Coaching & Mentoring Handbook

Skills for Life
Improvement Programme
Mentoring in Education
The Mentor as Critical Friend
Skills for Life
Skills for Life Improvement Programme
TE4056
Tutor: Dr Michael Stokes M.Stokes@wlv.ac.uk
The Skills for Life Improvement CfBT Education Trust T: 0118 902 1920
Programme is delivered on behalf
60 Queens Road F: 0845 838 1207
of the Quality Improvement Agency
by CfBT Education Trust and Reading, RG1 4BS E: sflipinfo@cfbt.com
partners W: www.sflip.org.uk

TE4056
Introduction
The Skills for Life Improvement Programme is new. It builds on previous
initiatives, making best use of people, systems and materials to help deliver
the Skills for Life strategy in the future. It is an innovative programme
designed to support creative change in a wide variety of self-improving
organisations.
The programme is delivered through three separate strands:

• Strand 1 – Workforce development
• Strand 2 – A whole organisation approach to quality improvement
• Strand 3 – Innovation in teaching and learning
The Skills for Life Improvement Programme is delivered by a consortium led

by CfBT. The consortium includes some of the key national agencies. These
are:
• CfBT Education Trust
• Edexcel/ Pearson
• Epic
• General Federation of Trade Unions
• LLU+ London South Bank University
• Learning and Skills Network
• National Foundation for Education Research
• The National Institute of Adult Continuing Education
• National Research and Development Centre
• Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities
• The Network
• University of Wolverhampton
QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

Mentoring in Education: TE 4056 The Mentor as Critical Friend
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This is one of two modules that make up the Postgraduate Certificate in

Mentoring and Coaching in Education. The programme is designed to engage
new and experienced mentors and coaches in a consideration of their
contribution to the training and support of others and to their own professional
development.
Module 1, The Mentor as Critical Friend (TE 4056) concentrates on how the
concepts and skills of mentoring and coaching are set within current
professional contexts of Skills for Life. The module enables participants to
understand how they carry out their practice.
Aims
To enable participants to enhance their mentoring and coaching skills by:
• setting up coaching and mentoring programmes;
• evaluating the effectiveness of coaching and mentoring as a mode of
continuing professional development
• making Skills for Life developments sustainable and embedded within the
fabric of organisations.
Outcomes
To enable participants to:
1. consider the role of mentor and coach in their organisation
2. recognise the value of coaching and mentoring in their work with their
colleagues
3. define and differentiate between coaching and mentoring
4. gain knowledge and skills in coaching and mentoring
5. outline how they will put into practice a coaching and mentoring model
in their organisations, suggesting possible barriers and strategies for
overcoming these
6. achieve The Mentor as Critical Friend certificate
7. identify future professional development needs.
Introduction
A well conceived mentoring and coaching programme contributes to a culture
of learning in an organisation and supports broad-based leadership and high
levels of professional quality in staff. Such a programme for staff new to an
institution helps them develop into dynamic and resourceful educational
leaders who can respond to the diverse academic and social needs of their
colleagues and/or their learners. Research also shows that mentoring
programmes have the potential to decrease the number of staff who leave an
organisation in their first year of practice.
In this handbook you will find a series of activities and supporting material and
ideas that should help you to meet the outcomes of the module. There will
also be an additional Reader to be used alongside your practice.
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It is unlikely that you are unfamiliar with the role of mentor or coach. Think
about someone who has influenced you in your life and why they were
influential. It is likely that there will have been several people who have been
influential in your life at particular times or stages.
You could consider a ‘timeline’ of your life and identify when a person was
influential. On the timeline place an arrow at the year of influence and the
initials or name of the person who was influential.
Age Now
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How many do you remember? What made them so influential?
Those memories should help you decide what is required by a protégé from a
mentor or coach.
Activity
(a)
With a group of colleagues, list what you feel is required from a mentor by a
colleague in a mentoring relationship.
Or:
List what you feel is required from a coach by a colleague in a coaching

relationship.
On completion, compare your list with those from other groups – are they
similar, will a colleague be seeking the same things from a mentor or coach?
Do you as a whole class feel there is anything missing from the lists?
(b)
As a mentor/coach who will have to meet the needs of this colleague, what
qualities/attributes do you have to have in order to meet their expectations? In
your small group produce a list.
Compare your list with those from other groups. Are you in agreement? Do
you possess those qualities/attributes? If you do not have all of these
attributes does that mean you should not be a mentor/coach?
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Other groups have produced a list of skills and attributes for mentors/coaches:
compare your list with theirs. Is there anything missing from your list in
comparison with the others? The lists illustrate the various views of what is
thought to be a mentor/coach and to some extent these lists help define a
mentor/coach.
See CUREE (2005) The National Framework of Mentoring and Coaching

London: DfES (in the Reader).
From Clutterbuck, D. (2001) Everyone Needs a Mentor, 3rd edition. London:

Chartered Institute of Personnel Development:
“Mentoring is a partnership between two people built upon trust. It is a

process in which the mentor offers ongoing support and development
opportunities to the mentee. Addressing issues and blockages identified by
the mentee, the mentor offers guidance, counselling and support in the form
of pragmatic and objective assistance. Both share a common purpose of
developing a strong two-way learning relationship.
Mentoring helps mentees and mentors progress their personal and

professional growth. Its primary focus tends to be on the acquisition of people
skills which enable individuals to operate effectively at high levels of
management. The aim of mentoring is to build the capability of the mentees to
the point of self-reliance while accelerating the communication of ideas across
the organisation.
The mentoring relationship is confidential. The mentor offers a safe

environment to the mentee within which they can discuss work-related issues
and explore solutions to challenges. For this reason, in a formal mentoring
scheme, mentors are rarely in a line relationship; they are off-line. In this way,
the mentors are not required to evaluate the current work performance of the
mentees. They are there to help the learner manage his/her own learning.
Mentors can help individuals reach significant decisions about complex

issues. Through skilful questioning, they help clarify the mentee’s perspective
while bringing an additional view to bear on the issues. Mentors are not there
to solve problems but rather to illuminate the issues and to help plan ways
through them.
Mentoring is a positive development activity. Mentors can discuss current

issues relating to the mentee’s work, offering insights into the ways the
organisation works, how the informal networks operate and how they think
about the challenges and opportunities they encounter.
Mentors can advise on development and how to manage a career plan; they
can challenge assumptions; and, where relevant, they can share their own
experience. Mentoring has proved to be very effective in transferring tacit
knowledge within an organisation, highlighting how effective people think, take
decisions and approach complex issues. Sharing views and ideas builds
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understanding and trust. The mentor and mentee relationship often evolves
into a key friendship, invaluable when difficult decisions arise.” (pp. 4–5)
What is a mentor/mentoring?
Hall (2003) suggests that:
• mentoring is an ill-defined concept which is deeply contested by some
critics who see some manifestations of it as built upon a questionable
‘deficit’ model.
• mentoring exists in many forms which are at least partly defined by the
origin, purpose, nature, and site of the mentoring relationship. (p. 1)
Mentoring is typically defined as: a relationship between an experienced and

a less experienced person in which the mentor provides guidance, advice,
support, and feedback to the protégé (Haney, 1997). Mentoring is a way to
help new employees learn about organisational culture (Bierema, 1996), to
facilitate personal and career growth and development, and to expand
opportunities for those traditionally hampered by organisational barriers, such
as women and minorities (Gunn, 1995). The benefits of mentoring are not
only work related; mentoring can provide individuals with opportunities to
enhance cultural awareness, aesthetic appreciation, and the potential to lead
meaningful lives (Galbraith and Cohen, 1995).
What is a coach/coaching?
Kilburg (1996, p. 135) defines coaching as “a helping relationship formed
between a client… and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioural
techniques and methods”. Kilburg further contends that the aim of this coaching
intervention is to achieve a “mutually identified set of goals…”.
The International Coaching Federation (ICF) defines coaching as “… an

ongoing relationship that focuses on clients taking action toward the
realisation of their visions, goals, or desires.” (Bennet & Martin, 2001, p. 6).
Peer coaching is a confidential process through which two or more

professional colleagues work together to reflect on current practices; expand,
refine and build skills; share ideas; teach one another; conduct classroom
research; or solve problems in the workplace (Robbins, 1991).
Coaching is always part of mentoring, but coaching does not always involve
mentoring. Coaching within the context of a mentoring relationship has to do
with the skill of helping an individual fill a particular knowledge gap by learning
how to do things more effectively (Zachary, 2000, p. 74).
The attributes of a coach

For coaching to be effective, it must offer a high level of content knowledge,
take into account the context in which learning is taking place, address the
goals of the [organisation and their learners], and involve individual teachers
in determining the direction their learning is to go (Joyce, Murphy, Showers, &
Murphy, 1989). In summary, a... coach’s strengths should fall into three areas:
knowledge, skills, and personal characteristics.
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A coach:
• has knowledge of curriculum, instruction, assessment, and standards
• has knowledge of curriculum-driven support materials and technology-
enhanced resources for grade levels, subject areas, and student needs
• possesses the characteristic of being a good listener, which includes
asking open-ended questions and using pauses effectively
• possesses the characteristic of being trustworthy, which includes
honouring confidentiality and being consistent in language and
behaviour
• has skills in collaborating with others and being a team player
• has skills in being a good note-taker, collector of data, and researcher
• possesses teaching skill that can be used to model lessons and
strategies; uses knowledge, skills, and characteristics to provide
feedback and new ideas for various situations. (LPA, 2004, p.11).
Feger et al (2004) suggest that coaches need specific knowledge and skills:
• Interpersonal skills
• Content knowledge
• Pedagogical knowledge
• Knowledge of the curriculum
• Awareness of coaching resources
• Knowledge of the practice of coaching
How do coaches use their skills?
Other definitions and analyses

The problem with any study of mentoring begins at the very beginning for, as
Clutterbuck noted at the Third European Mentoring conference in 1996, “the
biggest problem for researchers into mentoring is still defining what it is”
(Clutterbuck,1996). Simple rule-of-thumb definitions abound in the literature,
often drawn directly from dictionaries. A typical example would be the
characterisation of mentoring as “conceptually it is the classic strategy: the
more experienced shall care for and train the less experienced, in a non-
judgmental manner” (Gulam and Zulfiqar, 1998). The emphasis on ‘care’ and
a ‘non-judgmental manner’ are the features which are taken to distinguish
mentoring from other forms of instruction. However, this does not take us very
far: as soon as we attempt to describe what this means in practice, we find
that we are back in what has been described as the ‘definitional quagmire’
(Roberts, 2000) surrounding mentoring. For example, Philip (1999) has the
following to say about the litany of terms associated with mentoring:
Mentoring can hold a range of meanings and the terminology reveals a
diverse set of underlying assumptions. For example, youth mentoring has
been associated with programmes aiming at coaching, counselling, teaching,
tutoring, volunteering, role modelling and advising. Similarly the role of the

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mentor has been described as role model, champion, leader, guide, adviser,
counsellor, volunteer, coach, sponsor, protector and preceptor.
A similar range of terms may apply to the mentee: protégé, client, apprentice,
aspirant, pupil, etc. The process of mentoring itself may also be described
variously as ‘reciprocal’, ‘helping’, ‘advising’, ‘leading’, or ‘facilitating’, as ‘a
collaborative enterprise’ with shared ideals or as a ‘learning process’ by which
the mentor leads by example. In general however knowledge and
understanding about the processes which take place within mentoring
relationships remain at a preliminary stage.
Clearly some of the meanings are contradictory, especially in the absence of

explanatory frameworks (p. 1–2).
This certainly demonstrates the potential for confusion, but does little to
indicate what, if anything, is unique to mentoring that can distinguish it from
other forms of educational process. The terminology surrounding mentors,
mentoring and mentees, protégés or learners is bewilderingly various, vague
and sometimes misleading.
Roberts (2000), in a re-reading of mentoring literature published between

1978 and 1999, attempts to cut through this ‘quagmire’ by distinguishing
between what he sees as the essential and the contingent attributes of
mentoring:
Mentoring appears to have the essential attributes of: a process; a supportive

relationship; a helping process; a teaching-learning process; a reflective
process; a career development process; a formalised process; and a role
constructed by and for a mentor. The contingent attributes of the mentoring
phenomenon appear as: coaching, sponsoring, role-modelling, assessing and
an informal process.
If developing learning organisations in a learning society is a desirable social

goal, mentoring can perform an important function in helping people develop
their highest potential. If ‘everyone is capable of being a teacher (mentor) and
a learner (mentee)’ (ibid., p. 92), individuals should strive to develop their
capacity to learn from and support the learning of others.
There are a few guiding principles for effective mentoring. In order for
mentoring relationships to function well, a healthy psychological climate must
be maintained to provide a mutually beneficial and growth producing
experience. Such a climate includes mutual trust, respect, autonomy, care,
and appreciation. According to Daloz (1986), mutual trust and non-judgmental
listening are crucial to ‘move the [protégé’s] reflections onto a level where
meanings are made’ (1986, p. 125). Daloz emphasised the importance of
giving the protégé voice so that both mentor and protégé can see movement
in perspectives and thinking, eventually introducing conflict to promote self-
examination and further development of alternative perspectives. Motivation is
critical throughout the mentoring relationship, as are praising positive growth,
modelling appropriate professional conduct, ‘providing a mirror… to extend
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the student’s self-awareness’(p. 234), and watching for signs that the
relationship may be transformative and growth producing for both partners.
Are you capable of being a mentor, do you have the necessary attributes? As
you are studying this module you will undoubtedly have the professional
experience to be a mentor, but what other attributes do you possess? In order
to mentor others it would be helpful if you knew more about the person you
are.
Mentor capability
Task
Hidden talents
Malderez (2001) suggests that much of our talent remains hidden until
required and that we are rather like an iceberg in which seven eighths of our
talents are hidden beneath the surface. On the diagram below in Area A
identify those of your talents that are obvious to all. In Area B list just a few of
your talents that are not so obvious to others.

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Activity
The Iceberg
Area A
Known
Area B
Unknown
From Malderez and Bodóczky (2001)
Share your findings with a close colleague – perhaps identify some similar
talents. It is likely that after some thought you recognise that you do have a
range of talents that could help meet the needs of a protégé. However, would
you be a capable mentor?

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Aspects of the mentor role

Where do you think you will be, high or low?
Features of the mentor role Low High
I. Model 1 2 3 4 5
2. Envisioner 1 2 3 4 5
3. Energiser 1 2 3 4 5
4. Investor 1 2 3 4 5
5. Supporter 1 2 3 4 5
6. Standard-prodder 1 2 3 4 5
7. Coach 1 2 3 4 5
8. Feedback-giver 1 2 3 4 5
9. Eye-opener 1 2 3 4 5
10. Door-opener 1 2 3 4 5
11. Idea-bouncer 1 2 3 4 5
12. Problem-solver 1 2 3 4 5
13. Career counsellor 1 2 3 4 5
14. Challenger 1 2 3 4 5
15. Friend 1 2 3 4 5
16. Assessor 1 2 3 4 5
17. Intermediary 1 2 3 4 5
18. Tutor 1 2 3 4 5
This is an adaptation from: Cameron-Jones, M. & O’Hara, P. (1995). ‘Mentors’

perceptions of their roles with students in Initial Teacher Training’, Cambridge
Journal of Education, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 189-199.
The following questionnaire may help you determine more objectively if you
do have the capabilities of being a mentor. The Mentor Scale is inspired by
the FIRO-B, an instrument developed by Will Schutz for leadership training.

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The Mentor Scale

This scale lists 39 sentence stems, each with two possible endings. Keeping
your work environment in mind, quickly review each item and circle the letter
of the ending that you think best completes the sentence. Read each item
carefully but choose your response quickly. Instruments like this tend to be
more accurate if you go with your immediate reaction rather than pondering
on your choice. Do not leave items blank. You will find some items in which
neither choice is perfectly accurate. Select the one that seems better. After
completing the questionnaire fill out your score form.
The Mentor Scale
1. People probably see me as a. hard-nosed b. a soft touch

2. Work days I like most are a. unpredictable b. planned
3. When it comes to celebrations, most a. fewer b. more
organisations need
4. When I evaluate people my decisions a. justice b. mercy
are based on
5. My approach to planning my personal a. easy-going b. orderly
activities is
6. People generally see me as a. formal b. personable
7. When it come to social situations I a. hold back b. jump in
8. I like to spend my leisure time in ways a. spontaneous b. routine
that are fairly
9. I believe leaders should be more a. rights b. feelings
concerned about employee
10. When I encounter people in need of a.. avoid b. get
help, I’m more likely to involved
11. When I am in a group, I typically a. follow b. lead
12. Most people see me as a. private b. open
13. My friends know that I am a. firm b. gentle
14. If I were in a group of strangers, a. listener b. leader
people would most likely remember me
as a
15. When it come to expressing my a. guarded b. comfortable
feelings, most people probably see me
as
16. When people I depend on make a. patient b. impatient
mistakes, I am typically
17. When I eat out, I generally order food a. sounds b. I know I like
that unique

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18. In general I prefer a. the theatre b. a party

19. In a conflict, when anger is involved, a. short b. long
my emotional fuse is usually
20. In an emergency situation, I would a. calm b. anxious
most likely be
21. I prefer to express myself to others in a. indirect b. direct
ways that are
22. I am likely to be ruled by a. logic b. emotion
23. When in a new and unfamiliar a. carefree b. careful
situation, I am usually
24. In a festive social situation, I am a. passive b. active
usually
25. When I am blamed for something I did a. listen b. defend
not cause, my initial reaction is to
26. If I am in a situation in which I lose or a. sad b. mad
am left disappointed, I get
27. If someone came to me in tears, I a. awkward b. at home
would probably feel
28. Most people see me as a. an optimist b. a pessimist
29. People usually see me as a. uncritical b. critical
30. If people were given a forced choice a. too quiet b. too loud
they would say I was
31. At the end of a long party, I usually find a. exhausted b. energised
myself
32. When I work on projects, I am best at a. started b. completed
getting them
33. I believe people should approach their a. dedication b. inspiration
work with
34. My social blunders typically leave me a. embarrassed b. amused
35. When my organisation announces a a. excited b. concerned
major change, I get
36. People are likely to see me as a. firm b. warm
37. After a tough day, I like to unwind a. alone b. with others
38. Change is most often my a. friend b. adversary
39. My work and social life a. are separate b. often
overlap

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The Scoring Form
Sociability
Using simple hatch marks, count up your ‘a’ and ‘b’ for the thirteen sociability
items
‘a’ ‘b’
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19,
22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37
Totals ________ ________
Dominance
Count up your thirteen dominance items
‘a’ ‘b’
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20,
23, 26, 29, 32, 35, 38
Totals __________ ________
Openness
Count up your thirteen openness items
‘a’ ‘b’
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21,
24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39
Totals ___________ ________
From: Bell, C (2002) Managers as Mentors, San Francisco, USA: Berret-

Koehler Publishers, pages 23–28.
Interpretation
This scale measures, at one point in time, a coach’s need for sociability,
dominance, and openness.
Sociability has to do with your preference for being with or apart from others.
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People with high column ‘a’ scores in sociability tend to be reserved loners;
those with high column ‘b’ scores tend to be outgoing joiners. People with
similar numbers of ‘a’ and ‘b’ are neither highly sociable nor highly reserved;
they can be moderately sociable or moderately reserved, depending on the
situation.
What does sociability have to do with coaching? People who have high
sociability scores will find the rapport-building and dialogue-leading
dimensions of coaching easier. They will have to work hard to avoid
dominating discussions. Low sociability scores are found among people
whose reserve may make them a bit unapproachable. These people will need
to work harder at helping colleagues open up and communicate.
Dominance is about your preference regarding being in charge. People with

high column ‘a’ scores are comfortable having someone else do the leading,
and often prefer it. People with high column ‘b’ scores tend to like being in
control and often assert that need. Low dominance scores can also indicate a
high need for independence. People with balance scores are neither highly
dominant nor highly submissive. They can control moderately or not at all,
depending on the situation.
Dominance is a major issue in coaching with a partnering philosophy. The

whole concept of peer coaching is based on a relationship of shared power.
High-dominance scorers are reluctant either to give up control or to share
control of the relationship; they have to work hard to listen rather than talk.
Low-dominance scorers, on the other hand, may need to work to assume
leadership of the relationship. They may take such a low-key, laissez-faire
approach that their colleague feels insecure and without guidance.
Openness refers to how easily you trust others. High column ‘a’ scores are
found among people who are cautious, guarded, and reluctant to show
feelings. High column ‘b’ scores are typical of people with many close
relationships, who are comfortable being vulnerable and tend to express their
feelings easily. People with similar ‘a’ and ‘b’ scores are moderately open or
moderately cautious, depending on the situation.
High-openness scorers will find it easy to reveal themselves in a coaching

relationship. In fact, their challenge is to be candid and open enough to
encourage their colleague to do likewise, while not being so aggressive as to
overwhelm or intimidate them. Low-openness scores, however, will need to
work at overcoming their caution in order to take early emotional and
interpersonal risks with the colleague; their instinctive guardedness can make
their colleague feel that mistakes might have dire consequences.
The above tasks have helped you have a clearer picture of who you are and
what you might become. Your coached colleague has talents and experience
that you will be able to draw on as you develop your relationship with them.
We do not use a similar selection process for protégé on the course but there
is information available for protégé selection on websites, e.g. www.peer.ca or
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in texts, e.g. AoC, LSC (2001) Mentoring Towards Excellence, which may be
found on the www.lsc.gov.uk website.
The idea of mentoring is that it is a particular kind of personal relationship in

which there is some degree of choice between the parties to it. Gehrke (1988)
makes exactly this point when she writes that the mentor-protégé relationship
requires ‘desire by both parties’ (p. 43). Thus, the relationship can be
understood as one that is not based on rank but on a mentor's greater
experience and wisdom.
Landay argues that mentoring exists only in the context of a collaborative

relationship based on a partnership in which neither party holds a position of
power over the other. Stanulis & Russell (2000) also view ‘mutuality’ as a
feature of the mentoring relationship and insist, ‘equality can be achieved
between all participants’ (p. 79).
Basic assumptions about mentoring

• Beginning educators need and deserve ongoing professional
development opportunities.
• Mentoring is the central feature of any successful beginning educator
induction programme.
• Without mentoring, new staff will focus on survival. With mentoring,
new staff can focus on professional development and serving students.
• Mentors and protégés both gain from the experience.
• Mentor programmes built on a knowledge base of best practices have
the greatest potential for success.
• If a district has expectations for a mentoring program, a formal
programme with in-depth mentor preparation and support must be in
place.
• Mentoring partnerships can vary widely, from one-on-one mentor-
protégé partnerships, to teams of mentors working with single or
multiple protégés.
From Oregon State Mentoring Programme 2004:

www.ode.state.or.us
The first meeting between mentor and protégé is usually the most difficult or
awkward for many prospective mentors and the following information may
help.

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Strategies and Considerations for Initial Conversations
To-Do List Strategies for Mentor

Conversation Considerations
Take time Draw up a picture of Establish rapport
getting to know your protégé through Exchange information
one another conversation Identify points of
connection
Talk about Ask: ‘Have you ever Talk about your own
mentoring been mentored mentoring experience
before?’
Determine the Ask: ‘What do you Determine if the
protégé’s goals want to learn from this protégé is clear about
experience?’ his or her own aims
and objectives
Determine the Ask: ‘What do you Be sure you are clear
protégé’s want out of the about what your
relationship relationship?’ protégé needs or
needs and wants from the
expectations mentoring relationship.
If you are not,
encourage the mentee
to think through what
he or she wants from
the relationship
Define what you Ask: ‘What would Do you have an area
will be able to success look like for of experience or
do you?’ expertise that is
relevant to this
person’s learning
goals?
Share your Ask for feedback. What are you willing
assumptions, and capable of
needs, contributing to the
expectations, relationship?
and limitations
candidly.
Discuss Ask: What is the most Discuss the
opportunities useful kind of implications of each
and options for assistance I can other’s styles and how
learning provide they might affect the
Discuss ways: learning relationship.
and communication
styles
Your style of conversation too is important, note the comments from Shea, G.
(2002).

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Information vs. Advice
Shea, G (2002) describes a useful device from Karpman, S. on a way of analysing

psychological games. Karpman called his device the ‘Drama Triangle’. It illustrates
why people often resist taking advice.
Persecutor Rescuer
Victim
Someone who feels victimised by a problem may send a plea of ‘help’ to another
person who is perceived as a rescuer (i.e. a more capable person). The victim’s
feelings of inadequacy are real, but their lack of ability usually is not.
The would-be rescuer accepts the inadequacy of the victim and offers advice. In
doing so, she contributes the ‘why don’t you’ component to the ‘why don’t you –
yes, but’ psychological game.
Most often the victim rejects the advice with ‘yes, but’, followed by a reason for
not taking the advice. This is hardly surprising, since the person knows all of the
facts of the problem and has already considered and rejected the easy answers.
The rescuer has only the information that the victim gives in response to each
suggestion. Each new suggestion is rejected for some seemingly new reason.
Finally the rescuer grows impatient with the rejections and turns persecutor,
responding with something to the effect of, ‘Buzz-off – you don’t really want to
solve this problem.’
At that point, each party is confined in his or her own judgement. The victim feels
even more like a victim. He not only has the original problem, he also has to deal
with the would-be rescuer who is exasperated with him. The would-be rescuer
has confirmation that the victim was and still is inadequate. The victim is
convinced the problem is too big to be solved by anyone. And the relationship
has been damaged. (Shea, G (p.66))

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Why use a coaching scheme in an organisation?

The easiest answer is because it will improve performance in the
organisation. It will improve staff performance, staff motivation and retention
and it will improve student motivation and achievement. There appear to be
great improvements if coaching is also linked to other forms of staff
development. The following statements are just some of the many that
support the use of coaching and the benefits that coaching brings to
individuals and organisations. Training programmes that include coaching
post-training will result in increased performance. Olivero et al (1997) found
that coaching following a training programme significantly improved
productivity. Thirty-one managers in public sector agencies underwent a
training programme which was followed by eight weeks of one-to-one
coaching. The training programme increased productivity by 22.4 per cent.
Following the coaching programme productivity increased by 88 per cent.
Other researchers have found that, in particular, peer coaching:

1. is essential for implementation of new curriculum and instructional
strategies into classroom practice:
• Just because a teacher has read about, heard about, or attended a
‘training session’ on a new instructional strategy, does NOT mean it
will be used in the classroom.
• Research shows that results will be very low (5–10 per cent) if only
theory, demonstration, and practice are used to teach new
instructional strategies with an expectation that implementation will
occur.
• Implementation of new instructional strategies into classroom
practice is high (80 per cent) when peer coaching is used
2. directly influences implementation and teacher effectiveness which leads to
increased student achievement:
• Lowe-achieving students are the first to benefit as teacher
effectiveness improves.
3. deepens subject matter knowledge of teachers:
• It encourages teachers to be action researchers: to examine
student work, curriculum materials, and subject matter in relation to
content and performance standards.
4. breaks down isolation:
• It gives teachers opportunities to plan lessons together, observe
and learn from each other, share materials and strategies.
5. offers meaningful intellectual and social engagement with ideas around
teaching and learning practices:
• It increases the thinking a teacher does about student work and
classroom practice.
(From SCCAC (2004))

19
The Annenberg Institute (2003) in their work with schools has found that:
• effective coaching encourages collaborative, reflective practice
• effective embedded professional learning promotes positive cultural
change
• a focus on content encourages the use of data analysis to inform
practice
• coaching promotes the implementation of learning and reciprocal
accountability
• coaching supports collective, interconnected leadership across a
school system.
CUREE (2005) point out that:
“Learning to be a coach or mentor is one of the most effective ways of
enabling teachers or leaders to become good and excellent practitioners;
current practice appears to concentrate the opportunity amongst those who
already excel.” (p 7) Finally, in a study by CIPD (2004) they asked employers
questions about the benefits of coaching:
Questions asked % of respondents who agree
Coaching can deliver tangible benefits to 99

both individuals and organisations
Coaching is an effective way to promote 96

learning in organisations
Coaching and mentoring are key 93
mechanisms for transferring learning from
training courses back to the workplace
When coaching is managed effectively it can 92
have a positive impact on an organisation's
bottom line
Coaching is grounded in five key skills, suggest Creasey, J. and Paterson, F.

(2005). These are:
• establishing rapport and trust
• listening for meaning
• questioning for understanding
• prompting action, reflection and learning
• developing confidence and celebrating success.
These skills are of course used in the coaching process. There are also a
number of coaching techniques that complement a coach’s preferred style of
working. The commonest, i.e. the one that is advocated by most coaches is
that of GROW (Downey, 2001):

20
G Goal for the session
R Reality of the contextual issues surrounding the topic
O Options for a way forward with the topic
W Wrap up the session with agreement about the next steps
Activity
You are the coach: how would you use GROW in your particular
circumstance? What actions would you take under each of the headings in the
table below?
Coaching Activities
step
Goal
Reality
Options
Wrap up
On completing the model – in discussion with the whole group – ask: what are
the issues that arose with the GROW model?
Do you feel this is the model for all coaching occasions? What else would you
be seeking?
21
The ‘10 minute’ session

For some colleagues goal-setting may be an uncomfortable process and they
may want their ‘coach’ to help them determine their goals. This requires a
number of steps. For example, if a colleague is seeking the help of a coach to
improve their teaching they may not recognise which aspect of their teaching
they need to improve first.
Step 1 – they have to decide whether teaching is the issue that they should
be considering.
Step 2 – seek agreement to watch them teaching. Many staff are not
comfortable with other colleagues sitting in on their session.
Step 3 – watch them teaching for 10 minutes.
Step 4 – check if they were comfortable with you in the classroom/workshop.
(You may have to watch them two or more times before they feel they are not
disturbed by your presence.)
Step 5 – once they are comfortable agree with them what aspects of the
session they wish you to observe. Agree what you will be looking for and what
you will take notes on.
Step 6 – meet after the observation to offer your report on your observation.
Step 7 – decide on the next steps.
(After: Gottesman, B. (2002))
Activity
You are going to observe 10 minutes of a video of a teacher working with a
group of adults.
After the 10 minutes you are going to be asked a number of questions:
For what three things you observed would you congratulate the teacher?
What three things you observed would you wish to discuss with the teacher?
Thinking about the end of the Day 1 session, how will you report your views to
the teacher?
If you had been the teacher observed by the coach how comfortable would
you be by the comments made? How do you make your comments
comfortable?
One answer is to only report facts to your colleague. For example: You talked
for eight out of the ten minutes I observed. You asked five questions, two of
them to named individuals and three to the class as a whole.
You do not report or offer value judgements, e.g. I thought it went well.

22
Evaluative vs. neutral terms
Think of three personal performance problems you have encountered.

Describe them first in evaluative terms and then in neutral terms that are
specific and measurable.
Evaluative Terms Neutral Terms
e.g. Your reports are Your last three reports were

always late. 2–3 days late.
1._________________________ 1. ________________________
___________________________ __________________________
___________________________ __________________________
2. _________________________ 2. ________________________
___________________________ __________________________
___________________________ __________________________
3. _________________________ 3. ________________________
___________________________ __________________________
___________________________ __________________________
Feedback
There is a lot of advice about giving feedback: some of it is down to style and
some of it is down to views of learning.

23
There is the advice to keep it SIMPLE from Ford (2003):
Feedback skills
Sensitive
Issue related
Meaningful
Prompt
Listen
Easy to understand
From Lynda Ford 27 April 2003 from

http://www.trainingfoundation.com/articles/default.asp?PageID=1170
There is advice from South Yorkshire:
Feedback should:
• be precise and specific, not vague or general;
• be honest, accurate;
• relate to behaviour not to the person;
• focus on what can be changed rather than on what can not;
• focus on the receiver and offer feedback which is of use to them – it is not
a chance to show off your powers of observation;
• avoid exaggerations;
• suggest, not instruct;
• ask questions rather than make statements;
• encourage self-evaluation.
Found in http://www.go4uni.ac.uk/schools/mentors.html
This exercise has considered the performance of lecturers in the

classroom/workshop but coaching and the techniques offered may also be
used in a range of other contexts, e.g. management issues, administrative
tasks, techniques/skill issues, career progression.

24
In order to meet the requirements of TE4056 you must complete the

assignment. The following advice should help.
The Assessment Task for ‘The Mentor as Critical Friend’
This is made up of an evidence file based on your work as a mentor with a

protégé. Think of it in four parts:
Part 1
The context – who are you and what brings you to mentoring. (The Mentor
Scale indicated the sort of Mentor you would be – do you agree with it? Why
might it not be accurate, why might you not wish to agree?)
What do you understand about mentoring – you will have a definition of

mentoring from the first workshop. (Compare it to the definitions in the
readings, e.g. those from Woodd or from Anderson and Shannon – does this
help you re-write a definition?) What are you expecting from the mentoring
process? Do you have a model of the mentoring process that you might use?
(Are you an Egan or a Kolb type?)
Who is your protégé? What is their background? What do they teach? (Some
mentors find it helpful to identify the learning styles of their protégé and
compare it to their own – Mumford’s article suggests this is important.) Does
your protégé have a scheme of work, or current lesson plans? Congratulate
them: they have already met some of the FENTO standards.
This could be 1500 or 2000 words, depending upon how easy you find it to
write.
Part 2
Lesson observation – keep a record of your observation – in writing. Provide
feedback – keep a record of your feedback – in writing. (The article ‘Flying
Solo’ may help. You may also state if you were evaluative or neutral in your
feedback.) Produce an action plan for your protégé as a result of the
observation and feedback. Consider the FENTO standards, share some of
them with your protégé, record those you refer to.
You may wish to write about the way you observed, compare it to the
suggestions in ‘Mentoring Towards Excellence’ you may wish to state whether
you felt comfortable as the observer. This would be close to 1000 words in
total. You may have meetings with your protégé at other times – record them,
make a note of what was said – perhaps link it to one of the readings, e.g. did
you behave like a coach or a mentor? Another 500 words!
Part 3
Carry out a second observation perhaps a month after the first.
Observe with the action plan in mind – record your observation.
Provide feedback – record the feedback. Action Plan.
Another 1000 words!

25
This observation and feedback to be observed by a University tutor. You

will receive a verification statement of this ‘joint’ observation.
Part 4
Record your conclusions about your mentoring. Be critical of the verification
information – use the articles and other reading or activity. Finally, this last
piece will be 300 – 400 words. Be critical. The final evidence file will be
around 4000 words.
The best could be published. All could be published!

You will need to refer to some of the literature to support your views. The
following guide will help you set out those references accurately.
Brief guide to Harvard Referencing
Paraphrasing is the act of taking the essence or key themes of an author’s

work and presenting those ideas in your own words. Paraphrased work is
indicated by use of the author’s name and the date of publication (Armpit
2002). Where you have used a direct quotation i.e. “the exact words of the
original text” (Footsore 1999, p.27) then you must also include the page
number. Thumb’s (2001, p.120) name is used here outside of the brackets
(parentheses) because it is “an integral part of the sentence” whereas
elsewhere the author’s name is shown in parentheses because the name is
not part of the sentence (Thumb 2002). Wiley, 1987 (in Coyote 1997, p. 34) is
the correct way of citing a secondary source though in the references section
“the writer should reference only the source that was actually encountered”; in
this case Coyote. Where the author is unknown the citation should appear
thus: (Anon. 2000). Quotations or paraphrasing should not be italicised,
underlined, coloured or emboldened. The only necessary indicators of
quotation or paraphrasing are the use of name and date with the inclusion of
double quotation marks and page(s) for direct quotation (Fry 2002). Fry adds:
Where a quotation is more than 4 lines in length it should be introduced
by a colon followed by two empty lines, indented five spaces from the
left margin and typed with single spacing but without quotation marks.
The author's surname, date and appropriate page number(s) appear at
the end. (Fry 2002, pp. 127–128)

26
Other tips
First names, website addresses, journal or book titles should not

normally appear in the text, only ever the author’s last name.
The School of Education does not require Bibliographies, only
References i.e. just a list of the actual sources cited in the text.
Wordage includes all of the direct quotation and paraphrasing used in
the text; it does not include the references section or appendices.
Submitted work should be at least 12 pt font of a suitable type (e.g.
Arial, Times, Tahoma). Work should be at least 1.5 line-spaced.
Each page should be numbered and should include your name.

27
References
Alred, G, Garvey, B. and Smith, R. (1998) The Mentoring Pocketbook.

Blackwell.
Annenberg Institute for School Reform (2003) Instructional Coaching,

Providence, RI: Annenberg Institute for School Reform.
Bennett, J.L. & Martin, D.J. (2001) ‘The next professional wave:
Consultant/coach’, Consulting to Management, 2(3), pp. 6–8.
Benioff, S. (1997) A second chance: Developing mentoring and education

projects for young people. London: Commission for Racial Equality.
Bierema, L.L. (1996) ‘How executive women learn corporate culture’, in

Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 2 pp 145-164.
CIPD (2004) Coaching and Buying Coaching Services, London: CIPD.
Clutterbuck, D. (2001) Everyone Needs a Mentor, 3rd edition. London: CIPD.
Colley, H. (2001c) ‘Righting rewritings of the myth of mentor: A critical

perspective on career guidance mentoring’, British Journal of Guidance &
Counselling, 29 (2), pp. 177–197.
Creasy, J. and Paterson, F. (2005) Leading Coaching in Schools, Nottingham:

NCSL. See www.ncsl.org.uk/media/416/5B/leading-coaching-in-schools.pdf.
CUREE (2005) Mentoring and Coaching for Learning: Summary report of the
mentoring and coaching CPD capacity building project 2004 - 2005. Coventry:
CUREE.
Daloz, l.A. (1986) Effective Teaching and Mentoring: Realizing the

Transformational Power of Adult Experiences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Downey, M. (2001) Effective Coaching, London: Texere.
Ensher, E.A. and Murphy, S.E. ‘Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity,
and Contact on Mentor Relationships’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 50, no.
3 (June 1997): 460-481. (EJ 543 999)
Feger, S., Woleck, K. and Hickman, P. (2004) ‘How to develop a Coaching

Eye’, Journal of Staff Development, Vol. 25, No.2 pp 14-18.
Galbraith, M.W. and Cohen, N.H. (eds.) ‘Mentoring: New Strategies and
Challenges’, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education no. 66. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Summer 1995. (EJ 511 202-208).

28
Gehrke, N.J. (1988) ‘Preserving the essence of mentoring as one form of

teacher leadership’, Journal of Teacher Education 39 1 (1988), pp. 43–45
Gottesman, B.L. (2002) Peer Coaching for Educators, Lanham, MD, USA:
Scarecrow Education.
Gulam, W.A. and Zulfiqar, M. (1998) ‘Mentoring: Dr Plum’s elixir and the
alchemist’s stone’, in Mentoring and Tutoring, Vol.5 No. 3, pp. 39-45.
Gunn, E. ‘Mentoring: The Democratic Version’, Training 32, no. 8 (August

1995): pp. 64–67.
Hall, J.C. (2003) Mentoring Young People: A Literature Review, SCRE

Research Report 114 Glasgow: University of Glasgow.
Haney, A. ‘The Role of Mentorship in the Workplace’ in Workplace Education,

edited by M.C. Taylor, pp. 211–228. Toronto, Ontario: Culture.
Kilburg, R.R. (1996) ‘Towards a conceptual understanding and definition of

executive coaching’, Consulting Psychology Journal, 48, 2, 134–44.
Kram, K. (1983) ‘Phases of the mentor relationship’, in Academy of

Management Journal, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 608–25.
Landay, E. (1998) ‘Mutual mentoring: Designing and teaching a linked

university/ secondary school course on literacy’, English Journal 88 1 (1998),
pp. 59–63.
Leading First Associates (LPA) (2004) Reading First Coaching: A Guide for
Coaches and Reading First Leaders, Illinois: Learning Point Associates,
www.learningpt.org
Malderez, A. and Bodóczky, C. (1999) Mentor Courses, Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Megginson, D. & Clutterbuck, D. (2004) Techniques for Coaching and

Mentoring. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Montgomery, D. (1999) Positive Teacher Appraisal through Classroom

Observation, London: David Fulton.
Olivero, G., Bane, K.D. & Kopelman, R.E. (1997) ‘Executive coaching as a
transfer of training tool: Effects of productivity in a public agency’, Public
Personnel Management, Vol.26 No. 4 pp. 461–9.
Phillip, K. (2000) ‘Mentoring: pitfalls and potential for young people?’ in Youth
and Policy No. 67, pp. 1–15.
Rhodes, C., Stokes, M. and Hampton, G. (2004) A Practical Guide to

Mentoring, Coaching and Peer-networking, London: Routledge Falmer.

29
Robbins, P. (1991) How to Plan and Implement a Peer Coaching Program.

Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Roberts, A. (2000) ‘Mentoring re-visited: a phenomenological reading of the

literature’, in Mentoring and Tutoring, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 145–170.
Shea, G. (2002) Mentoring, 3rd edition, Crisp: Menlo Park, USA.
Stanulis, R.N. and Russell, D. (2000) ‘Jumping in: Trust and communication in
mentoring student teachers’, Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000),
pp. 65–80.
Southern California Comprehensive Assistance Center (SCCAC) (2004)

Coaching for Results: Peer Coaching Study Teams to Increase Professional
and Students Learning, LA, USA: SCCAC.

30
Skills for Life
TE4056 The Mentor as Critical Friend:
A Reader
TE4056 The Mentor as Critical Friend: A Reader
Contents
1. Woodd, M. (1997) ‘Mentoring in further and higher education: learning

from the literature’ in Education + Training, Vol. 39, No. 9, pp. 333–
343.
2. Roberts, A. (2000) ‘Mentoring Revisited: a phenomenological reading
of the literature’ in Mentoring & Tutoring, Vol.8, No. 2, pp. 145–170.
3. Anderson, E.A. and Shannon, A.L. (1995) ‘Towards a
conceptualization of mentoring’ – extract from Kerry, T. and Shelton
Mayes, A. (1995) Issues in Mentoring. London: OU Press/Routledge,
pp.25–34.
4. Cohen, N.H. (1995) ‘The Mentor Role: Six Behavioural Functions’ –
extract from Cohen, N.H. Mentoring Adult Learners, Florida, USA:
Krieger Publishing,
pp. 187–190.
5. Butcher, J. (2000) ‘Mentoring in professional development: the English
and Welsh experience’ – extract from Moon, B., Butcher, J., Bird, E.
(2000) Leading Professional Development in Education, London:
Routledge Falmer, pp. 97–106.
6. Maynard, T. (2000) ‘Learning to Teach or Learning to Manage
Mentors? Experiences of school-based teacher training’ in Mentoring &
Tutoring, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 17–30.
7. Mumford, A. (1995) ‘Learning styles and mentoring’ in Industrial and
Commercial Training, Vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 4-9.
8. Montgomery, D. (1999) ‘Classroom Observation’ – extract from
Montgomery, D. (1999) Teacher Appraisal Through Classroom
Observation, pp. 28–52.
9. John, P.D. & Gilchrist, I. (1999) ‘Flying Solo: understanding the post-
lesson dialogue between student teacher and mentor’ in Mentoring &
Tutoring, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 101–111.
10. Fabian, H. & Simpson, A. (2002) ‘Mentoring the Experienced Teacher’
in Mentoring & Tutoring, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 117–125.
11. Gibb, S. (2003) ‘What do we do when we talk about mentoring?
Blooms and thorns’ in British Journal of Guidance and Counselling,
Vol.31, No. 1, pp 39–48.
The Skills for Life Improvement
Programme is delivered on behalf
of the Quality Improvement Agency
by CfBT Education Trust and partners
For more information on QIA’s other Skills for Life projects

please contact QIA:
Quality Improvement Agency for Lifelong Learning (QIA)
Friars House
Manor House Drive
Coventry
CV1 2TE
Tel: 0870 1620 632
Helpline: 0870 2113 434
Fax: 0870 1620 633
E-mail: general.info@qia.gsi.gov.uk
Website: www.qia.org.uk
Action for Employment
Edexcel/Pearson
Epic
General Federation of Trade Unions
LLU+ London South Bank University
Learning and Skills Network
The National Institute of Adult Continuing Education
National Research and Development Centre
Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities
The Network
University of Wolverhampton
The Skills for Life Improvement CfBT Education Trust T: 0118 902 1920
Programme is delivered
on behalf of the Quality
60 Queens Road F: 0845 838 1207
Improvement Agency by CfBT Reading E: sﬂipinfo@cfbt.com
Education Trust and partners RG1 4BS W: www.sﬂip.org.uk

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Skills for Life

Tutor: Dr Michael Stokes M.Stokes@wlv.ac.uk

The Mentor as Critical Friend

The programme is delivered through three separate strands:

The Skills for Life Improvement Programme is delivered by a consortium led

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

This is one of two modules that make up the Postgraduate Certificate in

How many do you remember? What made them so influential?

List what you feel is required from a coach by a colleague in a coaching

See CUREE (2005) The National Framework of Mentoring and Coaching

From Clutterbuck, D. (2001) Everyone Needs a Mentor, 3rd edition. London:

“Mentoring is a partnership between two people built upon trust. It is a

Mentoring helps mentees and mentors progress their personal and

The mentoring relationship is confidential. The mentor offers a safe

Mentors can help individuals reach significant decisions about complex

Mentoring is a positive development activity. Mentors can discuss current

Mentoring is typically defined as: a relationship between an experienced and

The International Coaching Federation (ICF) defines coaching as “… an

Peer coaching is a confidential process through which two or more

The attributes of a coach

How do coaches use their skills?

Other definitions and analyses

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

Clearly some of the meanings are contradictory, especially in the absence of

Roberts (2000), in a re-reading of mentoring literature published between

Mentoring appears to have the essential attributes of: a process; a supportive

If developing learning organisations in a learning society is a desirable social

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

From Malderez and Bodóczky (2001)

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

Aspects of the mentor role

Features of the mentor role Low High

13. Career counsellor 1 2 3 4 5

This is an adaptation from: Cameron-Jones, M. & O’Hara, P. (1995). ‘Mentors’

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

The Mentor Scale

The Mentor Scale

1. People probably see me as a. hard-nosed b. a soft touch

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

18. In general I prefer a. the theatre b. a party

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

The Scoring Form

1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19,

22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37

Totals ________ ________

Count up your thirteen dominance items

2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20,

23, 26, 29, 32, 35, 38

Totals __________ ________

Count up your thirteen openness items

3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21,

24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39

Totals ___________ ________

From: Bell, C (2002) Managers as Mentors, San Francisco, USA: Berret-

Dominance is about your preference regarding being in charge. People with

Dominance is a major issue in coaching with a partnering philosophy. The

High-openness scorers will find it easy to reveal themselves in a coaching

The idea of mentoring is that it is a particular kind of personal relationship in

Landay argues that mentoring exists only in the context of a collaborative

Basic assumptions about mentoring

From Oregon State Mentoring Programme 2004:

QIA Skills for Life Improvement Programme – D2 Coaching and Mentoring

Strategies and Considerations for Initial Conversations

Coaching & Mentoring Handbook

Coaching & Mentoring Handbook

Totals

Totals __

Totals ___