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Capitalize this :
1 - The first word of every sentence.
2 - The first-person singular pronoun, I.
3 - The first, last, and important words in a title. (The concept "important words" usually
does not include articles, short prepositions (which means you might want to capitalize
"towards" or "between," say), the "to" of an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions. This is
not true in APA Reference lists (where we capitalize only the first word), nor is it necessarily
true for titles in other languages. Also, on book jackets, aesthetic considerations will
sometimes override the rules.)
4 - Proper nouns.
5 - Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
6 - Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake
Erie, the Northeast, the Southend. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or
locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city:
we're leaving the Northwest and heading south this winter.
When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize attributive words when they precede place-
names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the opposite happens when the order is reversed: the
Appalachian and Adirondack mountains. When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to
being an actual part of a proper noun, do not capitalize it, as in
"The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."
7 - Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, howver, capitalize
earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other (capitalized)
celestial bodies are mentioned.
"I like it here on earth, but It is further from Earth to Mars than it is from
Mercury to the Sun".
8 - Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even when
it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
9 - Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons
(spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by
spring, we'll be back up north."
10 - Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
11 - Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish, French,
Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
12 - Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity,
Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
13 - Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking
courses in biology and earth science this summer.")
14 - Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.
15 - Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name.
(Often this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in front of such
a word, we do not capitalize it.)
* - This also means that we don't normally capitalize the name of a "vocative" or term of
endearment:
Can you get the paper for me, hon?
Drop the gun, sweetie. I didn't mean it.
One of the most frequently asked questions about capitalization is whether or not to
capitalize people's job titles or the names of political or quasi-political entities. Most writing
manuals nowadays seem to align themselves with the tendency in journalistic circles: less is
better. When a title appears as part of a person's name, usually before the name, it is
capitalized: Professor Farbman (or Professor of Physics Herschel Farbman), Mayor Perez,
U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell. On the other hand, when the title appears after the
name, it is not capitalized: Herschel Farbman, professor of history; Eddie Perez, mayor of the
city of Hartford; Juan Carlos, king of Spain. Although we don't capitalize "professor of
history" after the individual's name, we would capitalize department and program names
when they are used in full*: "He worked in the Department of Behavioral Sciences
before he started to teach physics." (We do not capitalize majors or academic
disciplines unless they refer to a language, ethnic group, or geographical entity: Roundbottom
is an economics major, but he loves his courses in French and East European studies.)
The capitalization of words that refer to institutions or governmental agencies, etc. can well
depend on who is doing the writing and where or from what perspective. For instance, if I
were writing for the city of Hartford, doing work on its charter or preparing an in-house
document on appropriate office decor, I could capitalize the word City in order to distinguish
between this city and other cities. "The City has a long tradition of individual freedom
in selecting wallpapers." If I were writing for the College of Wooster's public relations
staff, I could write about the College's new policy on course withdrawal. On the other hand, if
I were writing for a newspaper outside these institutions, I would not capitalize those words.
"The city has revamped its entire system of government." "The college has
changed its policy many times."
We don't capitalize words such as city, state, federal, national, etc. when those words are used
as modifiers "There are federal regulations about the relationship of city and
state governments". Even as nouns, these words do not need to be capitalized: "The city
of New York is in the state of New York" (but it's New York City). Commonly
accepted designations for geographical areas can be capitalized: the Near East, the American
South, the North End (of Hartford), Boston's Back Bay, the Wild West. Directions are not
capitalized unless they become part of the more or less official title of a geographical entity:
"He moved from south Texas to South Africa."
Capitalization in E-Mail
For some reason, some writers feel that e-mail should duplicate the look and feel of ancient
telegraph messages, and their capitals go the way of the windmill or they go to the opposite
extreme and capitalize EVERYTHING. That's nonsense. Proper and restrained capitalization
simply makes things easier to read (unless something is capitalized in error, and then it slows
things down). Without the little tails and leaders we get in a nice mixture of upper- and lower-
case text, words lose their familiar touch and feel. Text written in ALL CAPS is extremely
difficult to read and some people regard it as unseemly and rude, like SHOUTING at
someone close at hand. Restrain your use of ALL CAPS in e-mail to solitary words that need
further emphasis (or, better yet, use italics or underlining for that purpose, if your e-mail
client provides for that treatment).
There is considerable debate, still, about how to capitalize words associated with the Internet.
Most dictionaries are capitalizing Internet, Web, and associated words such as World Wide
Web (usually shortened to Web), Web page, Web site, etc., but the publications of some
corporations, such as Microsoft, seem to be leaning away from such capitalization. The Yale
Style Manual recommends capitalization. The words e-mail and online are not capitalized.
The Guide to Grammar and Writing is a monument to inconsistency on this issue.
The most important guiding principle in all such matters is consistency within a document
and consistency within an office or institution. Probably the most thorough and most often
relied upon guide to capitalization is the Chicago Manual of Style, but the Gregg Reference
Manual is also highly recommended.
*We acknowledge a debt to "A Guide to Wesleyan Style," a publication of the Office of
Publications of Wesleyan University.
- THE END -
Adverbs
Definition
Adverbs are words that modify
a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she
move?)
As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something
happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly ; however, many words and phrases not
ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an
adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:
That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a
sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:
When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an
adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place
and time, modifying the verb):
He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.
And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.
But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:
He calls his mother as often as possible.
Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we
would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students
showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran
real fast."
Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.
Emphasizes:
I really don't believe him.
He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.
Amplifiers:
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.
Down toners:
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.
Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers
She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster
Kinds of Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.
Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.
Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
Positions of Adverbs
One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of
manner are particularly flexible in this regard.
Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.
Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the
main verb:
Order of Adverbs
There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is
similar to The Royal Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible.
A second principle: among similar adverbial phrases of kind (manner, place, frequency, etc.),
the more specific adverbial phrase comes first:
My grandmother was born in a sod house on the plains of northern
Nebraska.
She promised to meet him for lunch next Tuesday.
Bringing an adverbial modifier to the beginning of the sentence can place special emphasis on
that modifier. This is particularly useful with adverbs of manner:
Slowly, ever so carefully, Jesse filled the coffee cup up to the brim, even above
the brim.
Occasionally, but only occasionally, one of these lemons will get by the
inspectors.
Conjuncts, on the other hand, serve a connector function within the flow of the text,
signaling a transition between ideas.
If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.
We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and yet he's done nothing to fix it.
At the extreme edge of this category, we have the purely conjunctive device known as the
conjunctive adverb (often called the adverbial conjunction):
Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless, he's the most
nervous person here.
I love this school; however, I don't think I can afford the tuition.
Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and
Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. 126. Used with permission.
Examples our own.
(Notice, though, that when enough functions as an adjective, it can come before the noun:
Did she give us enough time?
If too comes after the adverb it is probably a disjunct (meaning also) and is usually set off
with a comma:
Yasmin works hard. She works quickly, too.
Another common construction with the adverb too is too followed by a prepositional phrase
— for + the object of the preposition — followed by an infinitive:
This milk is too hot for a baby to drink.
Relative Adverbs
Adjectival clauses are sometimes introduced by what are called the relative adverbs:
where, when, and why. Although the entire clause is adjectival and will modify a noun, the
relative word itself fulfills an adverbial function (modifying a verb within its own clause).
The relative adverb where will begin a clause that modifies a noun of place:
My entire family now worships in the church where my great grandfather used
to be minister.
The relative pronoun "where" modifies the verb "used to be" (which makes it adverbial), but
the entire clause ("where my great grandfather used to be minister") modifies the word
"church."
A when clause will modify nouns of time:
We sometimes leave out the relative adverb in such clauses, and many writers prefer "that" to
"why" in a clause referring to "reason":
Do you know the reason why Isabel isn't in class today?
I always look forward to the day when we begin our summer vacation.
I know the reason that men like motorcycles.
Authority for this section: Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition.
MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.
Although negative constructions like the words "not" and "never" are usually found
embedded within a verb string — "He has never been much help to his mother." — they are
technically not part of the verb; they are, indeed, adverbs. However, a so-called negative
adverb creates a negative meaning in a sentence without the use of the usual
no/not/neither/nor/never constructions:
He seldom visits.
She hardly eats anything since the accident.
After her long and tedious lectures, rarely was anyone awake.
- THE END -
{{ Using Gerunds and Infinitives }}
Gerunds and infinitives are verb forms that can take the place of a noun in a
sentence. The following guidelines and lists will help you figure out whether a
gerund or infinitive is needed.
1. Following a verb (gerund or infinitive)
Both gerunds and infinitives can replace a noun as the object of a verb. Whether
you use a gerund or an infinitive depends on the main verb in the sentence.
Consult the lists below to find out which form to use following which verbs.
(note that phrasal verbs, marked here with *, always fall into
this category):
Can you touch your toes without bending your knees? He was fined for
driving over the speed limit.
She got the money by selling the car. A corkscrew is a tool for taking
corks out of bottles.
Note: Take care not to confuse the preposition “to” with an infinitive form, or
with an auxiliary form such as have to, used to, going to.
Some verbs are followed by a pronoun or noun referring to a person, and then an
infinitive. Gerunds cannot be used in this position.
- The End –
Kinds of sentences:
1. Simple sentence:
It has one main or independent clause- one subject-verb relationship.
- The car stopped.
- We were happy to see him.
a- A simple sentence can have a compound subject- Two or more subjects joined by a
coordinator.
- Sami and Chris were late.
- Sami, Chris and I were late.
b- A simple sentence can have a compound verb- two or more verbs joined by a coordinator.
There are three ways to join independent clauses to form a compound sentence:
1. With coordinator. FAN BOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
1. It's warm out today, ___________ let's go to the park this afternoon.
2. Jogging is a popular form of exercise, ________ doctors don't recommend it.
3. The waves were high and rough, yet __________________
4. This is the last day of the semester, so ________________
5. 5. T really enjoyed reading the novel, and ______________
1. The apartment __________ I lived in last semester was noisy ________ it was next to
the bus station.
2. This new shirt _____ you wore to school looked so comfortable, ____ please tell me
________ you bought them.
3. ________ Sami's family were very close, they were all independent, ______ they
enjoyed doing things on their own.
4. _____ you were making the homemade ice cream, I was cutting the pie, ______ the pie
won't be ready to serve ____ it cools.
Fragments: A fragment is an incomplete piece -- a fragment -- of a sentence. To test for a
fragment, see if it can stand alone and still mean something. If it cannot, it is a fragment.
1. Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to going to school.
Problem: This is a subordinate clause.
To correct: Attach it to an independent clause.
Complete Sentence: Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to full-time
classwork, they have very little free time.
2. For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment.
Problem: No main verb.
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a subject and a verb.
Complete Sentence: For example, the cost of renting an apartment has increased.
3. Having no money and being lonely in the big city.
Problem: This is a participial phrase. It has no subject or verb.
To correct: (a) Rewrite the phrase to include a subject and a verb.
(b) Attach the phrase to an independent clause.
Complete Sentences: (a) She had no money and was lonely in the big city.
(b) Having no money and being lonely in the big city, the woman committed suicide.
Fixing fragments:
• attach the fragment with a comma, dash or colon, if appropriate
• attach the fragment to the sentence it belongs to
• turn the fragment into a new sentence by creating a subject and verb
____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers
in that department.
____ 4. In each group, a wide range of things to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish
between them.
____ 5. The magazine has a reputation for sophisticated readers. Although this just an opinion
and not a true premise.
____ 6. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and
his parents that he is a man.
____7. As the summer holiday grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days
at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think about this makes me happy.
____8. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two large-size pizzas.
____9. They were all having a good time. Until one of Jim's oldest and best friends had a
stomachache.
____10. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve kilometers an hour. My old
rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed like a high-speed job to me.
2- Identify the fragments in this paragraph and fix them.
Driving through the landscape of southern Utah at dusk was a little frightening. It was
very dark. No cars on the road. Just a long white line ahead of me, under my lights. I had
wanted to drive down the dirt road that led to the Valley of the Gods, where I heard there
were some beautiful rock formations, but suddenly I didn’t dare. Someone had told me that
this was the part of the desert where the shape shifters lived. Shape shifters are said to be
native Americans who have the power to change their shape. Not always for good purposes.
So, I kept going. Even though I was tempted to stop. Now I am sorry. Because I will probably
never get another chance to go back there.
1- Join each pair of the following simple sentences into complex ones:
4. The police went to the place. They might see the scene of the crime.
___________________________________________________________
5. Alice hurt herself. She was trying to repair the broken window.
___________________________________________________________
8. Some believe the Institute should be held accountable for the suicides of its students.
Others disagree.
___________________________________________________________
6- Many accidents have occurred while drivers were speaking on cell phones, __
_____________________________________________________________________
3- Join the following short sentences
1- Lana is good at singing. She has a beautiful voice. She was born in Cairo. She is my
favorite star. She likes to sing since she was a child.
2- Wayne Rooney is my favorite football star. He was born in England. He is Man United
member. He is one of the most powerful strikers in the world. He is good at striking on goal.
He is my hero.
Use a comma
1. After introductory words
During the summer of 1999, we visited Spain. Unfortunately, we did not speak Spanish.
2. Before conjunctions
• Clinton was reckless, but he was popular with the general public.
• Cuba is facing a new crisis, for its supply of Venezuelan oil has been cut
The following paragraphs have no capital letters or periods to mark the ends of sentences.
Add capitals, periods, and any commas that may be needed to make the word groups into
complete sentences.
1)-
although many people enjoy coffee they find that it can make them nervous and irritable
if they drink too much of it caffeine which is the primary active ingredient in coffee can
become addictive many people find that when they try to quit drinking coffee they often
develop headaches and other symptoms of withdrawal. furthermore it has been found that
caffeine may contribute to breast disease in women under forty one must admit however that
there is nothing like a good cup of coffee first thing in the morning personally I cannot
imagine life without it.
2)-
my brother was always my best friend when I was a child especially as we two were
almost alone in the world we lived with our old grandmother in a little house, almost a shack,
in the country whenever I think of him now I see a solemn, responsible boy a boy too old for
his years who looked our for me no matter what once there was a bully John Anson who
looked enormous to me though he was probably an average twelve-year-old John had it in for
me because he liked Lucy Graham who liked me he decided to beat me up right before her
eyes I was lucky my brother came by he didn't interfere he just stood there somehow, though,
his presence gave me confidence if my brother hadn't been there I don't think I could have
been beaten up.
Globalization
Translation is uniquely revealing of the asymmetries that have structured international affairs
for centuries. In many "developing" countries ( a term that will be used here to indicate a
subordinate position in the global capitalist economy), it has been compulsory , imposed first
by the introduction of colonial languages among regional vernaculars and later, after
decolonization , by the need to traffic in the hegemonic lingua francas to preserve political
autonomy and promote economic growth. Here translation is a cultural practice that is deeply
implicated in relations of domination and dependence, equally capable of maintaining or
disrupting them. The colonization of Americas, Asia, and Africa could not have occurred
without interpreters , both native and colonial, nor without the translation of effective texts,
religious, legal , educational (see Rafael 1988; Chyfitz1991; Niranjana 1992). And the recent
neocolonial projects of transnational corporations , their exploitation of overseas workforces
and markets, can't advance without a vast array of translations, ranging from commercial
contracts, instruction manuals and advertising copy to popular novels, children's books, and
film soundtracks.
العولمة
تكشف التجة بشكل ل مثيل له عن الختللت الت هيكلت الطر الساسية
ففي كثي من البلدان "النامية")مصطلح.للشؤون الدولية لعدة قرون
إذ،(سيستخدم هنا لبيان وضع التبعية ف القتصاد الرأسال العالي
كان لزاما الفاظ على الكم الذاتي السياسي وتعزيز النمو القتصادي
الذي فرض ف بادئ المر بإدخال اللغات الستعمارية ف اللهجات اللية
هنا.الدارجة وفيما بعد الاجة للتداول *باللغات الشتكة الهيمنة
تكون التجة مارسة ثقافية موغلة ف علقات اليمنة والتبعية قادرة
و ما كان ليتم.على تعزيز هذه العلقات أو تزيقها على حد سواء
استعمار المريكيتي وآسيا و أفريقيا لول التجي سواء من الرض
1991 و شيفيتز1988 الستعمرة أو من الستعمر ذاته ) راجع رافائيل
وما كانت لتتقدم مشاريع الستعمار الديث.( 1992 و نيانا نانا
الخية با فيها من استغلل للقوى العاملة والسواق الواقعة ما وراء
البحار دون ذاك الكم الائل من التجات البتدئة بالعقود التجارية
وكتيبات الرشادات ونســخ العلنات عن الروايات الشعبية وكتب
.الطفال والنتهية بالوسيقى التصورية للفلم
The functionality of translation has worked just as well in initiatives mounted from
subordinate positions, some directed against empire, others in complicity with globalized
capital. Translations of foreign texts contributed to the militant nationalism of anticolonial
movements. Between 1955 and 1980 the most frequently translated author in the world was
Lenin , according to UNESCO statistics. In the developing countries, translations have played
a crucial role in enriching indigenous languages and literatures while supporting reading and
publishing. For oral cultures, translations are among the first books on the scene. For literate
cultures with advanced or fledgling communication media, translations have accompanied
lucrative deals with transnational publishers and film and television companies, sustaining
industrial development by building native-language audiences for the cultural products of the
hegemonic countries.
كما كان لوظيفة التجة أيضا الثر الام ف إطلق مبادرات انبثقت من
والبعض الخر تواطؤ، فبعضها توجه ضد المباطورية، الوظائف الدنيا
فقد ساهت ترجة النصوص الجنبية ف إيقاظ النزعة.مع رأس الال العول
كان1980 و1955 فبي.القومية التطرفة للحركات الناهضة للستعمار
ليني أكثر الؤلفي الذين ترجت أعمالم ف العال وفقا لحصاءات
قامت التجات بدور حاسم ف إثراء،ففي البلدان النامية.اليونسكو
بالنسبة.لغات وآداب السكان الصليي أثناء حلت دعم القراءة والنشر
كانت التجة من بي أوائل الكتب الت ظهرت على، للثقافات المية
أما بالنسبة للثقافات اللمة بالقراءة والكتابة والتقدمة.الساحة
فقد رافقت التجات الصفقات الربة,أو الناشئة ف مال وسائل العلم
ة على تنمية صناعية
ًمع الناشرين وشركات السينما والتلفزيون مافظ
عن طريق بناء جاهي أصحاب اللغة لتقبل النتجات الثقافية للبلدان
.السيطرة
وبا أن التجة توجه دائما إل جهور مدد مهما بلغت درجة تفاؤلنا أو
فإن دوافعها وآثارها التملة تبقى، درجة غموض تديد ملمح التجة
ذات طابع ملي وعرضي وتتباين وفقا للوضاع الرئيسية أو الثانوية
وربا يتجلى هذا المر ف قدرة التجة على تشكيل.للقتصاد العالي
ًة مطلع
ة ًة ملي
ًهويات ثقافية تثل ثقافة أجنبية تبن بشكل آني ذاتي
على القواني واليديولوجيات اللية الت بدورها تعل هذا التمثيل
.مفهوم الصيغة وثقاف الوظيفة
Within the hegemonic countries, translation fashions images of their subordinate others that
can vary between the poles of narcissism and self-criticism, confirming or interrogating
dominant domestic values, reinforcing or revising the ethnic stereotypes , literary canons ,
trade patterns and foreign policies to which another culture may be subject. Within
developing countries, translation fashions images their hegemonic others and themselves that
can variously solicit submission , collaboration, or resistance , that may assimilate dominant
foreign values with approval or acquiescence ( free enterprise , Christian piety ) or critically
revise them to create domestic self images that are more oppositional (nationalism ,
fundamentalism )
ترسم التجة صورا للخاضعي داخل البلدان الهيمنة تتفاوت بي أقطاب
ة للقيم اللية السائدة
ًة أو داحض
ًالفتتان بالنفس والنقد الذاتيمؤكد
ة للقوالب النمطية العرقية والعايي الدبية و أناط
ًة أو منقحًو معزز
.التجارة والسياسات الارجية الت يكن أن تكون خاضعة لثقافة أخرى
ا للمهمي هي نفسها الت تنشد
ُوف الدول النامية ترسم التجة صور
النوع والتعاون معها أو القاومة الت تستوعب القيم الارجية
الورع السيحي (أو تنتقدها، الهيمنة بوافقة ضمنية) الشاريع الرة
ة تتسم بعارضة أقوى ) القومية و الصولية
ً)لتخلق صورا ذاتي.
Translation can produce this range of possible effects in subordinate cultures because cultural
domination does not necessarily entail a homogenizing process of identity formation. Of
course the globalization of culture can't occur without "the use of a variety of instruments of
homogenization," such as "advertising techniques" and " language hegemonies" ; but " at least
as rapidly as forces from various metropolises are brought into new societies they tend to
become indigenized in one way or another.", " absorbed into local political and cultural
economies" (Appadurai 1996:42,32). In multilingual cultures of Africa, Asia, and the
Caribbean, translation forms identities marked by disjunction , hybrid formations that mix
indigenous traditions with metropolitan trends. Although capable of diverse and contradictory
effects , the cultural hybridity released by translation has been put to strategic uses in
domestic literary styles and movements (switching between English and African languages in
the West African novel); in commercial ventures (transnational advertising campaign); and in
government policies (the legislation of official languages that often do not include regional
vernaculars.
The status of translation in the global economy is particularly embarrassing to the major
English –speaking countries, the United States and the United kingdom. It calls attention to
the questionable conditions of their hegemony , their dependence on the domination of
English , on unequal cultural exchange that involves the exploitation of foreign print and
electronic media and the exclusion and stereotyping of foreign cultures at home. At the same
time , the globalization of English , the emergence of a world market for English language
cultural products ensures that translations don't merely communicate British and American
values, but rather submit them to a local differentiation, an assimilation to the heterogeneity
of a minor position. Developing countries have been the sites of translation strategies and
cultural identities that assimilate those prevailing in Anglo-American cultures and yet deviate
from them in remarkable ways , some with greater social impact than others. In what follows I
want to consider, first, the asymmetries that have long characterized translation relations in
the global cultural economy, and then the forms of resistance and innovation that translation
has taken under colonialism and in our own postcolonial era, where the imperialist project has
not so much vanished as assumed the guise of transnational corporatism (Miyoshi 1993).
إن منزلة التجة ف القتصاد العالي بات أمرا مرجا جدا للدول
الرئيسية الناطقة باللغة النليزية لسيما الوليات التحدة المريكية
والملكة التحدة .وهذا يلفت النتباه للوضاع الريبة ليمنتهم
واعتمادهم على هيمنة اللغة النليزية وعلى التبادل الثقاف التفاوت
الذي يتطلب استغلل الطبعة الجنبية وأجهزة العلم اللكتونية
والستبعاد والقولبة النمطية للثقافات الجنبية .وف الوقت ذاته إن
عولة اللغة النليزية وظهور سوق عالية للمنتجات الثقافية للغة
النليزية يضمن أن التجات ليست مرد وسيلة إيصال للقيم المريكية
والبيطانية ،بل بالحرى تقدمها ف أطار ملي متميز و هذا استيعاب
لعدم التجانس من موقف قاصر .والبلدان النامية مواقع استاتيجية
للتجة والويات الثقافيةالت من شأنا استيعاب تلك الويات السائدة ف
الثقافات النلو أمريكية مع أنا تتلف عنها بشكل ملحوظ إذ أن بعضها
ل الختللت التلا تأثي اجتماعي أقوى من غيها .فيما سيد سأدرس أوً
ميزت علقات التجة لفتة طويلة ف القتصاد الثقاف العالي ،وبعد ذلك
أشكال القاومة والبداعات الت انتهجتها التجة تت ظل السياسة
الستعمارية وف عصرنا عصر ما بعد الستعمار حيث الشروع المبيال ل
).يتلشى كليا ليتنكر بزي الشركات العالية ) ميوشي 1993