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LABORATORY MANUAL
14/06/2005 Soil mechanics laboratory manual 2
Introduction
Most of the test procedures collected in this manual were specially prepared for the geotechnical
laboratory of DGM in Thimphu, Bhutan
The test procedures are based on BS standards and some ASTM standards. However, in various cases
the test procedure was adapted to the type of equipment available in the laboratory. This means that
often a realistic compromise had to be found between strict requirements and practical possibilities.
Warning: Whenever tests have to be performed following a prescribed standard, always consult
that standard before testing.
W. Verwaal
References
Head, K.H. (1982): Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol. 1, Pentech Press, London, Plymouth.
Head, K.H. (1982): Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol. 2, Pentech press. London, Plymouth.
Bowels J.E. (1978): Engineering properties of soils and their measure mends, second edition. McGraw-
Hill books company.
Whitlow, R. (1983): Basic soil mechanics, Construction Press, London and New York.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, volume 04.08 : Soil and Rock (I) Published by ASTM in 2000
BS 5930:1999 British Standard Institution
BS 1377:1990 British Standard Institution, part 1-8
Some Internet pages.
.
CONTENTS
3.1 LIQUID LIMIT WITH CASAGRANDE CUP. BS 1377: PART 2:1990 AND ASTM, 1995. D4318 ... 24
3.2 LIQUID LIMIT USING THE CONE PENETROMETER BS 1377: PART 2:1990 .............................. 27
PERMEABILITY TESTS.................................................................................................................................. 66
Introduction
It is necessary to provide a classification of types of soil for the purpose of describing the various
materials encountered in site exploration. The system needs to be comprehensive, while still being
reasonable, systematic and concise.
There are many different classification systems. The system we will use is the British soil classification
with some adding’s from the ISO 14688.
Procedure
This classification can be separated in different parts.
First there is a preliminary classification to determine whether the soil was laid down by natural
processes No MADE GROUND
Yes NATURAL SOIL
Next: Does the natural soil comprise organic materials, have it organic odour? Yes ORGANIC SOIL.
Next: Is the soil of low density? Yes VOLCANIC SOIL
Next: Remove all cobbles and boulders (>63mm).
Do they weight more than the rest of the soil?
Yes: are most particles >200mm? Yes BOULDERS
No COBBELS
No: Does the soil stick together when wet:
No: are most particles >2mm Yes GRAVEL
No SAND
Yes: Does soil:
Display low plasticity,
Dilatancy, silky touch,
Disintegrate in water and
Dry quickly Yes SILT
No CLAY
Classification in practice
The primary classification of natural soil can be done by a wet sieving procedure on a 63 µm sieve if
more then 35% of the material is passing you are dealing with a fine grained soil if less than 35 % of the
sample is passing you are dealing with a course grained soil.
During the second part of the classification you have to determine the complete grading curve for
coarse-grained soil and the Atterberg limits for fine-grained soils, (determined on the part smaller than
425µm).
The 35% boundary between fine and course is approximate. Due to engineering behaviour it’s
sometimes necessary to determine de plasticity of soil with a fine-course boundary below 35% fines.
Classification of fine grained soils (soils that stick together when wet)
Since the plasticity of fine-grained soils has an important effect on such engineering properties as
strength and compressibility, plastic consistency is used as a basis for their classification. The
consistency of a soil is its physical state characteristic at given moisture content. Four consistency states
may be defined for cohesive soils: solid, semi-plastic solid, plastic and liquid. The change in volume of
a saturated cohesive soil is approximately proportional to a change in moisture content; the general
relationship is shown in fig. 1.1.2
The transition from one state to the next in fact is gradual; however, it is convenient to define arbitrary
limits corresponding to a change over moisture content:
LL = the liquid limit: the moisture content at which the soil ceases to be liquid and becomes plastic.
PL = the plastic limit: the moisture content at which the soil ceases to be plastic and becomes a
semi-plastic
SL = the shrinkage limit: the moisture content at which drying-shrinkage at constant stress ceases.
The two most important of these are the liquid and plastic limits, which represent respectively the upper
and lower bounds of the plastic state; the range of the plastic state is given by their difference, and is
termed the plasticity index (PI).
PI = LL-PL
This value is reported to the nearest whole number. If it is not possible to perform the plastic limit test,
the soil is reported as nonplastic (NP). This also applies if the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the
liquid limit. Which can occur in some soils with high mica content.
The relationship between the plasticity index and the liquid limit is used in the British Soil
Classification System to establish the subgroups of fine-grained soil; fig. 1.1.3 shows the plasticity
chart used for this purpose. The A-line provides an arbitrary division between silts and clays, and
vertical divisions (of percentage liquid limit) define five degrees of plasticity:
A given soil may be located in its correct sub-group zone by plotting a point, having co-ordinates given
by the soils plasticity index and liquid limit.
The liquid limit is determined with the cone penetrometer method (part 3.2 of this handbook).or with
the Cassagrande cup (part 3.1 of this handbook). The plastic limit is determined with the "rolling"
method (part 3.3 of this handbook).
2 60 2 60
µm mm
The grading curve is a graphical representation of the particle-size distribution and is therefore useful in
itself as a means of describing the soil. From the grading curve we can provide a descriptive term for
the type of soil (SOIL NAME).
BOULDERS-COBBELS
Term Composition
BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with a little finer material up to 5% finer material
BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with some finer material 5% to 20% finer material
BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with much finer material 20% to 50% finer material
FINER MATERIAL with many boulders (or cobbles) 50% to 20% boulders (or cobbles)
FINER MATERIAL with some boulders (or cobbles) 20% to 5% boulders (or cobbles)
FINER MATERIAL with occasional boulders (or cobbles) up to 5% boulders (or cobbles)
The description of the finer material (FINER MATERIAL) is made accordance the standard
A further quantitative analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain geometric values
known as grading characteristics. First of all, three points are located on the grading curve to give the
following characteristic sizes (fig. 1.1.7):
From these characteristic sizes, the following grading characteristics are defined:
D 60
Uniformity coefficient, Cu =
D10
(D 30 )2
Coefficient of gradation (curvature) Cc =
D60 * D10
Most well graded soils will have grading curves that are mainly flat or slightly concave, giving values
of Cc between 0.5 and 2.0.
Cc <0.1 indicate a possible gap-graded soil.
BS description system
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses nine characteristics; these should be written
in the following order:
compactness
e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented
bedding structure
e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation
discontinuities
spacing of beds, joints, fissures
weathered state
degree of weathering
colour
main body colour, mottling
grading or consistency
e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard
SOIL NAME
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, with-fines, etc. as
appropriate
soil class
(BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand
geological stratigraphic name
(when known) e.g. London clay
Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.
Example:
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium
(ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
Dry sieving is the simplest of all methods of particle size analysis. According to the British Standard
dry sieving may be carried out only on materials for which this procedure gives the same results as the
wet sieving procedure. This means that it is applicable only to clean granular materials, which usually
implies clean sandy or gravely soils that is, soils containing negligible amounts of particles of silt or
clay size. If in doubt about the validity of the dry-sieving method, the wet-sieving procedure should be
followed instead.
If particles of medium gravel size or larger are present in significant amounts, the initial size of the
sample required may be such that riffling is necessary at some stage to reduce the sample to a
manageable size for fine sieving. The procedure is then referred to as "composite sieving".
Sample preparation
The specimen to be used for the test is obtained from the original sample by riffling, or by subdivision
using the cone-and-quarter method. The appropriate minimum quantity of material depends upon the
maximum size of particles present, and is indicated in Table 2.2-1
- The specimen is placed on a tray and is allowed to dry, preferably overnight, in an oven maintained
at 105-110 °C.
- After drying to constant weight, the whole specimen is allowed to cool, and is weighted to an
accuracy within 0.1% or less of its total mass (M1).
6.3 200g
10 500g
14 1kg
20 2kg
28 6kg
37.5 15kg
50 35kg
63 50kg
75 70kg
100 150kg
150 500kg
200 1000kg
Selection of sieves.
The complete range of sieves specified by the British Standard is given in Table 2.1-2 It is not
necessary to use all sieves for every test, but the sieves used should adequately cover the range of
aperture sizes for each particular soil. For classification purposes we can use a short set.
The sieves to be used are selected to suit the size of sample and type of material.
Sieve frames must not be out of true, and should fit snugly one inside the other, to prevent escape of
dust. Sieves are nested together with the largest aperture sieve at the top, and a receiving pan under the
smallest aperture sieve at the bottom.
Test procedure
- The dried soil sample is placed in the topmost sieve and is shaken long enough that all particles
smaller than each aperture size can pass through. This can be achieved most conveniently by using
a mechanical sieve shaker.
- The whole nest of sieves with receiving pan is placed in the shaker, the dried soil is placed in the
top sieve, which is then fitted with the lid, and the sieves are securely fastened down in the
machine.
- Agitation in the shaker should be for a minimum period of 10 min. Some shakers have a built-in
timing device which can be pre-set to switch off the motor automatically after the desired period.
- The maximum mass of sample, which can be sieved in one cycle, is depending on the used sieves
and the particle size of the sample. See table 2.1-3.
- Weighing, The material retained on each sieve is transferred to a weighed container. Any particles
lodged in the apertures of the sieve should be carefully removed with a sieve brush, the sieve being
first placed upside-down on a tray or a clean sheet of paper. These particles are added to those
retained on the sieve. Weighing of each size fraction should be to an accuracy of at least 0.1% of
the total initial test sample mass. The masses retained (Ms1, Ms2, etc.) are recorded against the sieve
aperture size on the particle size test work sheet. The mass (Mp) passing the 63µmm sieve is also
measured and recorded.
Maximum mass
450mm 300 mm 200 mm
Sieve diameter sieves diameter sieves diameter sieves
Aperture (kg) (kg) (g)
50 mm 10 4.5
37.5 8 3.5
28 6 2.5
20 4 2.0
14 3 1.5
10 2 1.0
6.3 1.5 0.75
5 1.0 0.5
3.35 300
2 200
1.18 100
600µm 75
425 75
300 50
212 50
150 40
63 25
Table 2.1-3 maximum mass to be retained on each test sieve at the completion of sieving.
Calculations
The mass retained on the first sieve is denoted as Ms1.
The mass passing the first sieve = M1- Ms1. The percentage passing the first sieve is given by
M1 − Ms1
P1 = ∗ 100 %
M1
The mass passing the second sieve = M1 – Ms1 – Ms2. The percentage passing the second sieve is given
by
M 1 − (Ms1 + Ms 2 )
P2 = ∗ 100 %
M1
And so on.
M1 − ∑ M
P= ∗ 100 %
M1
Where ∑M denotes the sum of the masses retained on all sieves down to and including the one in
question: ∑M = Ms1+Ms2+Ms3+ etc.
The calculated mass passing the last sieve should be equal, or very nearly equal, to the mass collected in
the receiving pan. If this is denoted by Mp, the percentage of fines, Pp passing the last sieve is
Mp
Pp = * 100 %
M1
Reporting
In addition to the particle size curve and the usual sample identification data, the sheet should include
the visual description of the sample. This should be the description of the sample before testing, and
modified as necessary as a result of the additional information revealed by the test result. Any material
removed before sieving, such as vegetation or an isolated cobble, should be reported.
Tabulated data showing the percentage each sieve are sometimes required instead of, or in addition to,
the grading curve.
The method of test is reported as dry sieving in accordance with BS 1377:1975, Test 7(B).
Sample Preparation
- The specimen to be used for the test is obtained from the original sample by rifling, or by
subdivision using the cone-and-quarter method. The appropriate minimum quantity of material
depends upon the maximum size of particles present, and is indicated in Table 2.2.1 Page.
- The specimen is placed on a tray and is allowed to dry, preferably overnight, in an oven maintained
at 105-110 °C After drying to constant weight, the whole specimen is allowed to cool, and is
weighted to an accuracy within 0.1% or less of its total mass (M1).
Maximum mass
450mm 300 mm 200 mm
diameter diameter diameter
Sieve sieves sieves sieves
Aperture (kg) (kg) (g)
50 mm 10 4.5
37.5 8 3.5
28 6 2.5
20 4 2.0
14 3 1.5
10 2 1.0
6.3 1.5 0.75
5 1.0 0.5
3.35 300
2 200
1.18 100
600µm 75
425 75
300 50
212 50
150 40
63 25
Table 2.2-3 maximum mass to be retained on each test sieve at the completion of sieving.
- Drying
The whole of the material retained on each sieve is allowed to drain, and is carefully transferred to
trays or evaporating dishes. These are placed in an oven to dry at 105-110 °C, preferably overnight.
- Weighing
After cooling, the whole of the dried material is put together and weighed to an accuracy of 0.1%
(M4).
- Sieving
The dry soil is passed through a nest of the complete range of sieves to cover the sizes of particles
present, down to the 6.3 mm sieve. This operation may be carried out by hand or preferably on a
sieve shaker, exactly as in the dry sieving procedure. Weigh the amount retained on each sieve to
0.1 % of its total mass.
If the fraction passing the 6.3 mm sieve is small, i.e. not more than 150 g, the sample may be sieved
by dry sieving on the appropriate sieves down to and including the 63 µm test sieve. Weigh the
amounts retained on each sieve, and any fines passing the 63 µm test sieve (Mf), to 0.1 % of its total
mass.
If the fraction passing the 6.3 mm sieve is large i.e. substantially greater than 150 g, it should be
accurately weighed (M5 ) and then subdivided to give a sample of 100-150 g.
Weigh this fraction (M6 ) and then sieve on the appropriate sieves down to and including the 63 µm
test sieve. Weigh the amounts retained on each sieve, and any fines passing the 63 µm test sieve,
(Me)
If riffling is not necessary, (M6 ) is the same as (M5 ).
- Weighing
The portion retained on each sieve is weighed, each to an accuracy of 0.1%.
Calculations
- Calculation for the particles larger than 20mm in size, calculate the proportion by mass of material
retained on each of the coarse series of sieves as a percentage of M1
For example:
⎧ M (28mm) ⎫
Percentage retained on 28 mm sieve = ⎨ ⎬100
⎩ M1 ⎭
- Calculate the corrected mass of material retained on each of the sieves between 20 mm and 6.3 mm
M2
by multiplying by , then calculate this mass as a percentage of M1
M3
For example:
⎛ M 2 ⎞⎛ 100 ⎞
Percentage retained on 10 mm sieve = M(10 mm) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ M 3 ⎠⎝ M1 ⎠
- Calculate the corrected mass of material retained on each of the sieves finer than the 6.3 mm sieve
⎛ M5 ⎞⎛ M 2 ⎞
by multiplying by ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , then calculate this mass as a percentage of M1
⎝ M6 ⎠⎝ M 3 ⎠
For example:
⎛ M 5 ⎞⎛ M 2 ⎞⎛ 100 ⎞
Percentage retained on 300 µm sieve = M(300 µm) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠⎝ M 3
M ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠
M
- Calculate the cumulatieve percentage by mass of the sample passing each of the sieves from the
general relationship:
Calculate the fraction passing the 63 µm test sieve by difference. The mass of fines lost by washing is
equal to (M3-M4). To this is added the mass of any fine material (Mf) passing the 63 µm test sieve when
dry sieved.
⎧⎪ (M 3 − M 4 ) + M f ⎫⎛ M 2 ⎞
Percentage passing 63 µm sieve = ⎨ ⎬⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 100
⎪⎩ M3 ⎭⎝ M 1 ⎠
Reporting
In addition to the particle size curve and the usual sample identification data, the sheet should include
the visual description of the sample. This should be the description of the sample before testing, and
modified as necessary as a result of the additional information revealed by the test result. Any material
removed before sieving, such as vegetation or an isolated cobble, should be reported.
Tabulated data showing the percentage each sieve are sometimes required instead of, or in addition to,
the grading curve.
The hydrometer analysis is a widely used method to obtain the distribution of particle sizes in the silt
range (63-2 µm), and the percentage of clay minerals < 2µm. The test is usually not performed if less
than 10% of the material passes the 63 µm sieve.
The hydrometer analysis utilises the relationship among the velocity of fall of spheres in a fluid, the
diameter of the sphere, the specific weights of the sphere and of the fluid, and of the viscosity of the
fluid as expressed by the Stokes’ law.
NOTE:
The hydrometer is a very fragile device; it should be handled with care. Never hold it horizontal while
holding it on one side, the bulb is very heavy and the glass could break. Hold it on the bulb when
moving it horizontal. When moving it in and out of a cylinder, keep it as straight as possible; a small
angle could break it.
Apparatus used
− soil hydrometer
− two 1000 ml glass measuring cylinders, with rubber stops
− thermometer
− high speed stirrer
− sieves 200 mm diameter; 63 µm, 212 µm, 600 µm, 2 mm and a receiver
− balance readable to 0.01 g
− drying oven, 105-110 °C
− stopwatch readable to 1 s.
− steel rule
− four evaporating dishes
− 1000 ml beaker
− two measuring cylinder, 100 ml and 50 ml
− wash bottle and distilled water
− constant-temperature bath
− glass rod: 12 mm diameter, 400 mm long
− standard dispersant solution: that is 33 g sodium hexametaphosphate and 7 g of sodium carbonate in
distilled water to make 1 litre solution
Each density reading taken on the hydrometer must first be expressed as a hydrometer reading, Rh’,
corresponding to the level of the upper rim of the meniscus. This is done by subtracting 1 from the
density and moving the decimal point three places to the right. For example, a density of 1.028 would
be a hydrometer reading of Rh’ = 28.
Meniscus correction
− Insert the hydrometer is a 1 L cylinder containing about 800 ml water.
− By placing the eye slightly below the plane of surface of the liquid and then raising it slowly until
the surface seen as an ellipse becomes a straight line, determine the point where the plane intersects
the hydrometer scale.
− By placing the eye slightly above the plane of surface of the liquid, determine the point where the
plane intersects the hydrometer scale.
− Record the difference between the two readings as the meniscus correction, Cm.
Rh = Rh’ + Cm
Example:
Rh length H Hr
mm mm mm h 159 mm
N= 16 Vh 72 ml
25 d1= 19 35 101.78 L 318 mm
20 d2= 38.5 54.5 121.28
15 d3= 58 74 140.78
10 d4= 77 93 159.78
5 d5= 97 113 179.78
0 d6= 117 133 199.78
-5 d7= 137 153 219.78
Plot the relation between Hr and Rh as a smooth curve, and determine the relation.
With this relation, we can calculate for each reading Rh the corresponding Hr.
250
200
150 calibration
Hr
50 y = -3.9286x + 199.71
R2 = 0.9999
0
-10 0 10 20 30
Rh
Sample preparation
− As soon as frothing has stopped, the volume of liquid is reduced to about 50 ml by boiling which
decomposes any excess hydrogen peroxide
− Transfer the contents of the conical flask to a funnel with a Whatman No 50 filter paper, and wash
thoroughly with distilled water
− Transfer the residue from the filter paper to container using a fine jet of distilled water from a wash
bottle and dry the sample at 60-65°C.
− Take the weight mp, weight after pre-treatment.
Dispersion
− Add 100 ml of the standard dispersing solution to the soil.
− Shake the mixture thoroughly until all the soil is in suspension.
− Transfer the soil with some distilled water to the cup of the high-speed stirrer and stir for about 1
hour.
− Transfer the suspension to the 63 µm sieve placed on a receiver.
− Wash the soil in the sieve with a maximum of 500 ml distilled water.
− Transfer the suspension in the receiver into a 1000 ml sedimentation cylinder, this will be the
sedimentation cylinder.
− Transfer the material retained on the 63 µm sieve to an evaporating dish and dry it in the oven at
105 to 110 °C.
− When cooled, sieve this material on the 2mm, 600 µm, 212 µm and 63 µm.
− Dry and weigh the material retained on each sieve to 0.01 g.
− Add any material passing the 63 µm sieve to the sedimentation cylinder.
Sedimentation
− Fill the sedimentation cylinder to the 1 L graduation mark with distilled water.
− Place the sedimentation cylinder in the constant-temperature bath, set on 25 °C.
− Place a second cylinder containing 100 ml of the dispersant solution and distilled water to exactly 1
L. in the constant-temperature bath: this is for calibration readings of the dispersant solution and for
storage of the hydrometer between the readings.
− Allow the cylinders to stand in the bath until they have reached the bath temperature (about 1 hour).
− Insert a rubber stop in the sedimentation cylinder or close it off by hand and shake the cylinder
vigorously to obtain a uniform suspension. Stir if necessary with a glass rod so that all material
goes into suspension. The cylinder is inverted for a few seconds, and is then stood in the constant
temperature bath. Without delay as soon as it is in the upright position, the stop-watch is started
(zero time).
− Remove the rubber bung and insert the hydrometer steadily and allow it to float freely. It must not
be allowed to bulb up and down, or to rotate. However a quick rotational twist with the fingers on
the top of the hydrometer will dislodge any air bubbles which may adhere to the side.
− Readings of the hydrometer are taken at the top of the meniscus level at the following times from
zero: 0.5 , 1 , 2 , 4 minutes.
− The hydrometer is removed slowly, rinsed in distilled water, and placed in the separate cylinder of
distilled water in the constant temperature bath.
− Observe and record the top of the meniscus reading, Ro.
− Insert the hydrometer for further readings at the following times from zero: 8 , 30 min; 2 ,8, 24
hours and twice during the following day. It is not essential to keep rigidly these times, provided
that the actual time of each reading is recorded. Insert the hydrometer slowly about 15s before a
reading is due.
− Insert and withdraw the hydrometer very carefully to avoid disturbing the suspension unnecessarily.
− Observe and record the temperature of the bath after every recording. If the temperature varies
more than 1 °C another reading to determine Ro should be taken.
− Use a suitable form to record your observations.
Calculation
Dispersion
− Calculate the mass percentages according to the wet sieving procedure in paragraph 2.2
Sedimentation
− Calculate the effective depth Hr
− Calculate the equivalent particle diameter D (mm), from the equation
−
η *Hr
D = 0 .005531
( ρ s − 1) t
Where:
η = dynamic viscosity of water at the test temperature (mPa.s), table 2.3.1
Hr = effective depth (mm)
ρs = particle density (Mg/m3)
t = elapsed time (min)
− Calculate the percentage by mass, K, of particles smaller than the corresponding equivalent particle
diameter , D (mm), from the equation:
⎛ 100ρ s ⎞
K = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟R d , where m = mass of dry soil used (g) or mp = mass of soil after pre-treatment.
⎝ m(ρ s − 1) ⎠
ρs = particle density (Mg/m3)
Reporting
The report shall affirm that the test was carried out in accordance with BS 1377: Part 2: 1990 and shall
include the following information:
1. the method of test used
2. the results of the sedimentation analysis
3. the results of the sieve analysis
4. the method of pre-treatment
5. the sieve curve
The Atterberg limits are the so-called consistency limits. Determining the Atterberg limits is a very
useful method to classify cohesive soils. The concept is based on the fact that the consistency depends
largely on its water content. The Atterberg limits comprise the liquid limit (WL), the plastic limit (Wp)
and the shrinkage limit (Ws). They define the boundaries between four stages of a soil.
Most of the Soil Classification Systems for engineering purpose is, among other parameters,
based on the consistency limits (See chapter 1-1). The classification of soils is not the only
application of the Atterberg limits. There is also a good correlation with the strength of cohesive
soils, expressed in Cu , the undrained shear strength. The consistency limits have been used all
over the world for many years and a lot of empirical relationships have been developed.
There are four test devices for determination of the liquid limit. These devices are:
3.1 Liquid limit with Casagrande cup. BS 1377: Part 2:1990 (ASTM D4318)
The liquid limit of soil is the water content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven dried
soil, at the boundary between the liquid and the plastic state. The water content at this boundary is
arbitrarily defined as the water content at which two halves of a soil cake will flow together for a
distance of 12-mm along the bottom of the groove separating the two halves, when the cup is dropped
25 times for a distance of 1 cm at the rate of 2 drops/s.
Note: The difference between the American and British Standard, is the difference in base plate of the
Casagrande cup. The British standard defines a relative soft rubber base, the American
standard a harder ebonite one. Because of this difference, the results of the British method are
generally higher.
Apparatus used
Sample preparation
Place the soil sample, weighing about 250 g, from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing
the No.40 (425-µm) sieve obtained in accordance with the used standard in a porcelain evaporating dish
(about 114-mm in diameter) and thoroughly mix with 15 to 20 ml of distilled water by alternately and
repeatedly stirring, kneading, and chopping with a spatula. Mixing can also be done on a glass plate in
the case care shut be taken to keep the hole sample at the same moister content. Make further additions
of water in increments of 1 to 3 ml. Thoroughly mixes each increment of water with the soil as
previously described, before adding another increment of water.
Test procedure
When sufficient water has been thoroughly mixed with the soil to produce a consistency that will
require 30 to 35 lift and drops of the Casagrande cup to cause closure of the groove
Place a portion of the mixture in the cup above the spot where the cup Pests on the base. Squeeze it
down and spread it in the position shown in fig. 3.1-2. with as few strokes of the spatula as possible,
care being taken to prevent the entrapment of air bubbles within the Mass. With the spatula (having a
blade about 76-mm in length and 19mm in width) level the soil and at the same time trim it to a depth
of 1 cm at the point of maximum thickness. Return the excess soil to the evaporating dish. Divide the
soil by firm strokes of the grooving tool along the diameter through the centreline of the cam follower
so that a sharp, clean groove of the proper dimensions will be formed. To avoid tearing of the sides of
the groove or slipping of the soil cake on the cup, up to six strokes, from front to back or from back to
front counting as one stroke, shall be permitted. Each stroke should penetrate a little deeper until the
last stroke from the back to front scrapes the bottom of the cup clean. Make the strokes with as few
strikes as possible.
Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank at the rate of 2 revolutions per second, until the two halves of
the soil cake come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of about 12 mm.
Record the numbers of drops required to close the groove along a distance of about 12-mm.
Remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, extending from edge to edge of the soil
cake in right angles to the groove and including that portion of the groove in which the soil flowed
together, and place it in a suitable container (for example a matched watch glass).
Weigh and record the mass.
Oven-dry the soil in the container to constant mass at 110 °C and reweigh as soon as it has cooled but
before hydroscopic moisture can be absorbed. Record this mass. Record the loss in mass due to drying
as the mass of water.
Transfer the soil remaining in the cup to the evaporating dish. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool,
and reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next trial.
Repeat the foregoing operations for at least two additional trials with the soil collected in the
evaporating dish, to which sufficient water has been added to bring the soil to a more fluid condition.
Preserve after completion of the test the test sample if the plastic limit and plasticity index test has to be
determined from the soil sample.
The object of this procedure is to obtain samples of such consistency that the number of drops required
closing the groove
Will be above and below 25. The number of drops should be less than 35 and exceed 15. The test
should always proceed from the dryer to the wetter condition of the soil.
Calculation
mass of water
Wn = ∗ 100
mass of ovendried soil
Plot a "flow curve" representing the relationship between water content and corresponding number of
drops of the cup on a semilogarithmic graph with the water content as abscissa on the arithmetical scale,
and the numbers of drops as ordinate on the logarithmic scale. The "flow curve" is a straight line drawn
as nearly as possible through the three or more plotted points. See fig. 3.1.3
Fig. 3.1.3
Reporting
-Report the liquid limit as the water content corresponding to the intersection of the flow curve with the
25-drop ordinate as the liquid limit of the soil. Round off this number to the nearest whole value.
-Treatment of the soil.
-The percentage material passes the 425 mµ sieve, if it was sieved.
3.2 Liquid limit using the cone penetrometer BS 1377: Part 2:1990
With this test, one can obtain the liquid limit. This value is often used in classification systems, together
with particle size analysis.
It is based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardised cone of specified mass. At
the liquid limit the cone penetration is 20 mm.
Note: The results obtained with the cone penetrometer may be differ slightly from those with the
Casagrande apparatus, but in most cases up to a liquid limit of 100 these differences will not be
significant.
Apparatus used
- Cone penetrometer with standard cone of mass 80 gr. sees fig 3.2.1
- sample cup of diameter 55 mm and 40 mm deep
- Flat glass plate about 500mm square.
- 2 spatulas
- wash bottle
- drying oven
- mass balance accurate to 0.01 g
-
Sample preparation
Wherever possible the test shall be carried out on soil in its natural state. With many clay soils it is
practicable and shall be permissible to remove by hand any coarse particles present, i.e. particles
retained on a 425µm test sieve. Otherwise these particles shall removed by wet sieving.
Sieve procedure
-Take a sample of the soil of sufficient size to give a test specimen weighing at least 300 g. which
passes the 425 µm test sieve.
-Take a representative sample and determine its moisture content, Wn (in %)
-Weight the remainder of the sample to an accuracy of within 0.01 g (M6)
-Place the sample in a container under just enough distilled water to submerge it.
-Stir the mixture until it forms a slurry.
-Sieve the slurry through the 425 µm sieve with the minimum amount of distilled water until the water
passing is virtually clear.
-Collect the material retained on the 425 µm sieve, dry it at 105 °C and weigh it to an accuracy of
within 0.01 g (M7).
-Collect the fines in a receiver or large container if necessary, and let the fine particles settle.
-After a suitable interval pour off any clear water above the suspension, and let it dry (warm air) until it
forms a stiff paste.
Calculation:
From the sieved soil calculate the dry mass, Md (in g), of the initial sample from the equation:
⎛
⎜ 100 ⎞⎟⎟
Md = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟M 6
⎜ 100 + Wn ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where
Wn is the moisture content (in %)
M6 is the mass of particles retained on 425 µm sieve (in g).
⎛
⎜ Md − M 7 ⎞⎟⎟
Pa = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟100%
⎜
⎝ Md ⎟⎟⎠
Where
M7 is the dry mass of particles passing the 425 µm sieve (in g)
- Thoroughly mix the sample on the glass plate using two spatulas, and if necessary add distilled
water, to form a plastic material
- Place the paste into an airtight container, and leave it standing for a curing period of 24 hour, or
overnight, to allow water to permeate through the soil mass. For soil of low clay content, such as
very silty soils, the curing period may be omitted.
- Remove the soil from the container and remix with the spatulas for at least 10 min. Some soils
(heavy clays) up to 40 min.
- fill the sample cup with the soil and trim off excess material with the spatula to form a smooth even
surface being careful not to trap any air bubbles
- bring the point of the cone to the surface of the sample lower the dial gauge pointer to the top of the
cone and set the gauge on zero
- release the cone pressing the release button for 5 seconds
- lower the pointer to the new position of the cone
- Take a reading to the nearest 0.1 mm, it should be approximately 15 mm for the first test.
- Lift out the cone and clear it carefully. Add a little more wet soil to the cup and take a second
reading. If the second cone penetration differs from the first by less than o.5 mm, the
- Average value is recorded, and the moister content is measured. If the second penetration is
between 0.5 and 1 mm different from the first, a third test is carried out, and provided the overall
range does not exceed 1mm, the average of the three penetrations is recorded and the moisture
content is measured. If the overall range exceed 1mm, the soil is removed from the cup and
remixed, and the test is repeated.
- take a sample of approximately 10 gram from the cup and determine its moisture content
- To the remainder of the material add some distilled water and repeat the above procedure. This is
done at least three more times to get a range (min. 4) of penetration values from about 15mm to 25
mm.
- N.B. One must be careful not to add too much water at one time.
Calculation
The moisture contents determined are plotted against the respective penetration depth, both on a linear
scale. The liquid limit is defined as that moisture content where the cone penetrates 20 mm into the
sample. This value is interpolated from a graph. See fig. 3.2.2.
Reporting
-The liquid limit is expressed to the nearest whole number.
-Treatment of the soil.
-The percentage material passes the 425 mµ sieve, if it was sieved.
Fig 3.2.2
The plastic limit is often used together with the liquid limit to determine the plasticity index which
when plotted against the liquid limit on the plasticity chart provides a means of classifying cohesive
soils.
It is the empirical established moisture content at which soil becomes to dry to be plastic.
Apparatus
- glass plate
- 3 mm diameter metal rod
- spatulas
- drying oven
- mass balance accurate to 0,01 gram.
Sample preparation
ca. 20 gram of material is needed. The sample may be a disturbed sample. We only use material passing
the 425 µm sieve.
Calculations
Calculate the moisture content of the soil in each of the two containers. Take the average of the two
results. If they differ by more than 0,5% moisture content, the test should be repeated.
Reporting
-The average moisture content referred to above is expressed to the nearest whole numbers and reported
as the plastic limit.
-The treatment of the soil.
-The percentage of material passes the 425mµ sieve if it was sieved.
Remarks
From some soils the plastic limit cannot be determined. Crumbling occurs before you reach 3mm. or
rolling of the soil is not possible.
Reference
Head K.H. (1982): Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Vol 1,Pentach Press, London Plymouth.
The bulk density of a soil, ρ, is the mass per unit volume of the soil deposit including any water it
contains. The dry density, ρd, is the mass of dry soil contained in a unit volume. Both are expressed in
Mg/m3, which is numerically the same as g/cm3.
Three methods are specified. The first applies to soils that can be formed into a regular geometric
shape, the volume of which can be calculated from linear measurements. In the second the volume of
the specimen is determined by weighing it submerged in water. In the third the volume is measured by
displacement of water.
Apparatus used:
This method is suitable for the determination of the density of a sample of cohesive soil of regular
shape.
The sample is mostly extruded from a sample tube but can also be shaped in a cube or rectangular block
from a undisturbed soil sample
- The specimen volume is calculated from the average value of several calliper readings (3 at least)
for each dimension of the sample
- Weight the trimmed specimen to an accuracy of 0.1 % (m)
- Calculate the volume, V of the specimen.
Calculations
If the moisture content, W (in %), of the soil is known, calculate the dry density of the specimen, ρd (in
Mg/m3), from the equation:
100 ρ
ρd =
100 + W
Express the density and dry density of the soil specimen to the nearest 0.01 Mg/m3
Remark:
In practice we often use a (density) cutting ring to prepare a cylindrical sample with a fixed volume
This method determine the bulk density and dry density of samples of natural or compacted soil by
measuring its mass in air and its apparent mass when suspended in water.
- Trim the soil sample, until a specimen is produced measuring at least 100 mm in each dimension.
- Weigh the specimen to the nearest 1 g (Ms)
- Fill al l the surface air voids of the specimen with a material that is insoluble in water, e.g.
plasticine or putty and weigh to the nearest 1 g (Mf)
- Coat the specimens completely by dipping in molten paraffin wax. Allow the waxed specimen to
cool and weigh to the nearest 1 g (Mw)
- Measure the apparent mass of the specimen while suspended in water to the nearest 1 g (Mg)
Calculations
Calculate the volume of the specimen, Vs (in cm3), from the equation:
⎛ Mw - Mg ⎞ ⎛ M w - Mf ⎞
Vs = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρwater ⎠ ⎝ ρρ ⎠
Where,
Mw is the mass of specimen and wax coating (in g);
Mg is the apparent mass of specimen and wax coating when suspended in water (in g)
Mf is the mass of specimen after making up surface voids with filler (in g);
ρρ is the density of paraffin wax (in g/cm3)
Calculate the bulk density of the specimen, ρ (in Mg/m3), from the equation:
Ms
ρ=
Vs
This method used the water displacement and mass of a specimen, to calculate the bulk density and dry
density.
The sample is prepared like the water immersion method and put in a water container with siphon
outlet. By taking the weight of the water coming out, the volume can be calculated.
Reporting
Apparatus used
Sample preparation
The quantity of the soil sample required for an accurate measurement of the natural water content is
dependent upon the particle size of the sample.
- fine grained material use 30 g
- medium grained material use 300 g
- coarse grained material use 3000 g
-
Execution of the test
Calculations
mass of water M2 - M3
Moisture content W = = ∗ 100%
dry mass of sample M3 - M1
With help of the moisture content W, we can calculate the dry density, with the following calculation:
mass insitu
Dry density = ∗ 100
100 + W
Reporting
- Data on the sample
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of bore hole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- lithology, particle size, density, natural moister content
- The sample transport and storage conditions
- The water content should be reported to the nearest 0.1%.
Apparatus used
- Two 50mL density bottles (pyknometers) with stoppers
- A rod small enough to go through the neck of the density bottle.
- A constant temperature water bath in the range from 20-300C ± 0.2 0C
- A vacuum desiccator
- A desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
- Balance accurate to 0.001 gr.
- Oven (24 hr at 105°C ±5°C)
- Vacuum system
- A wash bottle containing air-free distilled water
- A small riffle-box
Sample preparation
At least two specimens, each between 5g and 10g shall be obtained by riffling. The specimens shall be
oven dried at 105°C to 110°C and stored in an airtight container.
Calculations
m 2 -m1
Particle density = ρs =
(m 4 -m1 )-(m3 -m 2 )
Where
If the result of the two samples differs more than 0.03Mg/m3 the test shall be repeated.
Reporting
The method of test used
The average value of the particle density of the soil specimen to the nearest 0.01 Mg/m3
Apparatus used
- A pyknometer, a glass vessel of nominal 1L capacity designed for a screw-top lid, fitted the
following
a corrosion-resistant screw ring
a conical cap of corrosion-resistant metal with a cone-angle of 75 o to 78o and with a hole 6 ±
0.5mm diameter at its apex
- A glass about 300mm long and 6mm diameter.
- A thermometer range 0°C to 50°C readable to 1°C
- Balance accurate to 0.5 gr.
- Oven (24 hr at 105°C ±5°C)
Sample preparation
Take a sample of about 1.5kg. Coarse particles should be broken down.
At least two specimens, each of about 400g shall be obtained by riffling. The specimens shall be oven
dried at 105°C to 110°C and stored in an airtight container.
hole in the conical top. Allow air to escape froth to disperse. Leave the pyknometer standing for at
least 24h at room temperature constant to within 2°C.
- Top up the pyknometer with water so that the water surface is flush with the hole in the conical cap.
- Dry the pyknometer on the outside and weigh the whole to the nearest 0.5g (m3)
- Empty the pyknometer, wash it thoroughly and fill it completely with water at room temperature.
- Dry the pyknometer on the outside and weigh to the nearest 0.5g (m4)
- Repeat the test using the second sample. If the results differ more than 0.05 Mg/m3 repeat the test.
Calculations
m 2 -m1
Particle density = ρs =
(m 4 -m1 )-(m3 -m 2 )
Where
M1 = mass of pyknometer
M2 = mass of pyknometer and dry soil
M3 = mass of pyknometer and soil and liquid
M4 = mass of pyknometer and liquid
If the result of the two samples differs more than 0.5Mg/m3 the test shall be repeated.
Reporting
The method of test used
The average value of the particle density of the soil specimen to the nearest 0.5Mg/m3
The vane test is a test, which can be carried out both in the field and in the laboratory.
The undrained shear strength of soft to firm cohesive soils can be determined without the sample being
disturbed by preparation. This method may be used when the sample is too sensitive or soft to enable a
compression test.
Apparatus used
-Laboratory vane test apparatus see fig 5.1-1
Sample preparation
An undisturbed sample should be cut and trimmed to a diameter of 37.5mm with a length of about
75mm. Place the trimmed sample centrally into the sample container belonging to the equipment. Fill
the annular space between the wall of the container and the sample with molten wax.
Alternatively we can clamp a sample container with an undisturbed sample on the base plate of the vane
equipment the sample shut be of sufficient dimensions such that the shearing force applied by the vane
is not hampered or influenced by forces originating from the extremities of the sample.
Three tests on one sample material should be sufficient if the results are reasonably constant.
Calculation
Calculate the difference between the initial reading and the reading at the peek and remoulded value
This difference gives the angle of torque of the spring. Multiply the outcome by the spring factor (is
indicated on the spring) and dived the outcome by 180 this give the torque in kgf.cm recalculate this
value in N.mm. Average the values obtaining for the different test.
If one result differs appreciably from the others (more then 20%) it should be discarded.
M
τv = * 1000
K
M= measured torque in N.mm
K = constant which depends on the dimensions of the vane.
⎛H D⎞
K = πD 2 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 6⎠
D = vane diameter (mm)
H = vane height (mm)
Reporting
-The average undisturbed and remoulded shear strengths in KPa
-The highest and lowest measured values
-Type of testing machine
-Size of the vane
-Indicate the horizon at with the test was executed
The measurement of the effective shear strength parameters for cylindrical specimens of saturated soil
which have been subjected to isotropic consolidation and then sheared in compression, under a constant
confining pressure, by increasing the axial strain.
The test maybe performed consolidated or unconsolidated under drained or undrained conditions, with
the possibility of measuring pore pressure and volume change.
The triaxial test set up maintenance the following apparatus (fig 5.2.1)
Fig. 5.2.1
Description of test
The sample is enclosed in a thin rubber membrane, which is sealed against the pedestal and the top cap
on the sample by rubber O-rings.
The sample is placed on the base plate of a triaxial cell. The removable cap of the cell is placed over the
sample and the total triaxial cell is placed in the triaxial frame.
The cell can be filled with (de-aired) water, and with the air regulator we can established the desired
cell pressure (σ3).
A piston, movable with little friction through a bush in the top cap of the triaxial cell, rest on the top cap
of the sample. The upper end of the piston touches a dynamometer, consisting of a metal ring and a dial
gauge, which measures the decrease in vertical diameter when a force is applied to the ring. The force is
found by multiplying the dial gauge reading by a calibration constant. (See calibration chart)
The triaxial frame has a stepper motor and screw jack assembly, which can provide a constant platen
speed. This causes a compression of both dynamometer and sample.
The rate at which the sample is compressed is depending on the kind test (CU, UU, or CD), and type of
material to be tested. A dial gauge just below the dynamometer measures the settlement of the sample.
With a pressure transducer, the pore pressure can be measured.
And with the automatic volume change apparatus, we can measure the amount of water going in or out
the sample.
During the practical we will execute an unconsolidated undrained test (UU), this is a normally not much
performed test. (No effective stresses are measured)
Sample preparation
Specimens shall have a height equal to about twice the diameter, with plane ends normal to the axis.
The diameter is normally between 35 and 100 mm.
Undisturbed specimens shall be prepared with the minimum change of the soil structure and
moisture content.
The method of preparation shall depend on whether the sample received in the laboratory is contained
in a tube of the same internal diameter as the specimen to be tested, or in a tube of larger diameter, or as
a block sample.
- Push the sample tube into the block sample; be sure the sample is long enough.
- Place the sample tube in the extruder
- Put on the inner side off catch tube mineral oil or silicone crease
-
1 = Extruder
2 = Sample tube
3 = Catch tube
Fig. 5.2.3
- Fasten the catch tube with the fastening fork to the outside of the extruder
- By turning the screw of the extruder, press the sample out of the sample tube into the catch tube.
- Separate the sample in the catch tube from the remainder in the sample tube with help of a thread
saw
- With the aid of the levelling ring (fig.5.2.4), smooth the ends of the sample.
- Placing the ring on the end of the catch tube and giving the ring a few turns
- Do this to both ends of the sample and make sure that the sample does not slide up and down in the
catch tube.
-
1= Catch tube
2= Sample trimmer
3= Porous discs
4= Specimen
- Take the weight from sample with catch tube, by subtracting the weight of the catch tube we can
calculate the bulk density (fill in your test form).
- Place footcap and topcap on the ends of the sample.
- Remove the sample carefully out the catch tube
- Measure the height and diameter of the sample. (Fill in your test form).
Test Procedure
The procedure describes the test set up for an unconsolidated undrained test
In order to obtain a reasonable assessment of the C and φ values, three experiments should be done on
three different undisturbed samples of the same soil at three different cell pressures.
- Place the sample with the foot piece and cap on the base of the pressure cell
- Place a membrane inside the membrane application tube and fold the ends over the outside of the
tube, to fit the membrane snugly against the inside wall of the tube wall suck on the hose to create a
vacuum between tube and membrane
- Slide the membrane application carefully over the sample (see fig. 5.2-4)
1 = Membrane application
2 = Sucking tube
3 = Membrane
4 = Base pedestal of the pressure cell
5 = Pressure cap
Fig.5.2-4
- Remove the sample from the cell and sketch the failure pattern
- Determine water content
Reporting
After executed at least 3 test with different cell pressure (σ3), we can calculated the deviator stress (σ1-
σ3)m (in kPa), given by
P = is the axial force in N, dial gauge reading times calibration factor (note: the dial gauge reading is
already corrected for the applied cell pressure (σ3) and friction from the piston).
As = area cross section of the specimen, this area will change during the compression stage so we need
to make a correction: The corrected area is given for each strain reading on the test form.
Graphically plot the values of deviator stress against the displacement (in percentage)
Calculated the major principal stress σ1 (in kPa), given by
σ1=(σ1-σ3) + σ3 where
Temperature at calibration 20 ° C
ring serial number 00010105
Gauge reading 0.001 mm Load kN
245 0.2
481 0.4
725 0.6
965 0.8
1214 1.0
1459 1.2
1705 1.4
1955 1.6
2201 1.8
2449 2.0
The direct shear test is used to measure shear strength, friction angle and cohesion of soils for stability
analysis of foundation, slopes, and retaining walls.
The test may take place under drained, undrained or consolidated-undrained conditions.
Fig 5.3-1
1-Frame EL 28-007
2-Thyristor controlled drive unit
3-Gear box
4-Load ring
5-Weight hanger
6-Lever arm (beam) with counter balance
7-Displacement transducer
8-Loading yoke
Description of test
The direct shear test is used to determine the shear strength of soils on predetermined failure surfaces.
The principle of the direct shear test is illustrated in Fig, 5.3.2. The soil sample confined inside the
upper and lower rigid boxes is subjected to the normal load N. This load is applied by the yoke which is
placed on the loading cap and by putting weight on the hanger the specimen is loaded axially. Because
of the length of the beam the applied weight has to multiply with a factor 11.
Fig 5.3.2
The shear force T shears the sample; this force is applied by the motorised drive unit and measured with
help of the load ring.
If A is the area of surface CD, the shear stress τ acting on surface CD is equal to T/A, and the normal
stress σ is equal to N/A. The soil shear strength is the shear stress τ that causes the soil to slip on
surface CD. It can be defined by Mohr-Coulomb theory:
τ = C + σ tan φ
During the test, the stress state is not completely defined: τ and σ are only measured on the horizontal
surface, but are undetermined on other surfaces.
Therefore, the stress path during direct shear cannot be represented. However, the Mohr circle can be
drawn at failure, assuming that the failure plane is horizontal and the stress state is uniform.
Sample preparation
Specimens of either cohesive or non-cohesive soil may be tested in the shear box. Preparation
procedures depend on the type of soil.
The size of the largest particle shall not exceed one-tenth of the height of the specimen.
Loss or gain of moisture by the sample shall be avoided at all stages of preparation.
Normally three similar specimens are prepared, for testing under three different normal pressures
Preparation of specimen of undisturbed cohesive soil, 10∗10∗2 cm (other sizes are possible).
- Place the bottom plate.
- Place the lower porous plate.
- Determine the weight of the sample cutter
- Push the sample cutter in the soil sample; trim it with the wire saw and spatula.
- Weight the specimen in the cutter to 0.1 g, and calculate the initial mass (Mo ) of the specimen.
- Push the specimen out of the cutter and into the shear box keeping its upper face horizontal, until it
is bedded on to the lower porous plate.
Dry sand:
- Determine the depth from the top surface of the upper half to the top of the base plate (h1).
- Determine the combined thickness of plates to be used for the test (tp).
- Prepare a quantity of soil somewhat larger than required and determined its mass to 0.1 g.
- Place the bottom plate.
- Place the lower grooved plate.
- Place or pour the sand directly into the assembled shear box until the appropriate thickness.
- Level the surface
- Place the upper grooved plate firmly on the specimen.
- Measure the distance from the top of the shearbox to the surface of the grooved plate. (h2).
- Weight the total of the unused soil, and determined the initial mass of the specimen (mo).
Saturated sand:
- Determine the depth from the top surface of the upper half to the top of the base plate (h1).
- Determine the combined thickness of plates to be used for the test (tp).
- Place the bottom plate.
- Place the lower porous plate.
- Place the grooved plate.
- Prepare a quantity of soil somewhat larger than required and determined its mass to 0.1 g.
- Boil the sand in water for 10 minutes
- Place the saturated sand into the shearbox and compact it by vibration to achieve the desired
density.
- Place the upper grooved plate firmly on the specimen.
- Place the upper porous plate.
- Measure the distance from the top of the shearbox to the surface of the porous plate (h2).
- Collect all surplus sand, dry and weight it, and determine the dry mass of the specimen (mo) by difference.
- Execution of the test
N.B. In the case of drained experiments use the grooved plates with the holes.
Fig 5.3.3
- Apply the normal force by placing the load hanger on the ball bearing. The force is applied by
placing the slotted weights on the bottom of the hanger. For greater normal forces the slotted
weights can put on the hanger from the lever arm. (see fig 5.3-1)
- Select the shearing speed, for sand a rate of 1 mm/min, for sand the effect of the displacement rate
on the friction angle is generally negligible within the range 3 to 0.1 mm/min.
- For cohesive material the shearing speed depends of the type of test, for an undrained test a rate to
approximately 1mm/min. should be fast enough to approach the undrained condition.
- Adjust the position of the box such that it is in contact with the screw applying the shearing force
and the arm of the top half of the shear box is in contact with the load-measuring device.
- Install the measuring devices to obtain the vertical and horizontal displacement, and take the initial
reading.
- Apply the normal force by placing the load hanger on the ball bearing. The force is applied by
placing the slotted weights on the bottom of the hanger. For greater normal forces the slotted
weights may be hung from the lever arm. (see fig 5.3.1)
- Start the motor and record the readings on the measuring devices at regular intervals (for example,
every 30 seconds) until a constant value is obtained for the load-measuring device.
Calculate
Calculate the initial moisture content, Wo (in %), from the equation
Mo - Md
Wo = ∗ 100 Mo is the initial mass of the specimen (in g).
Md
Md is the final dry mass of the specimen.
Calculate the initial dry density, ρd (in Mg/m3), from the equation
Md ∗ 1000
ρd = A is the plan area of the specimen (in mm2)
AH o
Ho is the initial height of the specimen. (Ho= h1-h2-tp).
For an undisturbed sample, Ho is equal to the height of the
cutter.
Determine the shear force by correlating the load ring displacement with the force using the calibration
chart.
Plot the displacement against the shear stress and determine the maximum shear stress.
Calculate the normal stress at the moment of the maximum shear stress. (Failure points).
Determine the C and φ values by plotting the max. Shear stress against the normal stress.
Temperature at calibration 20 ° C
Ring serial number 1155-7-13080
Gauge reading 0.001mm Load kN
387.2 0.6
512.2 0.8
770.2 1.2
1029.6 1.6
1283.8 2.0
1546.0 2.4
1804.4 2.8
2068.2 3.2
2332.2 3.6
2596.4 4.0
2929.6 4.5
Typical values of effective cohesion intercept C′ and effective friction angle φ′ for various fine-grained
soils (drained test).
Table 1.
Consolidation can be defined as the plastic deformation or void-ratio reduction of a soil mass, which are
functions of time and excess pore pressure.
When fine grained soils are subjected to changes in load due to construction, their deformation takes
place not only at the time of the load application, but also continues for very long time periods which
may last several years. The long-term settlement of fine grained soil layers is primarily controlled by
consolidation, a physical process in which the interstitial water that is under excess pressure slowly
diffuses through the compressible matrix of soil particles. After the excess pore pressure has completely
dissipated, fine-grained soils can also deform due to their viscous nature.
The properties that characterise the amplitude and rate of deformation are determined in the
consolidation test.
Fig 6.1-1
1- Consolidation frame
2- Consolidation cell
3- Displacement transducer
4- Loading yoke
5- Counter balance weight
6- Beam
7- Beam support jack
8- Weight hanger
Description of test
A prepared soil specimen is put in a consolidation cell (fig 6.1-2); which is mounted on the cell
platform from the consolidation frame.
The loading yoke is placed on the loading cap and by putting weight on the hanger the specimen is
loaded axially. Because of the length of the beam the applied weight has to multiply with a factor.
(Depending to which hole of the beam the hanger is connected) The stress is held constant until the
primary consolidation has ceased. This can take a few hours to a few weeks, depending of the load and
sample material.
During this process water drains out of the specimen, resulting in a decrease in height which can be
measured with the displacement transducer at suitable intervals.
Sample preparation
The inside diameter of the cutting ring shall be not less than 50 mm and not greater than 105 mm. The
height of the ring shall be not less than 18 mm and not greater than 0.4 times the internal diameter.
Undisturbed specimens shall be prepared with the minimum change of the soil structure and moisture
content. The method of preparation shall depend on whether the sample received in the laboratory is
contained in a tube of the same internal diameter as the specimen to be tested, or in a tube of larger
diameter, or as a block sample.
For the practical you will get a clay block sample, from which you will prepare a specimen with help
from the cutting ring.
Fig 6.1.2
- Measure the diameter and height of the cutting ring, with an accuracy of 0.1 mm
- Weigh the ring to an accuracy of 0.1 gram
- Lubricate the inner face of the ring lightly with silicon grease, to minimise side friction
- Place the sample on a glass plate
- Push the cutting ring into the sample cutting away surplus soil from the outside of the ring as the
sample enters it, until the top surface projects a few millimetres above the top of the ring
- Cut of the soil projecting above and below the ring with the wire saw (see fig. 6.1.2) and flat ten
both sides carefully with the spatula
- Remove soil particles sticking to the outer side of the ring
- Weigh the specimen with ring
Test procedure
Assembly of the consolidation cell
- Place the cell body on the cell base
- Place the bottom porous disc on the cell base
- Put the cutting ring with specimen centrally in to the cell with its cutting edge uppermost.
- Fix the ring retainer around the ring, so that it is securely held, and tighten the clamping screws
- Place the upper porous disc
- Place the loading cap centrally on top
Ring retainer
Cell base
O-ring
Fig.6.1-3
- With the loading Yoke swung forward and resting on the beam, place the consolidation cell
centrally on the frame platform
- Adjust the counterbalanced loading beam so that when the loading yoke just make contact with the
loading cap the beam is slightly above horizontal position
- Raise the beam a little more above horizontal position and hold it there with the support jack
- Swing the loading yoke vertical above the loading cap and slowly lower it
- Adjust the supports jack so that the bull just touches the seating.
- Add a small weight to the hanger (the seating pressure on the specimen shall not exceed 2 kPa)
- Bring the displacement transducer in contact with the loading yoke and set it zero.
If not otherwise indicated by the laboratory assistant, the test has to be done for tree load increments
starting with a load giving a stress of 174 kPa on the sample.
Normal procedure is to double the stress at each stage. The applied stress range will therefore be 174,
347, 694 kPa.
- Add the first load to the hanger to give the required pressure of 174 kPa. (take away the seating
load)
- Start Winclips program. (trigger on the vertical displacement transducer, 0.1 mm)
- Add water to the cell
- Measure with suitable intervals the vertical displacement; the following periods of elapsed time
from zero are convenient.
0,10,20,30,40,50 s
1,2,4,8,15,30 min.
1,2,4,8,24 hours
-Plot the readings of the dial gauge or the settlement against time to a logarithmic scale (See fig. 6.1-4):
Fig.6.1-4
After 24 hours, the decision must be taken whether or not to apply the next load increment.
If the dial reading versus log-time shows a flattening out from the steep part of the curve to a straight
line which is less steeply inclined, as in figure 6.1-4, it indicates that the primary consolidation phase is
complete and that the next load increment may be applied. If the straight line representing secondary
compression has not yet been established, the load should be left unchanged for another 24 hours.
When it has been established the loading stage may be terminated:
- Applied the second load on hanger, to give the required new stress (347 kPa)
The procedure has to be carried out at the same way as done for the first load increment.
Repeat this procedure for a third load increment.
- After completion the last load increment takes out the consolidation ring
- Remove the porous discs carefully, any soil adhering to them should be scraped off and returned to
the sample
- Wipe the outside of the ring dry and weight the sample with the ring
- Place sample with ring in the oven for 24 h.
- Take the dry weight, to calculate the moisture content and dry-weight.
Reporting
Calculate the bulk mass density and moisture content before and after the test.
Calculate the dry density (if no material has been lost during the test).
Plot the settlement versus log-time curve, and analysis has to be made following Casagrandes method,
to determine the coefficient of consolidation Cv for each increment of loading.
The principle of the method is illustrated in fig 6.1-4.
Locate the corrected zero point by marking off the difference in ordinates between any two points on
the initial (convex-upwards) portion of the curve having times in the ratio 1:4, and laying off an equal
distance above the upper point. Repeat this operation using two other pairs of points having times in the
same ratio, and take the average as the corrected zero compression point (d o
Draw and extend the tangents to the two linear portions of the laboratory curve, i.e. at the point of
inflexion, and the secondary compression portion. Their intersection gives the compression
corresponding to theoretical 100 % primary compression, denoted by d100 .
From the zero and 100% points, locate the 50 % primary compression point, d50, on the laboratory curve
and obtain its time, t50 (in min).
0.026 H 2
Cv = Expressed in m2/year
t 50
H1 + H 2
With: H = were,
2
H1= Height of specimen at start of a loading increment
H2= Height of the specimen at the end of that increment
t50 = time for 50 % consolidation, expressed in minutes.
Compaction of soil is the process by which the solid particles are packed more closely together,
usually by mechanical means, thereby increasing the dry density of the soil. The dry density, which
can be achieved, depends on the degree of compaction applied and on the amount of water present
in the soil. For a given degree of compaction of a given cohesive soil there is an optimum moisture
content at which the dry density obtained reaches a maximum value.
For cohesion less soils an optimum moisture content might be difficult to define.
Note: For highly permeable soils such as clean gravel’s, uniformly graded and coarse clean sands,
the results of the laboratory compaction test may provide only a poor guide for specifications on
field compaction The laboratory test might indicate meaningless values of moisture content in these
free-draining materials and the maximum dry density is often lower than the state of compaction
which can be readily obtained in the field. For these soils the test description for determination of
maximum and minimum dry densities for granular soils would be more appropriate.
Three types of compaction test are described, each with procedural variations related to the nature
of the soil:
1-Light manual compaction test, using a 2.5 kg rammer.
2-Heavy manual compaction test, using a 4.5 kg rammer.
For both these tests a compaction mould of 1 L. internal volume is used for soil in which all
particles pass a 20 mm test sieve.
If there is a limited amount of particles up to 37.5 mm size, equivalent tests are carried out in the
larger CBR mould. Specifications for compaction by rammer in the CBR mould are based on the
same compactive effort per unit volume of soil as in the 1L compaction mould. For a series of tests
on a particular soil, one size of mould should be used consistensily.
3-Compaction with a vibration hammer, in the CBR mould (See chapter 7.2)
Apparatus used
- A cylindrical mould with an internal diameter 105mm and an internal effective height of
115.5mm. Detachable base plate and removable extension collar figure 7.1.1.
- Metal rammer:
Light test: 50 mm diameter face, weight of 2,5 kg, sliding freely in a tube which controls the
height of drop to 300 mm figure 7.1.2.
Heavy test: 50 mm diameter face, weight of 4.5 kg, sliding freely in a tube, which controls the
height of drop to 450 mm
- Jacking apparatus for extracting the compacted material from the mould.
- 20 mm and 37.5 mm British Standard sieves.
- CBR mould, as described in chapter 7.2
- Balance readable to 5 g.
- Watertight containers or strong polythene bags
- A drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 C to 110 C.
- A steel straightedge, about 300 mm long and 3 mm thick, with one bevelled edge.
- Mixer, min 5 litres.
Fig. 7.1.1 British standard compaction mould Fig 7.1.2 Ordinary test rammer
Sample preparation
The quantity of soil required, depend on the size of the largest particles present and if the particles are
susceptible to crushing during compaction.
Determine the approximate percentage by mass of particles in the soil sample passing the 20 mm and
37.5 mm test sieves.
For soils not susceptible to crushing, one sample only is required for test and it can be used several
times.
- Original bulk sample, is air dried and weighed = w1
- Particles larger than 20 mm should be removed by sieving with the 20 mm and 37.5 mm BS sieve.
- The amount of material retaining on the sieves has to be weighed and as a percentage from the total
mass calculated.
- On the basis of these percentage the soil can be assigned to one of the grading zones (1) to (5) in
table1, and the minimum mass of soil required can be determined.
Table 1
Grading Minimum Minimum Type of
zone Percentage Mass of prepared mould
passing test sieve soil required used
20 mm 37.5 mm A B
% % kg kg
1 100 100 6 15 1L
2 95 100 6 15
3 70 100 15 40
4 70 95 15 40 CBR
5 70 90 15 40
x Less than 70 Less than 90 Test not applicable
Fit the mould on to the extruder and jack out the soil. Break up the sample on a tray.
Now the moisture content has to be measured by taking three representative samples.
Break up what is left over from the compacted sample and mix it with the remainder of the prepared
sample.
Add an increment of water, approximately as follows:
-Sandy+ gravely soils 1-2% (50-100 ml of water to 5 kg of soil).
-Cohesive soils: 2.4% (100-200 ml of water to 5 kg of soil).
Mix in the water thoroughly for each increment of water added.
Repeat the compaction part so that at least 5 compactions are made. Of course, the range of moisture
contents should be such that the optimum moisture content is within that range.
Calculations
100 ρ
ρd = Mg/m3
100 + W
Where
ρd = the dry density (Mg/m3)
W = the moisture content (%)
Plot each dry density, against the corresponding moisture content, W. Draw a curve of best fit to the
plotted points and identify the position of the maximum on this curve. Read off the maximum dry
density and the corresponding moisture content, which is the optimum moisture content for this degree
of compaction.
The curve for 0, 5, and 10% air voids may be plotted on the same graph. These curves are calculated
with the following equation:
Va
1−
ρd = 100
1 W
+
ρ s 100 ρ w
where
Reporting
Remarks
It is possible to combine this test with the CBR test
References:
- BS 1377:Part 4: 1990
Apparatus used
Sample Preparation.
The CBR test shall be carried out on material passing the 20 mm test sieve. If the soil contains particles
larger than 20 mm, the test material must be sieved with the BS 20 mm sieve. If this fraction is more
than 25 % the test is not applicable.
The moisture content of the soil shall be chosen to represent the design conditions for which the test
results are required. Where a range of moisture contents is to be investigated, water shall be added or
removed from the natural soil.
After bringing the sample to the required moisture content the soil shall be thoroughly mixed and shall
normally be sealed and stored for at least 24 h before starting compaction.
The mass of soil required for the test shall be calculated or estimated. When the density or air voids
content of a compacted sample is specified the exact amount of soil required for the test can be
calculated as follows.
Dry density specification, the mass of soil M1 (g), required to just fill the CBR mould of volume (cm3) is
given by the equation:
Vm
M1 = (100 + W ) ρ d 100%
100
Where
W = the moisture content of the soil (%)
ρd = the specified dry density (Mg/m3)
Vm = volume of the mould (m3)
Air voids specification, the dry density ρd (Mg/m3), corresponding to an air voids content of Va (%) is
given by the equation:
Va
1−
ρd = 100
1 W
+
ρ s 100 ρ w
where
Compactive effort specification: About 6 kg of soil shall be prepared for each sample to be tested. The
initial mass shall be measured so that the mass used for the test sample can be determined after
compaction by difference, as a check.
To make comparison possible, the soil conditions (Bulk density, moisture content on dry density) have
to be known.
Table 7.2-1 gives an overview from the sample preparation methods for the CBR test.
Six methods are described in the British Standard for the preparation of disturbed samples for the CBR
test. In methods 1 and 2 static compaction is used to achieve a specified density.
In the other methods, dynamic compaction by hand or mechanical rammer, or by vibrating hammer, is
used, either to achieve a specified density in method 3 and 4 or to provide a specified compactive effort
in methods 5 and 6.
table 7.2-1
- The sample has to be divided in equal parts of weights according to the number of layers mentioned
in table 7.2-2. This is because the compaction takes place in stages, in order to get an optimal
compaction.
- Dropping a certain weight several times, from a certain height performs the compaction.
- Ensure that the blows are evenly distributed over the surface
- Table 7.2-2 gives the details of the compaction, depending on the required way of compaction.
Calculation
- The data, obtained with the test, have to be plotted in a load penetration diagram.
- The load at 2,5 and 5,0 mm penetration has to be read from this diagram.
- The same has to be done from the diagram of the standard CBR test, with a CBR value of 100%,
see figure7.2.2 for the standard load for 2.5 and 5 mm penetration.
- The CBR-value is then:
Reporting
Fig 7.2.2 Tree types of load penetration curve from CBR tests:
Test 1, no correction required
Test 2, correction required
Test 3, correction as (B) may not be valid.
Remarks
Usually, the CBR-test is combined with the proctor test.
References
- K.H. Head (1982), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing:
Permeability tests
Introduction
The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the flow of a fluid (a liquid or a gas in
general water) through it.
The principle is that soil consists of solid particles with voids between them. In general the voids are
interconnected, which enables water to pass through them. The degree of permeability is determined by
applying a hydraulic difference across a sample of soil, which is fully saturated and measuring the
consequent rate of flow of water. The "coefficient of permeability" in expressed in terms of a velocity.
The flow of water through soils of all types, from gravel’s and sands to clays, are governed by the same
physical laws. The difference between the permeability characteristics of extreme types of soil is
merely one of degree, even though clay can be ten million times less permeable than sand. Clays are not
completely impermeable, although they may appear to be so if the rate of low through them is not
greater than the rate of evaporation loss.
The method used for measuring permeability depends upon the characteristics of the material.
Permeability tests on natural disturbed soil are probably carried out more frequently in-situ than in the
laboratory, but field inspection and testing is beyond the scope of this laboratory guide.
There are two types of laboratory tests for the direct measurement of the permeability of soils:
Constant head test-for soils of high permeability, such as sands. The constant head test is a permeability
test in which water is made to flow through a soil sample under a constant difference in head or
hydraulic gradient.
Falling head test- for soils of intermediate and low permeability, such as silts and clays.
The falling head test is a permeability test in which the piezometer tube used for measuring the head
also provides the water, which passes through the sample, and therefore the level falls during the test.
For the indirect assessment of permeability careful inspection of the soil, together with a properly
conducted particle size analysis, are required. These procedures are useful either when it is not
practicable to make a direct measurement, or as a check on direct measured values. Permeability can
also be derived from data obtained during an oedometer test.
This method covers the determination of the coefficient of permeability by a constant head method for
the laminar flow of water through granular soils.
The procedure is to establish representative values of the coefficient of permeability of granular soils
that may occur in natural deposits as placed in embankments, or when used as bases courses under
pavements. In order to limit consolidation influences during testing, this procedure is limited to
disturbed granular soils containing not more than 10% soil passing the 63-um sieve.
Fundamental Test Conditions
The following ideal test conditions are prerequisites for the laminar flow of water through granular soils
under constant head conditions.
Apparatus used
Permeameter set-up fig 8.1.1 consist of:
- Permeameter cell conform the standard
- Two discs of wire gauze or porous material fitting inside the cell
- A vertical adjustable reservoir tank capable of maintaining a constant –head of water supply
- A supply of clean de-aerated water to the constant head reservoir
- A discharge reservoir with overflow to maintain a constant level.
- A set of manometer tubes connected to the cell with flexible tubes including a (pinch) valve
- Filter material of a suitable grading for placing adjacent to the perforated plates at each end of the
permeameter. The grading of the filter material depends on the particle size distribution of the test
sample. The filter material grading limits should lie between four times the 15% passing size and
four times the 85% passing size of the test sample. The material should be well graded between
those limits.
- Measuring cylinders of 100 mL, 500mL, and 1000mL capacity
- A large plastic funnel
- A scoop for placing soil in the funnel
- A scoop small enough to fit inside the permeameter
- A flat-ended tamping rod long enough to reach to the bottom of the permeameter and about 10mm
diameter.
- A calibrated thermometer reading to 0.5 oC
- A stopwatch readable to 1 s.
- A balance readable to 1 g.
- A steel rule graduated to 0.5mm
- Internal calliper.
Sample preparation
Sample
- A representative sample of air-dried granular soils, containing less than 10% of the material passing
the 63µm sieve and equal to an amount sufficient to satisfy the requirements prescribed in (2) and
Saturation
- Fill the permeameter cell with water and saturate the sample as follows. (if the sample is placed
under water start with step 4)
1. Connect the control valve on the base of the permeameter to the de-aerated water supply. Open
the top connection and the air bleed to atmosphere, and close the connections to the manometer
tubes
2. Allow de-aerated water to enter the cell and slowly percolate upwards through the sample until
it emerges first from the air bleed, which is then closed, and then from the top connection.
3. Measure the length of the sample again, and record the average measurement, L (in mm)
4. Close the control valve. Connect the de-aerated water supply to the permeameter top
connection, and connect the control valve at the base to the discharge reservoir, without
entrapping air.
5. Set the inlet reservoir at a level a little above the top of the permeameter cell and open the
supply valve. Open the manometer tube valves and ensure that no air is trapped in the flexible
tubing. The water in all tubes shall reach the level of the reservoir surface.
6. The cell is now ready for test under the normal conditions of downward flow.
7. If a test with upward flow is required.(investigation piping effects), fit the control valve
connected to the discharge reservoir, to the top of the cell and connect the de-aerated water
supply to the base.
fig 8.1.2
Calculations
Calculate the rate of flow q1 and q2 etc. in mL/s during the period of each observation.
Q1
q1 = etc.
t
where:
Calculate the hydraulic gradient, I, between the uppermost and lowest manometer:
h
i=
y
where
⎛ q ⎞⎛ R ⎞
k = ⎜ ⎟⎜ t ⎟
⎝ i ⎠⎝ A ⎠
where
If a test have been carried out on different hydraulic gradients, plot the calculated values of rate of flow,
q against hydraulic gradient, i.
∆q
Draw the straight line of best fit through the plotted points and determine its slope
∆i
When a range of hydraulic gradients is used the coefficient of permeability of the sample may be
calculated from the equation:
⎛ ∆q ⎞ ⎛ Rt ⎞
k =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∆i ⎠ ⎝ A ⎠
Reporting results
- Information on the method used including the standard followed.
- The particle size distribution curve.
- The proportion and size of oversize material removed before preparing the test sample.
- The method of placing and compacting the test sample.
- The dimensions of the permeameter
- The dry density and if required the voids ratio
- The coefficient of permeability, k in m/s, to two significant figures, for laminar flow corrected to 20
o
C.
- The coefficient of permeability for other conditions, if relevant
- A plot of coefficient of permeability, k on log scale against density or voids ratio if appropriate.
Scope
The falling head permeability test is used for measuring the permeability of soils of intermediate and
low permeability (less than 0.0001 m/s), i.e. silts clay, a relatively short sample is connected to a
standpipe, which provides both the head of water and the means of measuring the quantity of water,
flowing through the sample.
Several standpipes of different diameters are normally available from which can be selected the
diameter most suitable for the type of material being tested.
Note: This test is not covered by British Standards, or by ASTM Standards. The procedure described
below follows generally accepted practice.
Preparation of apparatus.
If the areas of cross-section, a, of the three manometer tubes are not known, they should be determined.
See that the cell body is clean and dry, and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g, m1. Measure the mean internal
diameter, D, to the nearest 0,5 mm.
Preparation of sample.
A cylindrical test specimen may be obtained from a block sample of soft or fairly firm clay by pushing
a U-100 cutting shoe, which has a sharp cutting edge. The block sample should be firmly supported on
a flat surface, but the sides around the sampling location should not be laterally restrained. The tube
should be pushed in squarely with a steady pressure, for a distance of about 90 mm. Before
withdrawing the tube it should be rotated one complete turn to shear off the soil at the end.
The sample may be prepared in the usual manner with its axis vertical, for measurement of vertical
permeability, or with its axis horizontal (or parallel to bedding) for measurement of horizontal
permeability (or permeability parallel to bedding). It is essential to ensure that the sample is a tight fit in
the cellbody, and that there are no cavities around the perimeter through which water could pass. Gaps
or cavities should be well packed with the fine matrix portion of the soil, or with plasticine. Close the
cell.
Weigh the sample in the cell to the nearest 0.1 g, m2.
Use some of the soil trimmings for determining the moisture content of the sample.
Test procedure.
Control that valves A, B, C, D, E, and F are closed.
Place the permeameter cell containing the sample in the cylinder (see figure).
Fill the cylinder with de-aired water.
Open valve B and F and when the water has reached level 1 close valve B.
Open valve A and start the vacuum pump (50 cm Hg) Due to this vacuum the test sample will become
saturated with water from the bottom to the top.
Close valve A if the water reaches level 2 and stop the vacuum pump. 7. Open respectively valves C, D
and E as long as necessary to fill respectively the tubes 3, 4 and 5.
Close valve F.
Fill the cylinder up to level 6 with water.
Choose for the permeability measurement tube 3, 4 or 5 depending on the expected permeability of the
sample.
Measure the start level in the tube y1.
Open the valve of the in 10 mentioned tube and open valve B. 13.Measure after a certain time interval,
t, the water level in the 10 mentioned tube y2.
Repeat this several times until you measure a constant value. 15.Measure the water level in the cylinder
hO.
Calculation.
The permeability of the sample is calculated by:
⎛ h1 ⎞
3.84 ∗ a ∗ L ∗ log⎜ ⎟ ∗ 0.00001
Kt =
⎝ h2 ⎠ (m/s)
A∗t
Remarks
Permeability can also be derived from data obtained during an oedometer test.
Apparatus
The pocket penetrometer is composed of a steel tube, a spring, a flat-tipped
measuring pin, a drag unit, and a scale. When pushing the instrument into the
ground, the pin encounters a force of the ground. This force compresses the
spring. A drag unit is taken along during this operation, which shows on the
scale the maximum that has been encountered.
The heave duty penetrometer has 3 interchangeable points. The standard point
has a diameter of 6.35mm. The readings on the penetrometer are given for this
point the range is up to 1MPa. The largest point, diameter 8.98mm has a area
twice the standard point. The values read on the scale must be divided by 2.
Range up to 0.5MPa. The smallest point has a section half of that of the
standard. The values read on the scale must be multiplied by 2. Range up to
2MPa
Test procedure
Before using the penetrometer ensure that the sliding indicator, is fully
extended to the "0" position. Smooth the surface of the area to be tested. The
penetrometer is placed perpendicularly on the soil surface and pressure is
exerted until the calibration mark (approx. 6 mm) is level with the surface.
(with the heavy duty penetrometer up to the narrowing) The penetrometer is
now extracted from the soil and the equivalent unconfined compressive
strength can be read from the scale in MPa.
Be sure that the sliding indicator not slides back if the penetrometer is
extracted from the soil.
The heavy duty penetrometer has a special designed penetration rod which
allows relatively deep penetration of the soil (up to 6cm). This reduce
mistaken and uncertainties typical of shallow measurements which are often
affected by remoulding, drying etc. of the surface.
The vane is used to measure the in-situ undrained shear strength in clays. It is primarily intended for use in
trenches and excavation at a depth not influenced by drying and excavation procedure.
The range of the instrument is form 0 to 120kPa when two different sizes of vanes are used. The accuracy
of the instrument should be within 10% of the reading.
Apparatus
Test procedure
- Connect required vane to the inspection vane
instrument. Note: When coupling and
uncoupling vanes and rods always use both
spanners to avoid straining the spring which
could ruin the accuracy of this calibrated
instrument
- Remove the plastic cover
- Push vane into the ground to a depth of about 70-80mm with as little sideways movement as possible.
N.B.: Do not twist inspection vane during penetration.
- Make sure that the pointer needle is set to the zero reading.
- Turn body clockwise with a constant speed equivalent to one complete revolution in a minute.
- When the pointer needle is not increasing anymore (stays on the same reading) or the pointer even
falls back, failure and maximum shear strength is obtained in the clay at the vane.
- Holding the body firmly, allow it to return to zero-position. N.B.: Do not allow the body to spring
back.
- Note the reading on the graduated scale. N.B.: Do not touch or in any way disturb the position of the
pointer needle until the reading is taken.
- Write down the reading together with position of hole and depth.
- When the reading is taken pull the vane up.
- After use always put back the plastic cover over de body.
Special procedure
When measuring the shear strength at greater depths we can ad extension rods, the friction between the
clay and the extension rods can be appreciable preferable we take the measurements in a borehole.
Calculations
With the 19mm vane we read from the outer scale directly the undrained shear strength in kPa
With the 33mm vane we read from the inner scale directly the undrained shear strength in kPa
Report your value as the undrained shear strength determined with the hand vane.