prefers this style leaves the group to its own de- Few decisions,
vices. He shows very little involvement in the problems of the takes no posi-
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participants. In the event of controversial opinions, he does not tions

take a position and rarely makes decisions concerning the
content or process of the training. Generally he orients himself
solely according to the pre-prepared programmes and previ-
ously tried and tested exercises, and he does not co-ordinate
them with the specific situation of the target group.
The trainer’s attitude appears uncertain. Instead of getting in- Recipe-like

volved in interaction with the group, he hides behind rules and sets of rules
regulations. He searches for recipe-like sets of rules, because and regula-
he believes that he will hardly have any difficulties if he follows tions
all of the rules and regulations. His attitude towards the group
is irreconcilable; he often appears arrogant.
This type of trainer is often under the impression that he or

she is fair and objective. He prefers participants who are con-
formists, i.e. those who do not ask awkward questions.
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Authoritarian style
This style is the opposite of the laissez-faire style. Trainers Performance

who prefer this style are very performance-oriented. They oriented, deci-
steer the activities of the group. They are involved, decisive sive, inflexible
and clear in their instructions. They have defined clear goals to the partici-
for the training, yet are inflexible when confronted with situa- pants’ needs,
tions where the needs of the participants appear to deviate all decisions
from this. Openly or subtly, they reproach individual partici- are made by
pants and their relationship to the group is tense, cool and the trainer
distant. They make all decisions within the training them-

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selves. Tasks are assigned to the group directly and without

discussion. The participants are kept in a state of constant
tension by the ever-present threat of being quizzed on their
knowledge. Failure brings with it the threat of punishment (e.g.
the trainer’s reproach). This attitude emanates from a great
deal of mistrust and pessimism concerning the participants’
capabilities, as well as an increased feeling of superiority.
Trainers who prefer an authoritative style are generally very

competent as far as the subject of the seminar is concerned.
They themselves define the paths by which solutions are to be
found, leaving the group no chance to discover the solutions
for themselves.
The effect of this style is displayed in a tense and stressful Tense relation-
relationship between the participants and the trainer, as well ship
as between the members of the group. The participants either
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adapt passively to the situation and sacrifice their independ-

ence, or they become hostile and aggressive. Opinions and
attitudes are accepted without criticism, the normal behaviour
of the participants is superseded, all of which results in the
participants’ independent productivity and creativity being
greatly reduced.
Socio-emotional relationship style
For this type of trainer, the participants and their well-being are Participants
of the utmost importance. Due to their attitude, such trainers should feel
are able to create a working atmosphere which is secure and comfortable
well-meaning. The atmosphere of the training is not forced,
often it is actually cheerful. The participants’ behaviour to-
wards their colleagues and the trainer demonstrates under-
standing, goodwill and friendliness.
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Trainers who prefer this style are very concerned about the Group dynam-
problems of the participants, as well as the group dynamics. ics are in the
For them, the development of the group is of the utmost im- forefront
portance. This also satisfies their own needs (feeling of secu-
rity, avoiding conflict).

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Participants often feel a personal bond with the trainer. It is Avoiding con-
very possible that the trainer’s constant efforts to maintain a flict
good relationship might lead to problems: The trainer declines
to make his own positions clear in order to avoid conflicts. This
does not allow him to do justice to the right of the participants
to be shown new ways of finding solutions.
The relationship-oriented trainer is normally aware of his own Achievement

attitude and his or her perception of himself and others. In the of the goals of
event of the success or failure of a training or training situa- the training is
tion, he knows whether to look to himself or to the participants endangered
for the reason, but has a tendency to overemphasise his own
failures. This can make the trainer feel unsure of himself, and
do even more to avoid conflicts in future trainings. Conse-
quently, he risks not concentrating enough on achieving the
training objectives. Instead he allows the group to determine
the priorities of the training.
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Participative style
The trainer understands how to motivate the participants to a High degree of

high degree of learning efficiency, thereby achieving a high learning effi-
degree of commitment to their joint task. ciency
The trainer is convinced that imagination, intelligence and Positive view

creativity are spread generously throughout the group, that the of the partici-
participants are extremely open to all that is new and that they pants’ abilities
are interested in applying this new material. In order to
achieve this goal, the trainer sets goals in conjunction with the
participants. The needs and expectations of the participants
are important for him and he tries to integrate them into the
training, without, however, losing sight of the (common) goals.
Confirmation and criticism are objective and justified by the Constructive

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situation. Conflicts are solved by dealing with them openly conflict solu-
within the training. Trainers speak as equal members of the tion
group. Together, the causes of the conflict are sought. In the
course of this process, the trainer allows the participants to
pose both factual and emotional challenges. His composed
dealings with the participants help to prevent anger, insecurity
or aggression arising either from him or the group. The objec-
tive here is to seek a constructive solution to the conflict which
guarantees for the future a better way of dealing with the
problem within the seminar.

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8.2 So which style of trainer is the ‘right’

one?
There is no right one or wrong one in this context. What is im- Goal of the
portant is to find the style which corresponds to your own per- seminar:
sonality structure, in order that you may both motivate and learning suc-
activate the participants. The trainer’s duty is to ensure a success
cessful training according to the objectives of the seminar and
to take into account the needs and wishes of the participants.
The trainer’s attitude, his interventions, explanations and be- Model charac-
haviour serve in great measure as a model character. Trainers ter and role as
are assigned the role of experts. On the one hand the expert an expert
role is related to the content (specialist knowledge within the
field in which the CEFE course is being given). On the other
hand, the expert role is drawn from the didactic problem
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awareness: Trainers are able to perceive learning difficulties,

and to recognise to what degree they are the result of the di-
dactic work. They are sensitive to the differences in learning
and know that these are determined by the various life histo-
ries and socio-cultural backgrounds.
For these reasons, the trainer should openly accept his or her Special status
role as an expert, and rather than hide it, the trainer should of the trainer
make constructive use of his inevitably high influence on the
learning situation. In doing so the trainer must always keep in
mind that his explanations, suggestions and comments are
given more value than those of the other participants, and
must therefore be open to criticism accordingly. He has no
right to immunity.
There are a number of fundamental rules concerning behav- Rules con-

iour within the seminar, the observance of which has proven to cerning be-
CEFE CEFE
be useful: haviour
• Make group attitudes visible: bringing conflicts and fears to Group atti-
light, analysing the causes and presenting the effects are tudes
the first steps towards avoiding disruptive elements.
• Establish and maintain contact to the group: The trainer can Contact to the
draw conclusions about the mood within the group and group
about his or her own behaviour from the behaviour of the
participants.

TRAININGS
• Be precise and exact: Disruptions within the group are often

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Specificity
the result of deficient specificity with objectives, instructions
and questions asked.
• To be able to deal with insecurity: The fear of making a Dealing with

mistake can keep trainers and participants from playing an insecurity
active role in the learning process. Therefore the partici-
pants’ every action and statement needs to be taken seri-
ously. Trainers must make it clear that, particularly in prac-
tice situations, mistakes are the norm and that they are op-
portunities from which to learn.
• Do not fight against the group or against individual partici- No power

pants: In situations where the trainer feels as if he is being struggles
attacked, or is in actual fact being attacked, he or she
should react as calmly as possible. The participants should
be allowed to provoke the trainer. One should avoid enter-
CEFE CEFE
ing into a power struggle with the participant in question.

Such a struggle drains energy and offers slim prospects of
success: Over the long term, the trainer is bound to lose. It
is much better to make resistance and disapproval clear in
order to be able to vent anger and tension in a controlled
fashion.
It is possible to distinguish between the types of behaviour

which have a positive or negative influence on the learning
climate. These are presented below:
• Behaviour which tends to have a negative influence on the Trainers’ be-

learning climate: haviour with a
negative effect
− orders, commands,
− warnings, threats, admonitions,
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− moralising, preaching,
− providing solutions; offering advice without being asked
to,
− providing logical arguments for emotional problems,
− judging or making excuses for an individual participant,
− praising or agreeing “from on high”,
− deriding, making a fool out of or shaming someone,

TRAININGS
− claiming to analyse individual participants in an objective

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manner,
− not allowing participants the opportunity to solve their
problems themselves, instead calming and consoling
them,
− grilling, probing, asking until they say “the right thing”,
− shirking from unpleasant questions, diverting attention
and cheering them up.
• Behaviour which tends to have a positive influence on the Trainers’ be-

learning climate: haviour with a
positive effect
− displaying helpfulness, acceptance and tolerance
− showing interest in getting the participants to learn, in or-
der to contribute to the personality development of the
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participants,
− being open and showing feelings,
− exuding confidence and security while being able to talk
about your own difficulties,
− giving instructions on communicative behaviour within
the group,
− dealing with conflicts as a partner,
− giving feedback
− providing positive reinforcement for the participants’
learning steps,
− speaking in a comprehensible, practical manner, and
doing so as a partner,
− bringing together, organising, clearing up uncertainties
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and synthesising,
− promoting phases of reflection,
− pointing out the limits of discussion and emotional prox-
imity,
− seeing to it that phases of relaxation and heavy concen-
tration are alternated and linked together,
− respecting taboo zones,
− preventing sensationalism from turning into absolute

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openness,
− making it clear that the participants, as well as the
trainer, have the right to make mistakes,
− remaining calm when you (the trainer) are the topic of
discussion,
− allowing participants the right to provocation within rea-
son and in accordance with the situation,
− being able to question oneself as well as the training
program.
What can you, as a trainer, do in order to monitor yourself,

your attitude and the effect you have? One thing you can do is
make a recording of yourself on video or audio cassette. An-
other is to conduct open feedback discussions, among train-
ers who are jointly carrying out a training – this is an excellent
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opportunity to take a critical look at one’s own training behav-

iour and to develop modification strategies where necessary.
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TRAININGS
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8.3 Questions regarding preparation for

typical situations in CEFE seminars
In order to give you some ideas during your preparation for
CEFE seminars, in the following list you will find questions re-
garding typical seminar situations. These questions can aid
you in anticipating possible behavioural patterns.
What if...
... somebody asks something and you don’t know the an-
swer?
... a participant has that famous “disconnected look“?
... somebody contradicts you and says you are wrong?
... you experience the nightmare of every facilitator: every-
body seems to be sleepy?
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... the old gossip cannot find the off-button and distracts you
and the rest of the group?
... a member of the group is constantly trying to show you
that he or she already knows everything and is your
match, always having the last word on whatever you say?
... an individual belongs to that tiresome category of very cu-
rious and inquiring people, inundating you with never-
ending questions?
... you have just finished a long exposition on a subject and a
person suddenly tells you that he or she didn’t understand
anything?
... there is this habit that some people always have of arriving
late and chatting loudly away, while others are used to
leaving early?
... my colleague, the co-facilitator, has just messed up his
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task, jeopardising the outcome of the whole subject or ex-

ercise?
... one of the participants gets more and more marginalised?
... some personality conflicts just seem to make working in a
small group impossible?
... smokers just don’t find smoking hazardous to the health of
those who don’t smoke?
... the participants do not find the food acceptable and grum-
ble loudly about the lousy logistics?

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... government officials exert pressure to have their precious

protégé included?
... two competitors are taking the same course and spark off
a conflict in the middle of the event?
... some participants make use of the course as an arena to
show off, trying to outdo each other?
... one (or even more than one) group member is falling in
love with you?
... after an excessive night of socialising I have to be back on
the stage first thing in the morning?
... the material I need to run the exercise is simply not there,
incomplete or is insufficient?
... the participants have too much banker blood and just don’t
want to play with their own money?
... some of the exercises are already known to part of the
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group?
... you suddenly find out that basic arithmetic and writing
skills are not the strongpoint of some of the participants?
... a CEFE exercise really hits a few of the participants and
leaves their psyche a little bit shaky?
... during a small group task part of its members are just sit-
ting back and observing?
... the level of knowledge and experience in a group is rather
heterogeneous?
... the technical subject in question is simply not your do-
main?
... participants think that taking the course is just the ‘en-
trance ticket’ to get what they really want: That is credit?
... your co-facilitator contradicts you openly in front of the
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whole plenary?
... external resource persons (for instant bankers) lack suffi-
cient competence or simply do not turn up?
... some group members actively practice the old maxim ‘si-
lence is golden’ and just don’t participate?
... someone refuses to take part in a particular small group?

Basic elements for CEFE- 9 Test your learning result!
TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
9 Test your learning result!

This test picks up on important content from the basic Completing
elements part. You can either print out this test and complete it and sending to
by hand, or do it directly on the screen. When you have the trainer
completed the test, please send it to your trainer, with whom
you will attend the ToT, or to the organising institution. This
procedure has two advantages. One the one hand, the trainer
can build up a picture of your learning requirements and on
the other, you are able to receive feedback on your previous
knowledge before the start of the seminar or during the
seminar itself.
1
Give two reasons why adults decide to attend CEFE courses.
CEFE CEFE
2
Imagine the following situation: Two people are sitting at a table, about to eat. One of
the two has cooked and is serving up the food. Both of them start to eat. Suddenly
the other person asks: "What is the green stuff in the food?” To this, the first person
replies: "Go and eat somewhere else if you don't like what I cook for you!”
CEFE CEFE
Questions:
With this example, try and explain the four sides of a message!

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
3
Imagine a standard CEFE course. Describe an imaginary target group and formulate
at least two learning objectives for this group using an exercise of your choice! While
formulating these objectives, take into account the different areas of behaviour.
4
CEFE CEFE
Describe the experiential learning cycle!

CEFE CEFE

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
5
Which tasks are involved in processing? Use an example to describe how you would
prepare for the processing phase.
6
Have another look at the exercise Johari Window! How would you structure the
CEFE CEFE
generalising phase here?
7
How can you obtain information on the target group during the run-up, and what can
you do during the seminar to continually update and extend your knowledge of the
learning requirements of the target group?
CEFE CEFE

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
8
Pete now has the first week behind him and tells Paula about the last evaluation
round.
Pete: "One of the male participants really laid into one of the female participants.
She defended herself and then attacked the first participant.”
Paula: "What did you do?”
Pete: "I stopped the argument and asked the participants to start the situation
again from the beginning.”
Paula: "Did they agree to that?”
Pete: "Yes, they trusted me on it. So, the first participant said: You are always so
aggressive that you take the fun out of the constructive processing phase for
the whole course!” And the participant in question replied, “That's just not
true but you always think you're right, that really gets on my nerves!”
Paula: “That's serious stuff!”
Pete: "Yeah, I broke it up there and used that sentence to demonstrate what
happens when the rules of feedback are not observed.”
CEFE CEFE
Questions:
Which rules of feedback were disregarded in the situation described? What can you
do to avoid such situations?
CEFE CEFE

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
9
Pete is totally despairing:
"I have now done two exercises which, among other things, examined the subject of
looking for information. After these two exercises, I thought the participants had
achieved the learning objectives which I had formulated with regard to looking for
information. Today I used an exercise with which I wanted to achieve new learning
objectives. One of the aims of this exercise was to consolidate the results of the
previous exercises. Unfortunately, I discovered that most of the people in the group
were still not applying the knowledge from the previous exercises!”
Question:
What could be the reasons that the majority of participants still aren't looking for
information?
CEFE CEFE
CEFE CEFE

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
10
Pete tells Paula about his first experiences in the seminar:
Pete: "During the generalising phase I wanted to provide some additional
information but the participants didn't understand me at all! This happened
several times. I wonder if they don't want to understand me!”
Paula: "Perhaps you explained it in words which your participants don't know or
used examples which do not have anything to do with the real-life situations
of the participants!”
Question:
Which phenomenon is Paula implying? What can trainers do to avoid this problem or
to deal with it when it occurs?
CEFE CEFE
CEFE CEFE

TRAININGS
CEFE CEFE
11
What can you as a trainer do to ensure that information has a better chance of
reaching the long-term memory?
12
Describe the training style of a popular trainer you know (anonymous) and try to
CEFE CEFE
categorise this person into one of the four categories of trainer styles, identifying
elements from various trainer styles. How do you judge the trainer style which you
have just described?
CEFE CEFE

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Basic elements for CEFE- 1 Introduction

‘Education’ is understood to be the generic term encompass-

Chapters 2 to 8 offer a insight into the field of adult education Orientation:

and the special features of procedures within CEFE courses.

First of all, questions arise regarding adults as autonomous 2: Adults'

what happens to it once it is there? How is it that it is “stored”

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 1

An exchange of experiences, opinions, etc., is always carried 7: Communica-

model can help you to understand “misunderstandings” in the

In conclusion it should be noted that the “basic elements” por- Concentration

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 2

Prerequisites of adults Tasks and tools of the trainer

1 Adult Education Trainers’ 3 Didactics

6 Communication as the connecting link between participants and trainers

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 3

2 Adult education – Approaching

2.1 How do adults interact with "reality"

As a person grows older and more experienced, the person’s Unconscious

How is an adult to determine that an instrument is not suitable Conscious or

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 4

thereby proven ineffectual, or rather – when compared with problem situa-

As a rule, when adult individuals attend educational courses, Participants

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 5

The question as to how stable an individual’s outlook, or better A participant’s

In addition, for adults it is of particular importance that there be Adults have to

in groups. In this way the results of their own strategies can be

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 6

individual ways. However, as a result of the position conferred Participants’

To conclude this first chapter, a few practical reflections

the information you provide is important to him or not. It is is the prereq-

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 7

• As people we can see ourselves from above. We are able

2.2 What do entrepreneurs expect when

Now we are going to search for reasons for the entrepreneurs

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 8

Specific needs to learn often prove to be initially counterpro- Danger: view-

formation they have just heard. They do not expect to play an

attitudes. A participant in a further education course wishes to

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 9

Finally, further education is in many ways a social event: A Social-

intensive group processes than in other further education

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 10

3 How do we learn? - a brief theory

concerning how you can deal with them.

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 11

3.1 What do we mean by “Learning”?

A person enters a situation with certain prerequisites for Prerequisites

This understanding of learning is based upon a view of people People choose

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 12

stimulation from the environment. Adults in particular learn that

We refer to the ‘competencies’ which a person gains via Learning en-

seminar. This open understanding of learning is also in accord

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 13

3.2 How do we process information from

As a rule, the information processing function of the brain is

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 14

What happens in ultra-short-term memory? Ultra-short-

fraction of these. All of these impressions remain in our brain

CEFE-Manual for Trainers © CEFE-International 1998 Page 15

What happens after this in short-term memory? Short-term

Short-term memory is only able to receive about seven pieces

whether it is dealing with individual items or related factual