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Writing is the expression of language in the form of letters, symbols, or words.
The primary purpose of writing is communication. People have used many tools for
writing including paint, pencils, pens, typewriters, and computers. The writing can be
formed on the wall of a cave, a piece of paper, or a computer screen. The writing
process includes prewriting, composing, revising, editing and publishing. There are
many kinds of writing such as expository, narrative, descriptive, imaginative, and
persuasive.




 






Some of the oldest writing ever found has been cave paintings. Stones, rocks
and bones were the first thing people used to record writing. Rocks, walls of caves, or
bones from hunting animals were carved with pictures.

Marks were made by cave men using sharp sticks, stones or paint. There was no
alphabet or writing system that the cave men had, so they used pictures to write down
things that were happening in their lives. Early men drew pictures on cave walls or rocks
to leave messages and to honor the spirits.

One of the earliest kinds of writing - or a writing system where special symbols
were used to represent things - is called cuneiform. Cuneiform consisted of symbols
carved by reeds on wet clay tablets. It was used about 3500 BC to 2000 BC by the
Sumerian people who lived in the Middle East. Cuneiform was mostly used to keep lists
for accounting and to record historical events. Another type of early writing is Egyptian
hieroglyphics. The Egyptians carved signs representing objects and sounds. They even
had a sort of alphabet with 24 symbols that stood for certain letters.

The Egyptians also created Papyrus, a type of paper made by gluing together
layers of a reed plant, and ink which they used to record historical events and for record
keeping.

The Chinese and Japanese use ideas instead of words to represent writing.
Symbols that were used in certain patterns represented ideas.

The Phoenicians were the first to create an alphabet - symbols that represent
sounds, not pictures or ideas. The Greeks modified the Phoenician alphabet about 500
BC and it is a lot like the alphabet we use today. The word alphabet comes from the first
two Greek letters - alpha and beta. The Romans changed the alphabet when they
conquered Greece.
 The English alphabet still uses the same letters, but has added the letters J, U
and W. The Romans were the first to link the letters together to make a flowing kind of
writing, or cursive.

 

 


Things found in nature, like rocks, stones and bones were the first things that
people wrote on. Early people also carved symbols on wet clay. When the clay dried,
the symbol would still be there, and they could carry the clay around.

The Egyptians were the first to create a type of paper, called papyrus. They used
reeds found along the banks of the Nile River and layered it to make a paper kind of
surface.

Later, Europeans discovered that the skin of animals could be used to write on,
but it took a long time to make the material, called vellum or parchment, and it was very
expensive.

The Italians discovered an inexpensive and quicker way to make paper by

breaking down the fibers of old cloth. Because of the invention of a writing material that
was fairly cheap, more people started to write.

Printing was started by hand carving wooden blocks, putting ink on them and
stamping them onto paper. To make printing even easier, J. Gutenberg created a
moveable print made from metal. This made printing very easy and books became
much more available.

 






Early man used rocks, stones or bones to carve symbols and pictures into other
rocks, stones or bones. They also used reeds to carve symbols on wet clay.

In Egypt, a stylus, or thin metal rod was used to mark on papyrus. The stylus was
often made of lead.

Dyes from nature were used to paint symbols. Different plants and flowers made
different colors. Burnt twigs, or charcoal, could also be used to mark on things. Chalk
was found in some places, and could also be used as a way of writing.

Later, people started using sharpened feathers, or quills, with ink to write on
paper. Metal points were made so the point would last longer.

Pencils were created when it was found that graphite, a mineral found in the
earth, left a dark mark, but could also be erased! Graphite was really soft, and broke a
lot, so people would wrap it in string. Later, people started putting the graphite in hollow
wooden sticks. The center of a pencil is still called the lead (like the Egyptian Stylus) but
it is really made of graphite.

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1. Writing expresses who you are as a person
2. Writing is portable and permanent. It makes your thinking visible.
3. Writing helps you move easily among facts, inferences, and opinions without
getting confused ± and without confusing your reader.
4. Writing promotes your ability to pose worthwhile questions.
5. Writing fosters your ability to explain a complex position to readers, and to
yourself.
6. Writing helps others give you feedback.
7. Writing helps you refine your ideas when you give others feedback.
8. Writing requires that you anticipate your readers¶ needs. Your ability to do so
demonstrates your intellectual flexibility and maturity.
9. Writing ideas down preserves them so that you can reflect upon them later.
10. Writing out your ideas permits you to evaluate the adequacy of your agreement.



 





The method of writing that covers both expression and prefigured comprehension
is process writing, which has won many adherents and trainers mainly because it works
quite well in ensuring good and effective written communication. It divides the writing
event into three activities ± prewriting, fastwriting, and postwriting.

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Prewriting is a writer-focused. It begins with anticipating a writing activity. This

means being sensitive to what you are learning, experiencing, or thinking as if you are
going to write about them. As you learn, experience, or think, you select words and
formulate sentences that capture the thoughts and feelings that build up in you

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An effective way to generate ideas is simply to write as many words, phrases,

and sentences you could think of that are related to the topic. You may
 , or
dig into your own storehouse of knowledge. It is always a good tactic to begin with what
you know, or even what you suspect, about the topic.

You may also see how TV affects or has affected children you know, i.e., you
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When introspection, observation and experimentation seem to be insufficient, or
questionable, you may review some notes or publications you have on the subject, or
interview persons who have some knowledge on the topic.

You may also organize a team and altogether  

  on the topic. This is
like collective introspection.

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The first tactic is to focus on a definite idea you would like to develop. ð

the selected ideas, following one criterion at a time for classification. While classifying,
you must also rank. Some ideas are general or superordinate, while others are specific,
or subordinate. Next, you have to ' the ideas in a particular way.

Altogether, classification, ranking and sequencing is captured by the (





, a listing of the ideas you plan to write, with tags and a pattern of indention
which indicate the ideas¶ class, rank and sequence.

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This literally means writing as fast as you can in order to set down your ideas in
full, connected sentences. You have to try writing as if you are dictating your ideas, or
lecturing slowly. Do not pay attention to correctness of form; do not bother about
spelling, punctuation, grammar, and the like, at least, not at this stage, since the whole
idea is for you to draft in the shortest possible time.

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This is reader-focused. This means critically looking at your draft and possibly
deleting, adding, or replacing ideas, changing the sequence of ideas, or their
classification, and the like.

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This means finding out if your draft communicates your ideas and intentions
effectively, i.e., if you think your target readers are going to react accordingly.





Before you sign and send or submit your written text, you must go through the
final stage in process writing. You must edit, i.e., you must spot errors and correct them.
With the help of an English manual and a current dictionary as guides, check on your
word choice, word form, sentence construction and text graphics.

 




  



1. The Controlled-to-Free Approach
Activities: Copying, Changing, Combining
Emphasis: Grammar ± Syntax ± Mechanics
Focus: Accuracy

2. The Free-Writing Approach

Activities: Free writing with minimal correction of error
Emphasis: Content-Audience
Focus: Fluency

3. The Paragraph-Pattern Approach

Activities: Copying, imitating, analyzing, reordering, developing paragraph
Emphasis: Organization
Focus: Organization of paragraph

4. The Grammar-Syntax-Organization
Activities: Organization and also choosing appropriate grammar and vocabulary
Emphasis: Grammar, syntax and organization
Focus: link purpose, form, message

5. The Communicative Approach

Activities: Real life writing
Emphasis: Purpose-audience
Focus: Communication

6. The Process Approach

Activities: Writing in unlimited time
Emphasis: Reader responds to the ideas
Focus: Discovery of new ideas and new language forms

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Descriptive writing vividly portrays a person, place, or thing in such a way that the
reader can visualize the topic and enter into the writer¶s experience.

The general characteristics of descriptive writing include:

 R elaborate use of sensory language
R rich, vivid, and lively detail
R figurative language such as simile, hyperbole, metaphor, symbolism and
personification
R 
, rather than  through the use of active verbs and precise
modifiers

Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere and is often included in other

genre, such as in a descriptive introduction of a character in a narrative.

R Observe, and then describe an event.

R Think of a person or object that stands out in your memory. Write a description of
that subject.
R Find an example of descriptive writing; explain the elements that make this a
good example.

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Narrative writing tells a story or part of a story.

The general characteristics of narrative writing include:

R plot structure
Y introduction
Y rising action
Y climax
Y falling action
Y resolution
R conflict
R characterization
R setting
R theme
R point of view
R sequencing
R transitions

Narrative writing appears in and is not limited to novels, short stories,

biographies, autobiographies, historical accounts, essays, poems, and plays.

R Write a story about the best celebration you have ever had; tell why this is your
favorite.
R Think of a time when you were nervous. It might be your first plane ride or the
first time you slept over night with a friend. Tell what happened and how you
reacted.
R Write a fictional story about being an eyewitness at a historical event.
 R Find an example of a narrative; explain the elements that make this a good
example.

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Poetry is an art form that uses evocative language and form to communicate an
idea or an experience. Because it is highly individual, the structure and elements are
varied and unlimited in scope.

The general characteristics of poetry may include:

R figurative language
R rhyme and euphony
R meter
R poetic devices
R free verse
R blank verse

Poetry appears almost everywhere, and examples include haiku, couplet, tercet,
quatrain, cinquain, limerick, ballad, lyrics, sonnet, etc.

R Challenge students to make the ordinary extraordinary. Wrap everyday objects in

tissue paper, and then ask each student to pick an item. After students have
unwrapped their items, allow them to trade, if they like. Charge them with writing
a poem about what they have.
R During a class walk, ask each student to pick up one item. After students return
to the classroom, have them write about what they found.
R Ask students to write about the immediate. If it is storming, have them write about
rain, etc..
R Invite students to write about something they miss or crave. For example, in
winter have them write about summer.

 
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Persuasive writing intends to convince the reader of a stated opinion or belief.

The general characteristics of persuasive writing include:

R stated position or belief

R factual supports
R persuasive techniques
R logical argument
R call to action
 Persuasive writing appears in and is not limited to speeches, letters to the editor,
editorials, advertisements, award nominations, pamphlets, petitions, scholarly writing,
and opinion pieces.

R Write a letter to your congressman telling him why you think daylight savings time
should or should not be changed.
R Write a speech to be delivered to the school board to convince them to require or
not require school uniforms.
R Find an example of persuasive writing; explain the elements that make this a
good example.

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Expository writing seeks to inform, explain, clarify, define or instruct.

The general characteristics of expository writing include:

R focus on main topic

R logical supporting facts
R details, explanations, and examples
R strong organization
R clarity
R unity and coherence
R logical order
R smooth transitions

Expository writing appears in and is not limited to letters, newsletters, definitions,

instructions, guidebooks, catalogues, newspaper articles, magazine articles, manuals,
pamphlets, reports and research papers.

R Write a story about a trip you are going to take and what friend you want to take
with you. Explain why this friend would be the best person to go with you.
R Describe the cause and effects of pollution in the environment. Narrow your topic
to one form of pollution, such as something that causes air, water or land
pollution.
R Explain the process of baking a birthday cake.
R Find an example of expository writing; explain the elements that make this a
good example.

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1. Novice Writer (unskilled, unaware, teacher-dependent)
 Has little, if any, individual style
 Has little awareness of writing process
  Has undeveloped skills and techniques
 Seeks approval from teacher
 Is reluctant to revise any writing
 Believe good writing comes easily

2. Transitional Writer (transitional, self-involved, self-delineating)

 Needs support and coaching in order to develop
 Learns from modeled behaviors
 Is developing a degree of comfort with the craft
 Is anxious to stand alone, yet is uncomfortable with peer collaboration
 Is developing an awareness of personal needs, interests and preoccupations

3. Willing Writer (peer-involved, willing to write)

 Is able to collaborate well with others
 Requires external feedback to shape progress
 Is able to profit from criticisms
 Is developing objectivity concerning work
 Enjoys practicing craft
 Is developing a sensitivity to audience

4. Independent Writer (independent, autonomous)

 Makes highly objective self-assessments
 Has developed a sophisticated personal style
 Has developed a writer¶s voice
 Takes risk and experiments
 Is self-motivating and self-aware as a writer
 Is a craftsperson


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Turn off the screens and let students write
Creativity and Concept Mapping Software - consider the Mary Jacob approach
Outlining Software - Good for planning and organizing documents
Dictation - "Writing by Dictation"
Avoiding Writer's Block

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 Concerns Expressed in an Andrea Lunsford Proposal for a "Folio Thinking"
Project

‡ Risk of fragmentation in the students learning career;.

‡ Low degree of reflection in the learning process due to a vanishing learning
history on the
part of the student
‡ Decreasing student of motivation
‡ Lack efficiency in how students handle information
‡ Low level of reuse of information and knowledge by students
‡ Bad or absent meta-data system to help students manage their knowledge

Anticipated Outcomes

Folio Thinking is a set of behaviors and a mindset that leads to four ultimate
outcomes:
‡ Improved student problem finding and solving;
‡ Greater meta-discursive analysis (Students conceptualizing their own learning);
‡ Increased student self awareness; and
‡ Increased awareness of others' ways of thinking.
"How will we reach these goals? We intend to reach them via a set of inter-
related strategies
which include the development of guidelines for how students will engage in Folio
Thinking,
with the guidance of trained elder students at each testbed and the involvement
of testbed faculty
who will channel their course activities in such a fashion that supports the use of
an electronic
portfolio. This project is enhanced by our co-development approach. We will test
our ideas and
theories at the same time as we develop the requirements for an electronic
portfolio technology."

Matt Barton's E-Portfolio Concerns

‡ Who is the owner of the items uploaded into an ePortfolio (the individual,
institution or a combination)? What mechanisms are in place for resolving
ownership issues?
‡ How will colleges and universities inform users of the rights of authors and
publishers to documents stored in their portfolios, and what can and cannot be
included, and what is possible under ³fair use?´
‡ How will the system guarantee that the owner of the electronic portfolio created
the work?

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How can we encourage students to engage with audiences outside the
classroom? To what extent do our students have a responsibility to their larger
community? How will interactions with these communities (social, academic,
professional) better prepare them for post-graduate challenges?

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1. There is a gap between the quality of writing between those who learned how to
write by posting on their blogs and those who have learned how to write from
journalism or writing courses.

2. With so many writers competing in online writing, many new entrants who don¶t
even have writing skills are bidding on jobs, creating a price war taking its toll on
the profession.

3. With all the available technology, a human reader will not be able to tell the
difference between something created by a computer and a real writer

4. The age of Twitter and text messaging is dummying down our population and
destroying the written word. Many believe that this may be the last era of fine
literature.

5. Writing software provides artificial intelligence. Some writers apply artificial

intelligence by utilizing software that mass fabricated contents.