MINISTERUL EDUCAÞIEI, CERCETÃRII ªI TINERETULUI

Cleopatra Gherbanovschi Nicolae Gherbanovschi

FIZICÃ
manual pentru clasa a XII-a

F1
! filiera teoreticã, profil real,
specializarea matematicã-informaticã ºi ºtiinþe ale naturii
! filiera vocaþionalã, profil militar MApN,
specializarea matematicã-informaticã
Manualul a fost aprobat prin Ordinul Ministrului Educaþiei, Cercetãrii ºi Tineretului nr. 1783/1
din 16.08.2007, în urma evaluãrii calitative ºi este realizat în conformitate cu programa
analiticã aprobatã prin Ordin al Ministrului Educaþiei ºi Cercetãrii nr. 5959 din 22.12.2006.

Manualul este valabil ºi pentru clasa a XII-a, ciclul superior al liceului, filiera tehnologicã, ruta
progresivã de calificare prin ºcoala de arte ºi meserii + anul de completare.

Referenþi ºtiinþifici:
Conf. univ. dr. Dima N. Vasile
Prof. gr. I Mihail Curuþiu

Descrierea!CIP!a!Bibliotecii!Naþionale!a!României
GHERBANOVSCHI"!CLEOPATRA
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&'&7/+0-$H.&/,4-:':,($:(A0+-$(D$/2(D&(;$)L&''(OV.($.:'(1863). Astfel, numai în
acest sistem viteza luminii în vid are valoarea:
!
c= = 3·108 m/s,
ε Zµ Z
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OA,H"[!"8U( #RU( V.( /+&, cazuri:
În cazul 1,( ':-,.$( 7$+&( 4&( *+0*$H2( *&
D,+&73,$(:;U(D&('$(:(spre x, are în sistemul
S viteza 0 de modul c, iar în sistemul S'
!
viteza 0 ′ = 0 ] 9 , de modul u' = c – V.
! ! !
1
În cazul 2,( ':-,.$( 4&( D&*'$4&$%2( *&
"#$%! &%'%! E&'&( /+&,( 7$%:+,( D&( 70-*:.&+&( $
D,+&73,$(:;U(D&('$(;('$(:U(1,/&%$(D&(D&*'$4$+&
V.( 4,4/&-:'(:8( &4/&( 0 ′ = 0 ] 9 ( =,( V.( -0D:'
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08% @% 1% B% 9% OA,H"[!"8U[CR"
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0 ′ = 0 ] 9 ( =,( V.( -0D:'( OA,H"( !"8U( 1RJ
! !

98
08% = 18 ] 9 8 = 1 ! ] "
18
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! ! ! !
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+ =
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1 ]9 1 +9  98 
1! ] 8 
 1 
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98
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18
C
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V./+G:.( /,-*( /0/$'( O7$%:'( (R:
8D
t2 = .
98
1 !] 8
1
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=,(D&*,.D(D&(9"(N./+:75/(1%mm%9U(+&'$3,,'&
D&( -$,( 4:4( 4&( *0/( $*+0),-$J
8D 8D
(1 – β2)–1 = (1 + β2);
1
t1 =
1 1
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8D  ! 8
!
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t2 = O! ] β 8
R 8 =
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1  8 
CU[1"[P7<&-&'&(D&(*+,.7,*,:(*&./+:(7&'&(D0:2(&/$*&
1 $'&( &)*&+,-&./:':,"
9
unde β = .
1
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D 2
∆t = t1 – t2 = β.
1
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=,( *+,.( A$*/:'( 72( W+$3&'&( ,./&+A&+0-&/+:':,( .:( *:/&$:( A,( A27:/&( $W40':/( &H$'&"
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=,(':.H,+&$(W+$3&'0+U(D,A&+&.3$(-,72(D,./+&(':.H,-&$(W+$3&'0+(D&1&.&$(.&+&'&1$./2
=,( &)*&+,-&./$/0+:':,( .:G,( +2-5.&$( D&75/( 42( -240$+&( D&*'$4$+&$( A,H:+,,( D&
,./&+A&+&.32"(60/,.D($*$+$/:'U(4&.4:'(+$%&'0+(D&(':-,.2U(+$%&(7&(+&*+&%,./2(D,+&73,,'&
D&( *+0*$H$+&( $( :.D&'0+U( 4&( 47<,-W2( A$32( D&( +&*&+:'( j&/&+k"( N.( $7&4/( 7$%( /+&W:,&
D 2
42( 70.4,D&+2-( :.( ∆t' = – ∆!U( $D,72( ∆!8% = – β "( b$+,$3,$( D,A&+&.3&,( D&( /,-*
1
,./&+1&.,/2( V.( *+07&4:'( +0/,+,,( $+( A,J
8D 2
∆τ = ∆t – ∆t' = β,
1
7&&$(7&(&7<,1$'&$%2(7:(0(D&*'$4$+&($(4,4/&-:':,(D&(A+$.q&"(?&./+:(:.(,./&+1$'(D&
/,-*(&H$'(7:(0(*&+,0$D2(E($(1,W+$3,&,(':-,.0$4&U(D&*'$4$+&$(A,H:+,,(D&(,./&+A&+&.32
$+( A,( A04/( &H$'2( 7:( '23,-&$( :.&,( A+$.q&"( N.4&$-.2( 72( V.( ,./&+1$':'( D&( /,-*( ∆τ
/+&W:,&(7$(A,H:+$(D&(,./&+A&+&.32(42(4&(D&*'$4&%&(7:(;(D,.('23,-&$(:.&,(A+$.q&"(S,.
7$'7:':'( D&( +&H:'2( D&( /+&,( 4,-*'2U( 4&( 0W3,.&J
∆τ 8 D 2
=
9
x = β , unde β = .
E λ 1
E0.A0+-( 7$'7:'&'0+( /&0+&/,7&U( D&*'$4$+&$( A,H:+,,( D&( ,./&+A&+&.32( /+&W:,$( 42( A,&
&H$'2(7:(ZUF(D,.('23,-&$(:.&,(A+$.q&"(N.(+&$',/$/&(D&*'$4$+&$(.:($(A04/(0W4&+1$/2U
D&=,( *+&7,%,$( -24:+2/0+,'0+( &+$( D&( 0( 4:/,-&( D&( A+$.q2"
9)*&+,&.3&'&(&)/+&-(D&(*+&7,4&U(+&*&/$/&(D&(:.(-$+&(.:-2+(D&(0+,(=,(&A&7/:$/&
D&(;,7<&'40.(=,(;0+'&>U($:($+2/$/(72(A,H:+$(D&(,./&+A&+&.32(.:(4&(-0D,A,72(D$72
4&( +0/&=/&( $*$+$/:'U( 7&&$( 7&( $+$/2( 72( /,-*:'( V.( 7$+&( ':-,.$( *$+7:+H&( 7&'&( D0:2
W+$3&(.:(D&*,.D&(D&(*0%,3,$($*$+$/:':,"(N.4&$-.2(72(1,/&%$(':-,.,,(A$32(D&(4,4/&-:'
78( .:( D&*,.D&( D&( D,+&73,$( =,( D&( 4&.4:'( &,( D&( *+0*$H$+&( V.( $7&4/( 4,4/&-U( 7&&$( 7&
70./+$%,7&(70.7':%,$(H24,/2(*&(W$%$(+&'$3,&,(D&(70-*:.&+&(H$','&&$.2(D,.(-&7$.,7$
7'$4,72"

!
(S"(;"(B,1,.H4/0.&U(E2$%F#&!$+%",%D'G2!H%#%I'"G+#52?%",%J6%J6%F'12$)&"-<%P7+,W:&+n4U
o"( p"U( !gCd"

`
 f"[9,.4/&,.($($+2/$/(72(+&%:'/$/:'(&)*&+,&.3&,(/+&W:,&(,./&+*+&/$/(7$(0(D01$D2($
A$'4,/23,,( ,*0/&%&,( &/&+:':,J( .:( &),4/2( 0( -,=7$+&( $W40':/2( $( 70+*:+,'0+U( ,$+( 1,/&%$
':-,.,,( V.( 1,DU( V.( 0+,7&( P6QU( &4/&( 0( 70.4/$./2"( 6&%:'/$/:'( &)*&+,&.3&,( $( *:/:/( A,
&)*',7$/( A0'04,.D:G4&( 70.4&7,.3&'&( !+#-&,"+(/+')"+% D"rentz. f7&4/&( 70.7':%,,( $:
70.4/,/:,/(*+&-,4&'&(,.D,+&7/&U(D&0$+&7&(f"(9,.4/&,.U(V.(':7+$+&$(4$(D,.(!gZ^U(.:
$-,./&=/&(D&($7&$4/2(&)*&+,&.32(=,(4&(*$+&(72(.:(0(7:.0=/&$('$($7&$(D$/2U(D&7,(.:
,G$(A0'04,/(70.7':%,,'&(*&./+:(A0+-:'$+&$(7&'0+(D0:2(*+,.7,*,,($'&(!$"+'$'%+$)#!'3'!/.''
!
+$&!+K-&$ (TRR).
f7&$4/2( /&0+,&( &4/&( 1$'$W,'2( .:-$,( *&./+:( 4,4/&-&'&( D&( +&A&+,.32( ,.&+3,$'&( =,U
D$/0+,/2( $7&4/&,( ',-,/2+,U( &$( $+&( D&.:-,+&$( D&( -$,( 4:4U( @66"

!"8"# ?04/:(%/'('# /'0+,',# +'(%/,1,/23,,# +'4/+5.4'"

@+%.4A0+-2+,('# B0+'./&
@&0+,$(+&'$/,1,/23,,(+&4/+5.4&(O@66R($+&('$(W$%2(D0:2(*+,.7,*,,(O4$:(*04/:'$/&RU
&.:.3$/&( D&( f"( 9,.4/&,.( V.( $.:'( !gZ^( V.( ':7+$+&$( 4$( ,./,/:'$/2( jf4:*+$( &'&7/+0G
D,.$-,7,,( 70+*:+,'0+( V.( -,=7$+&k"
?+,-:'(*04/:'$/(&4/&(0(H&.&+$',%$+&($(*+,.7,*,:':,(+&'$/,1,/23,,(-&7$.,7&(7'$4,7&
=,( $A,+-2( 72J
1) Fenome-$)$% ,'>'1$% &$% *$&,/L"#+/% '*$-!'1% 4-% !"#!$% &'&!$($)$% *$% +$,$+'-./
'-$+.'#)$<% 4-% 1"-*'.''% '-'.'#)$% '*$-!'1$6
S&7,U( &7:$3,,'&( -$/&-$/,7&( 7$+&( &)*+,-2( '&H,'&( .$/:+,,( 4:./( ,.1$+,$./&
O.&47<,-W$/&RU(V.(+$*0+/(7:(/+$.4A0+-2+,'&(D&(700+D0.$/&(=,(D&(/,-*(D&('$(:.(SRI
la altul.
E&'( D&( $'( D0,'&$( *04/:'$/( $+&( :+-2/0+:'( &.:.3J
8R%9'!$>#%(#;'(/%*$%!+#-&('!$+$%#%'-!$+#1.'0-')"+%$&!$%$G#)/%10%3'!$>#%)0('-''
4-%3'*%L'%$&!$%'-3#+'#-!/%4-%+#5"+!%10%"+'1$%&'&!$(%*$%+$,$+'-./%'-$+.'#)%L'%10%"+'1$
*'+$1.'$% *$% (/&0+#+$6
Principi:'( ,.1$+,$.3&,( 1,/&%&,( -$),-&( D&( ,./&+$73,:.&( 70.4A,.3&=/&( 7$+$7/&+:'
D&( contiguitate, $D,72( *+0*$H$+&$( D,.( $*+0$*&( V.( $*+0$*&( $'( /+$.4-,/&+,,
,./&+$73,:.,'0+( A,%,7&U( &',-,.5.D( ,*0/&%$( ,./&+$73,:.,'0+( ,.4/$./$.&&( '$( D,4/$.32
V-*+&:.2( 7:( 70.A:%,,'&( *&( 7$+&( $7&$4/2( ,*0/&%2( '&( H&.&+&$%2"
?&(W$%$(7&'0+(D0:2(*+,.7,*,,(](*04/:'$/&($'&(/&0+,&,(+&'$/,1,/23,,(+&4/+5.4&(](4&(*0/
0W3,.&(+&'$3,,'&(D&(/+$.4A0+-$+&($'&(700+D0.$/&'0+(=,(/,-*:':,(*&./+:(/+&7&+&$(D&('$
:.( P6Q( '$( $'/:'U( $D,72( $=$G.:-,/&'&( !+#-&,"+(/+'% D"+$-!>!"
f'&H5.D(-,=7$+&$(*&(D,+&73,$($)&,(:;U(700+D0.$/&'&(?(=,(>U(*&+*&.D,7:'$+&(*&
$7&$4/2( D,+&73,&U( .:( 4&( -0D,A,72J
?% @% ?8( =,( >% @% >86

!(
O!`^C]!g8`R( ]( '$:+&$/( $'( ?+&-,:'( o0W&'( *&./+:( A,%,72U( !gZ8U( *&./+:( E$"+'#% $)$1!+"M
-'1/% #% &0C&!#-.$'"

g
 P,4/&-:'(D&(+&A&+,.32(78(4&(D&*'$4&$%2(7:(D,4/$.3$(9!U($4/A&'(V.75/U(V./+&(700+D0G
.$/&'&( ;( =,( ;8( &),4/2( 0( +&'$3,&( ',.,$+2( D&( A0+-$J
x' = α(x – Vt);
analog:
;( l( αsO;s( c( 9!8 R" O!"8R
! N./+:75/(7&'&(D0:2(4,4/&-&(4:./(&7<,1$'&./&U(α = αs"(6&'$3,,'&(!"8(/+&W:,&(42(A,&
1$'$W,'&(=,(*&./+:(*:.7/&'&(D,.(*'$.&'&(:8?8>8(=,(:?>(*&./+:(7$+&(;8(l(ZU(+&4*&7/,1
;( l( Z( =,( $/:.7,( +&%:'/2( ;% @% 9!( =,U( +&4*&7/,1% ;8% @% A% 9!8"
Pentru a-l determina pe αU(A0'04,-($'(D0,'&$(*04/:'$/($(':,(9,.4/&,.U(D:*2(7$+&
1,/&%$( ':-,.,,( 1( &4/&( $7&&$=,( V.( $-W&'&( 4,4/&-&"( ?:.7/:'( V.( 7$+&( $q:.H&( ':-,.$
'$(:.(-0-&./(D$/U(V.(7&'&(D0:2(4,4/&-&($+&(700+D0.$/&(;(l(1!(=,U(+&4*&7/,1(;8=@=1!8"
N.'07:,.D( V.( +&'$3,,'&( O!"8R( +&%:'/2J
ct' = α(ct – Vt); ct = α(ct' + Vt').
?+,.( V.-:'3,+&$( 7&'0+( D0:2( +&'$3,,( 4&( 0W3,.&J
18
c2t't = α2(ct – Vt)(ct' + Vt') ⇒ α2 = ,
18 ] 9 8
deci:
!
α( l( \ O!"CR
98
!] 8
1

98
termenul ′ ! ] este numit radicalul Lorentz.
18
Astfel,( 700+D0.$/&'&( V.( 7&'&( D0:2( 4,4/&-&( $:( A0+-$J
; ] 9! ;′ + 9! ′
x' = =, x = .
98 98
!] 8 !] 8
1 1
E0-W,.5.D( $7&4/&( D0:2( &7:$3,,U( 0W3,.&-( &7:$3,$( D&( /+$.4A0+-$+&( $( /,-*:':,"
+ 9!′
; ] 9!
98 98
!] 8 ; ] 9! + 9!′ ! ] 8
;= 1 = 1 ,
8 8
9 9
!] 8 !] 8
1 1

 98  98
sau: ; ! ] 8  = ; ] 9! + 9! ′ ! ] 8 , D&( :.D&( +&%:'/2J
 1  1

!Z
 9
! ′ + 8 ;′
!] ; 9
8
!′ = 1 ( =,( ! = 1 .
98 9 8
!] 8 !] 8
1 1
P,./&/,%5.D( D$/&'&( 0W3,.:/&U( *:/&-( 47+,&J !
 ;′ + 9! ′
; =
 !] 8
98
 1

 ? = ? ′
 > = >′ ;

 ! ′ + 8 ;′
9
! = 1

 98
!] 8
 1


 ;′ =
; ] 9!
 !] 8
98
 1

 ? ′ = ?
 >′ = > " O!"FR

( =,( +&7,*+07J  9
!] 8;
! ′ = 1

 98
!] 8
 1
A7&4/&( +&'$3,,( 4:./( 7:.047:/&( 4:W( D&.:-,+&$( D&( !+#-&,"+(/+')$% D"+$-!>( D,+&7/&( ]
7&'&( 7$+&( D$:( *&( ;<% ?<% ><% !( ]( =,( ,.1&+4&( ]( 7&'&( 7$+&( D$:( *&( ;8<% ?8<% >8<% !8"( N.( $7&4/&
+&'$3,,( 9( &4/&( 1,/&%$( D&( /+$.4*0+/( $( +&A&+&.3,$':':,( 78( A$32( D&( 7"( S&( 0W4&+1$/( 72

98
$/:.7,( 75.D( V/c << 1( V.( /+$.4A0+-2+,'&( B0+&ntz radicalul ≈ 1( =,( t ≈ t'
!]
18
=,(/+$.4A0+-2+,'&(+&4*&7/,1&(4&(+&D:7('$(/+$.4A0+-2+,'&(X$','&,(O!"!R"(f7&$4/$($+$/2
72( +&'$/,1,/$/&$( +&4/+5.42( 70.3,.&( +&'$/,1,/$/&$( 7'$4,72U( $7&$4/$( D,.( :+-2( A,,.D( :.
7$%( *$+/,7:'$+U( 70+&4*:.%2/0+( 1,/&%&'0+( D&( /+$.4*0+/( 9% -,7,( V.( 70-*$+$3,&( 7:
1,/&%$( ':-,.,,( V.( 1,DU( 1"( f7&4/( :'/,-( &.:.3( +&*+&%,./2( !$"+$(#% 1"+$&5"-*$-.$'6
@+$.4A0+-2+,'&( B0+&./%( A0+-&$%2( W$%$( @66U( A,,.D( 70.A,+-$/&( D&( .&.:-2+$/&
&)*&+,&.3&"( E0.4&7,.3&'&( $7&4/&,( /+$.4A0+-2+,( 4:./( D&04&W,/( D&( ,./&+&4$./&U( D:*2
7:-( 10-( 1&D&$( V.( 70./,.:$re.

!!
 !"C" 9('-'./'# D'# 7,.'-%/,72# =,# D,.%-,72# +'(%/,1,4/2
!"C"!" E,.'-%/,7%# +'(%/,1,4/2"# E0.4'7,.3'('# 7,.'-%/,7'
%('# /+%.4A0+-2+,(0+# B0+'./&
! F"# E0./+%73,%# +'(%/,1,4/2# %# (:.G,-,(0+
N.( -&7$.,7$( 7'$4,72U( $=$( 7:-( +&%:'/2( D,.( @XU( 4&( 70.4,D&+2( 72( D,-&.4,:.,'&
70+*:+,'0+(.:(4&(47<,-W2('$(/+&7&+&$(D&('$(:.(P6Q('$($'/:'(O,.1$+,$.3$(,./&+1$':':,
4*$3,$'R"
S&($4&-&.&$U(V.(-&7$.,7$(7'$4,72U(,./&+1$':'(/&-*0+$'(4&(70.4,D&+2(,.1$+,$./
'$( /+&7&+&$( D&( '$( :.( P6Q( '$( $'/:'"
N.( /&0+,$( +&'$/,1,/23,,( 7+&$/2( D&( 9,.4/&,.( 4*$3,:'( O=,( /,-*:'R( .:( -$,( *0/( A,( 70.G
4,D&+$/&( -2+,-,( $W40':/&"
Dimensiunile longi/:D,.$'&( $'&( 70+*:+,'0+( OV.( D,+&73,$( -,=72+,,R( 4&( -0D,A,72( *+,.
/+&7&+&$( D&( '$( :.( P6Q( '$( $'/:'"
N./+G$D&12+U( 42( 70.4,D&+2-( :.( 70+*( D&( A0+-2( ',.,$+2( O0( +,H'2U( D&( &)&-*':R
$A'$/2(*&($)$(:;(V.(+&*$:4(V.(7U($15.D(':.H,-&$()0 în acest sistem numit sistem
de referi.32 propriu (SRP):
l0 = x2(t) – x1(t),
$D,72( D,A&+&.3$( $W47,4&'0+( 7$*&/&'0+( 4$'&"
P2(-24:+2-(':.H,-&$(+,H'&,(=,(V.(4,4/&-:'(D&(+&A&+,.32(,.&+3,$'(]%78(](7$+&($+&U
A$32( D&( P6?( $'( +,H'&,U( 0( -,=7$+&( D&( /+$.4'$3,&( :.,A0+-2( D&G$( ':.H:'( $)&,( :;( 7:
1,/&%$(9"(h,&( ;81(=,(;82($W47,4&'&(+,H'&,(-24:+$/&('$($7&'$=,(-0-&./(!81 = t'2. Ace4/&
-0-&./&( 4:./( -24:+$/&( 7:( :.( 7&$4( Ωs( 40',D$+( 7:( 78"( E0.A0+-( +&'$3,,'0+( O!"FR( 4&
9
0W3,.&U( 7:( .0/$3,$( β = ,
1
;′ + 9! 8′ ;′ + 9!!′ ;8′ ] ;!′ )′
l0 = x 2 – x 1 = 8 ] ! = = .
! ] β8 ! ] β8 ! ] β8 ! ] β8
S&( $,7,( +&%:'/2J
l8 = l0 ! ] β 8 ,
$D,72( ':.H,-&$( (/&0+#!/% 4-% 78% este (#'% ('1/% decât lungimea proprie l0.
91,D&./U(+,H'$($(+2-$4(,D&./,72(7:(&$(V.42=i,
doar +$>0)!#!0)% (/&0+/+''% )0-G'(''% *',$+/% *$
)#% 0-% P6Q% )#% #)!0)6

"#$%! &%)%( E0./+$7/$+&$( ':.H,-,'0+"( 6,H'$
&4/&( 40',D$+2( 7:( 78"
!"#$%&'() "&*#%+,-(
h,&( 0( +,H'2( V.( +&*$:4( V./+G:.( P6Q]78U( $A'$/( V.
/+$.4'$3,&( :.,A0+-2( A$32( D&( :.( P6Q]7( OA,H"[!"FR"
P2( 4&( &)*+,-&( ':.H,-&$( +,H'&,( )( l( ;2(t) – x1O!R( V.
+&A&+&.3,$':'(7(V.(A:.73,&(D&(':.H,-&$()8(l()Z($(+,H'&,
V.( 4,4/&-:'( 78.

!8
 ; ] 9! 98
Din x8 = O+&'$3,,'&( !"FRU( +&%:'/2J( x = x8 ! ] + Vt.
98 18
!]
18

98 98
Deci: l = x82 ! ] 8 + Vt – x81 ! ] 8 – Vt, sau: !
1 1

98 98
l = (x82 – x81) ! ] 8 = l 0 ! ] 8 < l 0.
1 1
P&(0W3,.&()%l()8U($D,72($7&&$=,(70./+$73,&(7$(V.(7$%:'($.$',%$/(V.(*$+$H+$A:'(/&0+&/,7($./&+,0+"

S,-&.4,:.,'&(/+$.41&+4$'&($'&(70+*:+,'0+(.:(4&(-0D,A,72U(D&0$+&7&(?8%@%?(=,(>8=@=>"
Din acest motiv volumul corpul:,( 4&( 70./+$7/2( D0$+( V.( D,+&73,$( -,=72+,,"
N./+G$D&12+J
!0 = xyz;
98 9
! ! = x8y8z8 = x ! ] 8 yz = !0 ! ] β , unde β = .
8
1 1
Y(4A&+2(*+,1,/2(D,.(4,4/&-:'(D&(+&A&+,.32
A$32( D&( 7$+&( &$( 4&( -,=72( $*$+&( /:+/,/2( V.
D,+&73,$(-,=72+,,U(,$+(:.(7:W(4&(/+$.4A0+-2
V./+G:.( *$+$',*,*&D( OA,H"[!"^U[#U[CR"
;0D,A,72+,'&(7$+&($*$+(V.(A,H:+$[!"^[#<=C
.:(+&*+&%,./2(7&&$(7&(1&D&(:.(0W4&+1$/0+U
7,( A0+-$( +&$'2( $( 0W,&7/&'0+"( o:-$,
'07$',%$+&$( /:/:+0+( *:.7/&'0+( 0W,&7/:':, "#$%! &%*%! PA&+$( 4&( /:+/&=/&( ,$+( 7:W:'( D&1,.&
-24:+$/U(V.($7&'$=,(/,-*U(*0$/&(D$(,-$H,.&$ :.( *$+$'&',*,*&D( V.( 4,4/&-:'( 78"
4$( $D&12+$/2"( E5.D( 1&D&-( :.( 0W,&7/( V.( -,=7$+&( +$*,D2U( .0,( V.+&H,4/+2-( D&( A$*/
7:$./&'&(D&(':-,.2(&-,4&(D&(0W,&7/(75.D(&'&(404&47(4,-:'/$.(*&(+&/,.2"(N.4&$-.2
72( A0/0.,,( .:( $:( A04/( &-,=,( 4,-:'/$.( D&( /0$/&( *:.7/&'&( 70+*:':,( =,( $4/A&'( 07<,:'
0W3,.&( 0( ,-$H,.&( D&A0+-$/2( $( 70+*:':,"( f7&4/$( .:G=,( 47<,-W2( A0+-$( 1,%,W,'2U
$*$+&( D0$+( +0/,/.
N.(7$%:'(V.(7$+&(70+*:'(4G$+(-,=7$(7:(9=@=1<(D,-&.4,:.&$(4$('0.H,/:D,.$'2(4G$+
+&D:7&( '$( %&+0( =,( 70+*:'( $+( D&H&.&+$( V./+G:.( *'$.( /+$.41&+4$'( A$32( D&( :;"
94/&(10+W$($,7,(D&($=$G.:-,/$(N1"-!+#1.'$%#%)0-G'(')"+O6%E0.7&*3,$(4*$3,:':,
$W40':/(+&*+&%&./$/(*+,.(&H$',/$/&$()8%@%l0(/+&W:,&(V.'07:,/2(V.(/&0+,$(+&'$/,1,4/2(7:
98
70.7&*3,$( 4*$3,:':,( +&'$/,1( +&*+&%&./$/2( *+,.( +&'$3,$( )8% @% l0 ! ] .
18
Nici o dimensiune sau *'&!#-./%-0%5"#!$%,'%10-"&10!/%4-%(/+'($%#C&")0!/<%1'
-0(#'% 4-% (/+'($% +$)#!'3/6
98
Când V → 0, !] → 1( =,( 4&( +&H24&=/&( +&%:'/$/:'( 7'$4,7( )8=@=)0. Pentru
18
V > c, radicalul devine im$H,.$+( =,( .03,:.&$( D&( ':.H,-&( V=,( *,&+D&( 4&.4:'"
!C
 $"# H,(%/%+'%# +'(%/,1,4/2# %# D:+%/'(0+# I%# /,-*:(:,J
E0.4,D&+2-( V./+G:.( *:.7/( D&( *&( 4&-,$)$( $W47,42( :;( $( ':,( 7( :.( &1&.,-&./
/&-*0+$+( 7$+&( D:+&$%2( :.( /,-*J
τ0 = t2(x) – t1(x)"
Acest τ0( O7$+&( 4&( -$,( .:-&=/&( /,-*( *+0*+,:R( *0$/&( A,( /,-*:'( D&( 1,$32( $'( :.&,
! *$+/,7:'&(&'&-&./$+&U(/,-*:'(:.&,(7,07.,+,U(D0:2(,.D,7$3,,(4:77&4,1&($'&(:.:,(7&$4U
/,-*:'( D&( V.q:-2/23,+&( $'( :.:,( &'&-&./( +$D,0$7/,1( &/7"
S:+$/$( $7&':,$=,( &1&.,-&./( -24:+$/2( V.(78<( P6Q( $A'$/( V.( -,=7$+&( D&( /+$.4'$3,&
A$32(D&%7<(-0W,'(1$(A,(D$/2(D&(D,A&+&.3$(-0-&./&'0+(+&spective în S' luate pentru
#1$$#L'% #C&1'&/% ;H
τ' = t'2(x) – t'1(x).
9; 9; 9;
τZ
!] !8 ] !! ] 8
Din ! ′ = 1 8 [+&%:'/2J[τ′ = 8
1 ] 1 = ! 8 ] !! = > τ0.
98 98 98 98 98
!] 8 !] !] 8 !] 8 !] 8
1 18 1 1 1
S:+$/$(:.:,(&1&.,-&./(V./+G:.(*:.7/($A'$/(V.(-,=7$+&(D&(/+$.4'$3,&(A$32(D&(:.
P6Q( A,)( &4/&( -$,( -$+&( D&75/( D:+$/$( $7&':,$=,( *+07&4( -24:+$/2( V.( 4,4/&-:'( D&
+&A&+,.32( A$32( D&( 7$+&( $7&'( *:.7/( &4/&( V.( +&*$:4U( $D,72( τ' > τ0.
N.(-0D(+&1&+4,W,'J(D:+$/$(:.:,(&1&.,-&./(,.D,7$/2(D&(:.(7&$40+.,7(&4/&(-,.,-2
V.( 4,4/&-:'( D&( +&A&+,.32( *+0*+,:U( A$32( D&( 7$+&( 7&$4:'( &4/&( V.( +&*$:4U( τ0 < τ.
./%01,20&) 345/&"0'&-6%) 7#8809
6&$',/$/&$(0W,&7/,12U(D01&D,/2(&)*&+,-&./$'U($(D&*&.D&.3&,(,./&+1$':':,(D&(/,-*
D&( 4,4/&-:'( D&( +&A&+,.32U( 7$( =,( -:'/&( $'/&( &A&7/&( +&'$/,1,4/&( .:( 4&( &)*',72( V.( $70+D
7:( +&*+&%&./2+,'&( .0$4/+&( ,./:,/,1&( W$%$/&( *&( 0W4&+1$3,$( 70/,D,$.2( $( A&.0-&.&'0+
7$+&( 4&( *&/+&7( V.( +&H,-( .&+&'$/,1,4/( O9[tt[1R"( I.( &)&-*':( &4/&( =,( 7$%:'( *+&%&.3&,
'$( .,1&':'( 40':':,( O4$:( $'( -2+,,R( $( *$+/,7:'&'0+( &'&-&./$+&U( -,:0.,,U( 7$+&( $*$+( V.
$/-04A&+$(V.$'/2('$($'/,/:D,.,(D&($*+0),-$/,1(!Z(M-(OD$/0+,/2(+$%&'0+(704-,7&(7$+&
*2/+:.D( V.( $/-04A&+$( ?2-5./:':,R( =,( 7$+&( $:( :.( !'(5% *$% 3'#./% 5+"5+'0% A% $D,72
/,-*:'(-24:+$/(V.(4,4/&-:'(D&(+&A&+,.32(40',D$+('&H$/(D&(*$+/,7:'2(](&)/+&-(D&(47:+/U
τ0 = 2,2×10–6 4U(D:*2(7$+&(4&(D&%,./&H+&$%2"(N.($7&4/(timp propriu, cu viteza pe care
o au, V = 2,994 · 108 m/sU( -,:0.,,U( D:*2( :.( 7$'7:'( .&+&'$/,1,4/U( $+( *:/&$( *$+7:+H&
0( D,4/$.32( D&( .:-$,( Vτ0[l[a^`Ud[-U( A2+2( $( *:/&$( $q:.H&( '$( .,1&':'( 40':':,"( ?&./+:
7$'7:':'(+&'$/,1,4/($'(D,4/$.3&,(/+&W:,&(42(4&(,$(V.(70.4,D&+$3,&(V.42(,./&+1$':'(D&(/,-*
τ(D,./+&($*$+,3,$(=,(D,4*$+,3,$(-,:0.:':,U(-24:+$/(A$32(D&(?2-5./U(D&0$+&7&(0W4&+1$3,$
4&( A$7&( V.( +$*0+/( 7:( ?2-5./:'"( f7&4/( /,-*( &4/&( ]( D:*2( 7:-( =/,-U( -$,( -$+&( D&75/
/,-*:'( D&( 1,$32( *+0*+,:( τ0U( $D,72J
τZ 8U8 ⋅ !Z ] a
τ= = = 43,14·10–6 s.
 8UggF 
8 8
9
!] !]  
18  8Uggdg 
!F
 În timpul τ( -,:0.:'( *$+7:+H&( A$32( D&( ?2-5./( 0( D,4/$.32( P( l( 1τ( l( !8UgCC[M-U
*:/5.D( D&7,( 42( A,&( +&*&+$/( 7<,$+( =,( '$( .,1&':'( -2+,,"
S$72( 9( tt( 1( 4&( 0W3,.&( τ = τ0U( 7$( V.( -&7$.,7$( 7'$4,72"
Pentru V → c dimensiunile longi/:D,.$'&( $'&( 70+*:+,'0+( /,.D( 72/+&( %&+0U( ,$+
,./&+1$':'( /&-*0+$'( /,.D&( 72/+&( ,.A,.,/"
Pentru V = c corpul se reduce la un plan /+$.41&+4$'( *&( D,+&73,$( -,=72+,,( ,$+
!
D:+$/$( :.:,( &1&.,-&./( D&1,.&( '-,'-'!/Q% 4&7:.D$( D:+&$%2% "% eternitate!
Pentru V > c /+$.4A0+-2+,'&(B0+&./% devin i-$H,.$+&(=,(V=,(*,&+D(4&.4:'(A,%,7U
$4/A&'(72(/+&W:,&(42($D-,/&-(72(1,/&%$(':-,.,,(V.(1,D(.:(*0$/&(A,($/,.42(D&(70+*:+,"
f=$D$+U(0+,7&(&1&.,-&./(4&(D&4A2=0$+2(-$,('&./(*&./+:(:.(0W4&+1$/0+(V.(-,=7$+&
A$32(D&('07:'(:.D&(4G$(*+0D:4(&1&.,-&./:'(OA&.0-&.:'RU(D&75/(*&./+:(:.(0W4&+1$/0+
$A'$/( V.( +&*$:4( A$32( D&( $7&'( '07"
Simultaneitatea $(D0:2(&1&.,-&./&(&4/&(+&'$/,12U($7&$4/$(A,,.D(D&*&.D&./2(D&
4,4/&-:'( D&( +&A&+,.32( A$32( D&( 7$+&( D&47+,&-( -,=7$+&$"
S0:2( &1&.,-&./&( 4,-:'/$.&( V.( 7% .:( 4:./( 4,-:'/$.&( V.( 78% =,( ,.1&+4"( h,&( D0:2
&1&.,-&./&(4,-:'/$.&(V.(7(V.(*:.7/&'&(;1(=,(;2('$(-0-&./:'%!"(N.(4,4/&-:'(-0W,'
78U( V.( 70.A0+-,/$/&( 7:( +&'$3,,'&( O!"FRU( -24:+5.D( 7:( 7&$40+.,7:'( Ω' solidar cu S',
vom avea timpii:
9;! 9;
!] 8 ! ] 88
t81(x1) = 1 , t8 (x ) =
2 2
1 .
8
9 98
!] 8 !] 8
1 1
P&(0W4&+12(72U(*+,1,/&(D,.(+&A&+&.3,$':'(78U(&1&.,-&./&'&(.:(-$,($*$+(4imultane,
decât în cazul particular când x1 = x2U($D,72(V.(7$%:'(75.D(7&'&(D0:2(&1&.,-&./&
70,.7,D"
N.( /&0+,$( +&'$/,1,/23,,( &),4/2( =,( 0( -:'3,-&( *+,1,'&H,$/2( D&( -2+,-,( 7$+&( $:
*+0*+,&/$/&$(D&($(+2-5.&(invariante '$(/+&7&+&$(D&('$(:.(+&A&+&.3,$'('$($'/:'"(60':'
*+,.7,*$'( $'( /&0+,&,( +&'$/,1,/23,,( 70.4/2( /07-$,( V.( 4/$W,',+&$( $7&4/0+( '-3#+'#-.'
+$)#!'3'L!'6(S,./+&($7&=/,$(-&.3,0.2-J(70.4/$./&'&(:.,1&+4$'&U(-2+,-,'&(-24:+$/&
A$32( D&( +&A&+&.3,$':'( *+0*+,:U( 4$+7,.$( &'&7/+,72( &/7"

!"C"8" E0-*:.'+'%#1,/'&'(0+
P2( &)*+,-2-( '&H,'&( +&'$/,1,4/&( D&( /+$.4A0+-$+&( $( 1,/&%&'0+( 70+*:+,'0+( 4$:
*$+/,7:'&'0+(D,./+G:.(4,4/&-(D&(+&A&+,.32(,.&+3,$'(V.($'/(4,4/&-(D&(+&A&+,.32(,.&+3,$'"
?0+.,-( D&( '$( /+$.4A0+-2+,'&( B0+&./%( D&D:4&( mai înainte (+&'$3,,'& 1.4):
9;′
!′ +
;′ + 9! ′ 18
x = ; y = y'; z = z'; t = .
98 98
!] 8 !] 8
1 1

!^
 S,.( +&'$3,,'&( D&( -$,( 4:4U( +&%:'/2J
9D;′
D! ′ +
D;′ + 9D! ′ 18
dx = ; dy = dy'; dz = dz'; dt = .
98 98
!] 8 !] 8
! 1 1
N-*2+3,-( *+,-&'&( /+&,( &7:$3,,( '$( :'/,-$J

98 98
D? ′ ! ] ′
D; D;′ + 9D! ′ D?
D> ! ]
= ; = 1 8 ; D> 18 ,
=
D! D! ′ + 9D;′ D! 9D;′ 9D;′
8
D! ′ + 8 D! D! ′ + 8
1 1 1
sau:

dx′ D? ′ 98 D> ′ 98
dx + V !] 8 !] 8
′ D? D! ′ D> D! ′ 1 .
= dt ; = ; =
1
dt V dx′ D! 9 D;′ 9 D;′
1+ 2 !+ 8 D! !+ 8
c dt ′ 1 D! ′ 1 D! ′
P&(0W3,.($4/A&'(A0+-:'&'&(D&(70-*:.&+&($(1,/&%&'0+(V.(/&0+,$(+&'$/,1,/23,,(+&4/+5.4&J

98 98
!′? ! ] !′> ! ]
!′; + 9 18 18
!x = ; !y = ; !z = .
! + 8 !′; !+ !′; !+ !′;
9 9 9
1 18 18
h0+-:'&'&( ,.1&+4&( 4&( 0W3,.( D,.( &7:$3,,'&( D&( -$,( 4:4( 47<,-W5.D( $77&./&'&( =,
47<,-W5.D( *&( 9 în –V; deci:

98 98
!? ! ] 8 ! > ! ]
!; ] 9 1 18 (1.5)
!'x = ; !'y = ; !'z = .
9 9 9
! ] 8 !; ! ] 8 !; ! ] ! ;
1 1 18
h$32( D&( A0+-:'&'&( 7'$4,7&( D&( 70-*:.&+&( D&D:4&( D,.( @XU( $D,72J
!x = !'x + V; !y = !'y; !z = !'z,
 9!′ 
4&( 0W4&+12( 72( $7:-( $*$+&( .:-,/0+:'( ! + 8 ;  la !x, !y( =,( !z( =,U( +&4*&7/,1
 1 
98
+$D,7$':'( B0+&./%( ! ] ( '$( .:-2+2/0+:'( ':,( !y( =,( $'( ':,( !z.
18
98
S$72( 9( tt( 1( $/:.7,( 8 ( << 1( 4&( .&H',q&$%2( =,( D,.( /+$.4A0+-2+,'&( B0+&./%U( 4&
1
0W3,.( /+$.4A0+-2+,'&( X$','&,( D,.( A,%,7$( 7'$4,72"
!a
 9)*+&4,,'&( +&'$/,1,4/&( D&( 70-*:.&+&( $( 1,/&%&'0+( +&70.A,+-2( *+,.7,*,:'( D:*2
7$+&(1,/&%$(':-,.,,(V.(1,DU(c, &4/&(1,/&%2(-$),-2(=,(.:(*0$/&(A,($/,.42(D&(*$+/,7:'&
=,(70+*:+,(O7:($/5/(-$,(-:'/(.:(*0$/&(A,(D&*2=,/2R"(N./+G$D&12+U(D$72(9%@%1U($/:.7,J
!′; + 1 !; ] 1 ! ]1
!x = = c, sau invers: !'x = = ; c = – c.
1!′;
!+ 8
1! ; 1 ] !;
1
!] 8
1
!
1 +9 1 +9
Alt exemplu: !'x = c, V = V, !x = = c = c.
91 1 + 9
!+ 8
1
S:*2( A0+-:'&'&( 7'$4,7&( $'&( ':,( X$','&,( $+( /+&W:,( 42( 4&( 0W3,.2( V.( :'/,-:'( 7$%J
!x = c + V > c.
S$72(=,(9(l(1U(!x(l(1(c(1(l(81U(V.(70./+$D,73,&(7:(&)*&+,&.3&'&(':,(;,7<&'40.
=,( ;0+'&>"

!"#$%&'() "&*#%+,-(
Y( .$12( 704-,72U( V.D&*2+/5.D:G4&( D&( ?2-5./( 7:( 1,/&%$( D&( ZUg1<( '$.4&$%2( :.( 1&<,7:'
704-,7( *&( $7&&$=,( D,+&73,&( 7:( -,=7$+&$( &,"( b,/&%$( 1&<,7:':':,( &4/&( ZUg1( A$32( D&( .$12
(c = 2,99792·108 m/s)"( E$+&( &4/&( 1,/&%$( 1&<,7:':':,( 704-,7( V.( +$*0+/( 7:( ?2-5./:'u
h,&( 7( 4,4/&-:'( D&( +&A&+,.32( ,.&+3,$'( '&H$/( D&( ?2-5./( =,( 78(
( +&A&+&.3,$':'( '&H$/( D&( .$12"
N.( $7&4/( 7$%( '&H&$( D&( 70-*:.&+&( +&'$/,1,4/2( $( 1,/&%&'0+( 1$ $1&$( A0+-$J
!′ + 9
! = ,
9!′
!+ 8
1
:.D&( !( &4/&( 1,/&%$( 1&<,7:':':,( A$32( D&( ?2-5./U( !8( ]( 1,/&%$( 1&<,7:':':,( A$32( D&( .$12U( ,$+
9( ]( 1,/&%$( .$1&,( +&'$/,12( '$( ?2-5./"
ZUg1 + ZUg1
?+,.( 7$'7:'( .:-&+,7( 4&( 0W3,.&J( ! = = 0,994c = 297993 km/s.
OZUg1ROZUg1R
!+ 8
1
OS,.(A0+-:'$(D&(70-*:.&+&(.&+&'$/,1,4/2($(1,/&%&'0+(O/+$.4A0+-2+,'&(X$','&,R(+&%:'/2(0
1,/&%2( 4:*&+':-,.,72U( +&'$/,12( '$( ?2-5./U( $( 1&<,7:':,( 704-,7U( D&( !U`1"( Q-*04,W,'vR"

!"C"C"# ?+,.7,*,:(# A:.D%-'./%(# %(# D,.%-,7,,

@&0+,$( +&'$/,1,/23,,( &,.4/&,.,&.&( ,-*',72U( *+,.( .0:$( 70.7&*3,&( D&4*+&( 4*$3,:( =,
/,-*U( 0( 47<,-W$+&( A:.D$-&./$'2( =,( V.( D,.$-,72"
În cazul mecanicii newtoniene, legea dinamicii:
!
=R,
*! !
m# = (
!
*!
$+&($7&&$=,(A0+-2(V.(0+,7&(4,4/&-(,.&+3,$'"(S,.($7&$4/2(+&'$3,&(+&%:'/2(=,(A$*/:'(72
D$72(4&($73,0.&$%2(7:(0(A0+32(70.4/$./2($4:*+$(:.:,(70+*(/,-*(V.D&':.H$/U(1,/&%$

!d
 70+*:':,( *0$/&( 7+&=/&( 0+,75/( D&( -:'/"
S$+U(V.(*04/:'$/:'(D0,($'(':,(9,.4/&,.(4&($A,+-2(72(1,/&%$(',-,/2($(70+*:+,'0+(4$:
$( 75-*:+,'0+( &'&7/+0-$H.&/,7&U( &4/&( 1,/&%$( D&( *+0*$H$+&( $( ':-,.,,( V.( 1,DU( $D,72
c = 299792458 m/s ≈(Cw!Z`(-K4"(f7&$4/$(V.4&$-.2(72('&H&$(D,.$-,7,,(.&L/0.,&.&
.:( -$,( &4/&( 1$'$W,'2( *&./+:( 1,/&%&( -$+,( $'&( 70+*:+,'0+"
! 9,.4/&,.($($+2/$/(72('$(W$%$(D,.$-,7,,(+&'$/,1,4/&(/+&W:,&(*:42('&H&$(A:.D$-&.G
/$'2( $( -&7$.,7,,( &.:.3$/2( D&( o&L/0.U( 47+,42( 4:W( A0+-$J
!
= R.
*5 !
*!
E&&$( 7&( 4&( -0D,A,72( *+,.( 47+,&+&$( $7&4/&,( +&'$3,,( &4/&( -$4$"
N.(+&'$3,$(D&(D&A,.,3,&($(,-*:'4:':,(:.:,(70+*U( 5 (= m ! U(A$7/0+:'(-$42U((U(.:
! !
-$,( &4/&( :.( A$7/0+( D&( *+0*0+3,0.$',/$/&( 70.4/$./( V./+&( ,-*:'4( =,( 1,/&%2\( -$4$
D&1,.&( $7:-( :.( A$7/0+( 7$+&( D&*,.D&( D&( 1,/&%$( 70+*:':,"
P2(4/$W,',-(+&'$3,$(D&(D&*&.D&.32($(-$4&,(,.&+/&($(70+*:+,'0+(V.(+$*0+/(7:(1,/&%$
D&(D&*'$4$+&($($7&4/0+$U(A0'04,.D(A0+-:'&'&(+&'$/,1,4/&(D&(70-*:.&+&($(1,/&%&'0+(=,
'&H&$( 70.4&+12+,,( ,-*:'4:':,"
E0.4,D&+2-(0(7,07.,+&(,.&'$4/,72($(D0:2
70+*:+,( 7$( V.( A,H:+$( !"a"( ;$4$( 70+*:+,'0+
&4/&( $7&&$=,( 75.D( 70+*:+,'&( 4&( $A'2( V.
+&*$:4(A$32(D&(+&A&+&.3,$':'(7"( N.( +&A&+&.G
3,$':'(78(70+*:+,'&(4&(D&*'$4&$%2U(:.:'(4*+&
7&'2'$'/( 7:( 1,/&%&'&( !8U( ,$+( D:*2( 7,07.,+&
+2-5.(V.(+&*$:4(A$32(D&(78"(P,4/&-:'(78(4&
D&*'$4&$%2( 7:( 1,/&%$( !( l( !8( A$32( D&( 7"
S:*2( 7,07.,+&( 7&'&( D0:2( 70+*:+,( 4&( 10+
D&*'$4$U(&1,D&./U(7:(1,/&%$(!8(A$32(D&(7"(N.
"#$%!&%+%!E,07.,+&$(,.&'$4/,72($(D0:2(70+*:+,
*+07&4:'( 7,07.,+,,( -$4$( (( l( (1 + m2( 4&
V.( +$*0+/( 7:( 4,4/&-&'&( D&( +&A&+,.32( 7( =,( 78" 70.4&+12"
?&./+:( 0W4&+1$/0+:'( D,.( 7( '&H&$( 70.G
4&+12+,,( ,-*:'4:':,( 4&( 47+,&( 4:W( A0+-$J
m1!1 + m2!2 = (m1 + m2)!',
unde, conform formulelor de compunere a vitezelor (1.5), avem:
!′ + ! ′ 8!′ ! ′ ] !′
!! = = ( =,( ! 8 = = Z,
! + !′ K 1
8 8
! + !′ K 1
8 8
! + !′ 8 K 1 8
8!′  
= O(! + (8 R!′, de unde: (!  ] ! = (8 .
8
deci: (!
! + !′ K 1
8 8
 ! + !′ K 1
8 8

N.( +&A&+&.3,$':'( $A'$/( V.( +&*$:4U( -$4$( 7&'0+( D0:2( 70+*:+,( &4/&( $7&&$=,U( (0U( $=$
7:-(4G$(-$,(-&.3,0.$/\(70+*:'(7:(-$4$((2U($A'5.D:G4&(V.(+&*$:4(A$32(D&(7U(D&0$+&7&
1,/&%$( 4$( A$32( D&( $7&4/( 4,4/&-( &4/&( !2( l( ZU( D,.( +&'$3,$( D&( -$,( 4:4U( $1&-J
! ] !′ 8 K 1 8 .
m0 = m 1
! + !′ 8 K 1 8
!`
 Folosind egalitatea:
F !′ 8  ! ] !′ 8 K 1 8 
8
!8
 
!
! ] !8 = ! ] 8 ⋅ =  ! + !′ 8 K 1 8  ,
1 1 O! + !′ 8 K 1 8 R 8  
4&( 0W3,.&J

(! ! ] !!8 K 1 8 = (Z , sau: (! =
(Z
.
!
! ] !!8 K 1 8
f=$D$+U( V.( 7$%:'( V.( 7$+&( :.( 70+*( 7:( -$4$( D&
+&*$:4( (0( 4&( D&*'$4&$%2( 7:( 1,/&%$( !U( -$4$( 4$( &4/&
A:.73,&( D&( 1,/&%2U( D$/2( D&( +&'$3,a:
(=
(Z .
8
!
!] 8
1
Când raportul → 0, m → m0U($D,72U(V.($*+0G
!
1
),-$3,$( .&L/0.,$.2U( -$4$( (( *0$/&( A,( 70.A:.D$/2
7:(70.4/$./$((0U(.:-,/2(-$4$(D&(+&*$:4($(70+*:':,
+&4*&7/,1"( S&*&.D&.3$( (( l( ,O!R( &4/&( ,':4/+$/2( V. "#$%! &%,%( S&*&.D&.3$( (( l( ,O!R"
A,H:+$( !"d"

!"C"K" 6'(%3,%#-%42L'.'+G,'
! D O(!! R
S$72( *+,.7,*,:'( A:.D$-&./$'( $'( -&7$.,7,,( 47+,4( 4:W( A0+-$( R = ( &4/&
D!
1$'$W,'(V.(@66U($/:.7,(4:./(1$'$W,'&(=,(/&0+&-&'&(7$+&(D&7:+H(D,.(&'U(*+,./+&(7$+&
=,( /&0+&-$( 1$+,$3,&,( &.&+H,&,( 7,.&/,7&"
Deci:
dEc = dL, dEc = RD+ , D+ = !D! .
! ! ! !
În continuare:
!
DO(!R !
dEc = !D! = !DO(!R ; dEc = m !! D!! + !2dm = m!d! + !2dm.
! !
D!
E0.4,D&+5.D( m = m(!) avem:

 8! 
] (Z  ] 8 
D( D  (Z 
 d! =  1 
dm = d! = d!;
D!  ! ] ! 8 K 1 8  8
 8

 
D!
8 ! ] 8 ! ] 8 
! !
1  1 

(!D!
dm = ,
18 ] !8
de unde: m!d! = (c2 – !2)dm.
!g
 Deci: dEc = (c2 – !2)dm + !2dm, sau dEc = c2dm.
Q./&H+2-(D&('$((0 la m(!) (de la masa de repaus când Ec = 0, !0(l(ZU('$(-$4$
0
D&( -,=7$+&RJ
(

Ec = c 2
∫ D( ; E c
= mc2 – m0c2,
! (Z

sau Ec = E – E0, unde E = mc (+&*+&%,./2(&.&+H,$(/0/$'2(+&'$/,1,4/2($407,$/2(-$4&,

2

D&(-,=7$+&U(,$+(S0 = m0c2(&4/&(&.&+H,$(/0/$'2(+&'$/,1,4/2($407,$/2(-$4&,(D&(+&*$:4"
B$( 0( 7+&=/&+&( ,.A,.,/( -,72( $( -$4&,U( V,( 70+&4*:.D&( 0( &.&+H,&( 7,.&/,72( A,.,/2
D$/0+,/2( A$7/0+:':,( c2 = 9·1016 m2/s2.
 
f'/2( A0+-2J( Ec = (m – m0)c2 =  ] ! m0c2.
!
 8 8 
 !]! K 1 
Folosind dezvoltarea în serie Taylor:
! !
f(x) = f(0) + fx'(0) x + f ''(0) x2 + ...,
!v 8v x
!
$( A:.73,&,( ( D:*2( *:/&+,'&( +$*0+/:':,( x = !2/c2( =,( +&3,.5.D( *+,-,,( /&+-&.,J
!] ;
!
! ]
f(x) = = O! ] ;R 8
; f(0) = 1;
!] ;

 !
C C
, ′O ;R =  ]  O! ] ;R 8 O] !R = O! ] ;R 8 , , ′OZR = ;
] ! ] !
 8 8 8

! C
^ ^
O! ] ;R 8 , , ′′OZR = ,
C
, ′′O ;R =
]
 ]  O! ] ;R 8 O] !R =
C ]

8 8 F F
4&( 0W3,.&J
 ! !8 C !F  
Ec = ! + ⋅ 8 + ⋅ F + """ ] ! m0c2.
 8 1 ` 1  

(Z! 8
S$72( +&3,.&-( D0$+( :.( /&+-&.( 0W3,.&-J( Ec ≈ ( $D,72( &)*+&4,$( 7'$4,72( $
8
&.&+H,&,( 7,.&/,7&"
9)*+&4,$( &.&+H,&,( /0/$'&( $( *$+/,7:'&,( ',W&+&J
(Z 1 8
E = mc2 = ,
!8
!] 8
1

8Z
&4/&( 7&'&W+$( A0+-:'2( $( ':,( 9,.4/&,.( *&( W$%$( 72+&,$( 4G$( D&%10'/$/( V./+&$H$( A,%,72
.:7'&$+2( D&( D:*2( $.ul 1905.
94/&( ,./&+&4$./( D&( 4&-.$'$/( 72( A0+-:'$( S% @% (12( $( A04/( D&D:42( D&( A,%,7,$.:'
$:4/+,$7( h+,&D+,7<( e$4&.0<+'( V.( $.:'( !gZF( D,.( 70.4,D&+$3,,( .&+&'$/,1,4/&"
S&=,( &)*+&4,$(S% @% (12( &4/&( .:-,/2( D&( 0W,7&,( &.&+H,$( /0/$'2U( /+&W:,&( 4:W',.,$/
72( V.( &$( .:( &4/&( ,.7':42( &.&+H,$( *0/&.3,$'2( $( *$+/,7:'&,( 4,/:$/2( V./+G:.( 75-* !
&)/&+,0+"
h0+-:'$( ':,( 9,.4/&,.( +&A'&7/2( 0( '&H2/:+2( D,+&7/2U( *$% 5+"5"+.'"-#)'!#!$% V./+&
&.&+H,&( =,( -$42"
9)*&+,&.3&(D&(0*/,72(A0/0.,72(=,(D&(A,%,72(.:7'&$+2($:($+2/$/(72(+&'$3,$(S(l((12
este 0-'3$+&#)/<%$D,72(&4/&%3#)#C')/%5$-!+0%"+'1$%,"+(/%*$%$-$+G'$6%:+'1$%3#+'#.'$
*$% $-$+G'$% '(5)'1/% "% 3#+'#.'$% 1"+$&50->/!"#+$% #% (#&$'% 1"+50)0'% T∆S( l( c2∆(U6
B&H&$( 70.4&+12+,,( &.&+H,&,( &4/&( =,( '&H&$( 70.4&+12+,,( -$4&,"
x,( D,.( A0+-:'$( ':,( 9,.4/&,.( S( l( (c2( +&%:'/2( 72( .:( 4&( *0$/&( $/,.H&( 1,/&%$
':-,.,,J(!(l(1U(((→ ∞, E → ∞ ceea ce nu se poate admite din punct de vedere
fizic.
h0+-:'$( ':,( 9,.4/&,.( &1,D&.3,$%2( ,-&.4$( &.&+H,&( 70.3,.:/2( V.( -$/&+,$( $A'$/2
4:W( A0+-2( D&( 4:W4/$.32"
f4/A&'U( &.&+H,$( :.:,( M,'0H+$-( D&( 4:W4/$.32( &4/&J
E0 = 9·1016 J,
$D,72(/0/:.$(7:(&.&+H,$(.&7&4$+2(*&./+:($(+,D,7$(8`Ud(-,',$+D&(D&(/0.&(D&(4:W4/$.32
D&( '$( 40'( *5.2( '$( 15+A:'( /:+.:':,( 9,AA&'( O'$( $*+0),-$/,1 320 m).
I.,,(A,'0%0A,(4$:(7<,$+(A,%,7,&.,(,./&+*+&/&$%2(H+&=,/(A0+-:'$(S%@%(12(70.4,D&+5.D
72(&$(&)*+,-2(/+$.4A0+-$+&$(-$/&+,&,(V.(&.&+H,&"(N./+:75/(&.&+H,$(&4/&(0(*+0*+,&/$/&
$( -$/&+,&,( &4/&( H+&=,/( 42( 4&( $A,+-&( 72( -$/&+,$( 4&( /+$.4A0+-2( V./+G0( *+0*+,&/$/&( $
4$( 7$+&( &4/&( &.&+H,$"
h0+-:'$(':,(9,.4/&,.(&)*+,-2(:.(*+07&4(D&(/+$.4A0+-$+&U(D$+(.:($(-$/&+,&,(V.
&.&+H,&U(7,($(-$/&+,&,(D,./+G0(A0+-2(V.($'/$U(D,./+G0(A0+-2(5"-*$+#)/(O4:W4/$.3$R
V./+G0( A0+-2( +#*'#-!/ (câmpul) în ambele sensuri.
9.&+H,$( :+,$=2( 7$+&( $*$+&( V.( +&$73,,'&( .:7'&$+&( O,.7':4,1( V.( W0-W&'&( .:7'&$+&
4$:( /&+-0.:7'&$+&R( 4&( D$/0+&$%2( :.&,( -,7=0+2+,( $( -$4&,( *0.D&+$'&U( $D,72( *&
4&$-$( *$,$1!0)0'% *$% (#&/<% A&.0-&.( 7$+&( 1$( A,( 4/:D,$/( V.( 7$D+:'( /&-&,( D&4*+&
+&$73,,( .:7'&$+&"
Formula lui Einstein E = mc2($(A04/(4/+2':7,/(1&+,A,7$/2(V.(A&.0-&.:'(*+,.(7$+&
:.(A0/0.(γ($W40+W,/(D&(:.(70+*(4&(/+$.4A0+-2(V.(D0:2(*$+/,7:'&(70+*:47:'$+&(OD&7,
-$/&+,&( *0.D&+$'2R( =,( $.:-&( V.( &'&7/+0. (e–)( =,( *0%,/+0. (e+R"
Transformarea fotonului în perechea electron–pozitron( 4&( *0$/&( A$7&( .:-$,
D$72(&.&+H,$(4$(&4/&(7&'(*:3,.(&H$'2(7:(D&(D0:2(0+,(&.&+H,$(+&'$/,1,4/2(D&(+&*$:4
$( &'&7/+0.:':,( 4$:( $( *0%,/+0.:':,U( $D,72J
Emin = hνmin = 2m0c2 = 2·9,1·10–31·9·1016 = 1,64·10–13 J = 1,022 MeV;
21 2 aUa8 ⋅ !Z ]CF
= 2m0c2; λmax = = = 1,21·10–12 m = 0,012 Å.
λ -$) 8(Z 1 8 ⋅ gU! ⋅ !Z ] C! ⋅ C ⋅ !Z`

8!
 P*+&( 70-*$+$3,&U
λverde = 5460 Å >> λmaxU
D&7,( A0/0.,,( 70+&4*:.%2/0+,( ':,( λ max( /+&W:,&( 42( $,W2( &.&+H,,( -$+,U( $D,72
A0/0.,( γ( 4$:( A0/0.,( .&:/+,.0U( $7&=/,$( D,.( :+-2( *04/:'$3,( D&( A,%,7,$.:'( &'1&3,$.
! i0'AH$.H(?$:',(O!gZZ]!g^`RU('$:+&$/($'(?+&-,:':,(o0W&'(V.($.:'(!gCZ"(f7&4/$($
&-,4(V.($.:'(!gCZ(,*0/&%$(.&:/+,.:':,(V.($70+D(7:('&H,'&(D&(70.4&+1$+&($(&.&+H,&,
=,($(-0-&./:':,(7,.&/,7('$(D&%,./&H+$+&$(W&/$(O*0/+,1,/(+&$73,&i β+: 11p → 10n + e+ + ν,
unde cu ν a fost notat neutrinul).

!"C"K"!" 6'(%3,%# D,./+'# '.'+G,%# /0/%(2M# ,-*:(4:(# =,# -%4%# D'# +'*%:4
N.# /'0+,%# +'(%/,1,/23,,# +'4/+5.4'
P2( 4/$W,',-( $7:-( +&'$3,$( V./+&( &.&+H,$( /0/$'2U( ,-*:'4:'( =,( -$4$( D&( +&*$:4( $'&
:.:,( 70+*( O*$+/,7:'2R( V.( 7$D+:'( /&0+,&,( +&'$/,1,/23,,( +&4/+5.4&( O@66RJ
E = mc2; 5 = (!;
! !

(Z 1 8 58 (Z 1 8 (Z 1 8
E = ; !2 = ; E = ; E = ;
!8 (8 58 5 81 8
!] 8 !] 8 8 !]
1 ( 1 O(1 8 R 8

(Z 1 8 O(Z 1 8 R 8
E = ; E = 2
; E2 – p2c2 = m02c4; E = 5 8 1 8 + (Z8 1 F ;
5 81 8 5 81 8
!] !]
S8 S8

E = c 5 8 + O(Z 1R 8 ,
$7&$4/$( A,,.D( &)*+,-$+&$( &.&+H,&,( A:.73,&( D&( ,-*:'4( V.( -&7$.,7$( +&'$/,1,4/2U
58
$.$'0$H2( +&'$3,&, Ec = ( D,.( -&7$.,7$( .&L/0.,$.2"
8(
f7&4/( +&%:'/$/( *0$/&( A,( ,./&+*+&/$/( 7$( 0( +&'$3,&( D&( :.,A,7$+&( $( &.&+H,&,( SU
,-*:'4:':,( 5( =,( -$4&,( D&( +&*$:4( (0 pentru particulele relativiste.
Pentru ,"!"-'< având m0[l[ZU( +&%:'/2J
2ν 2  1
= = \ λ =  ;
SA
Ef = pfc; pf =
1 1 λ  ν
O2( &4/&( 70.4/$./$( ':,( ?'$.7MR"
2
Deci, asemenea particule, cu m0 = 0, au impulsul p = mc = (=,(4&(D&*'$4&$%2
λ
7:( 1,/&%$( 1( V.( 0+,7&( 4,4/&-( ,.&+3,$'U( 0+,7$+&( $+( A,( ,-*:'4:'( '0+( 5"

88
!"C"K"8" ;2+,-,# .0+-%/'"# H'A,.,+'%# +'G,-:+,(0+# D,.%-,7'O
.'P/0.,%.M# +'(%/,1,4/# =,# ')/+'-# +'(%/,1,4/
N.(1&D&+&$(/+$/2+,,(:.,/$+&($(-,=72+,,(D,A&+,/&'0+(*$+/,7:'&(4&(+&7:+H&('$(.0+-$+&$
-2+,-,'0+(7&(7$+$7/&+,%&$%2(-,=7$+&$($7&4/0+$"(?+,.(-"+(#+$(4&(V.3&'&H&(+$*0+/$+&$
!
OV-*2+3,+&$R(1,/&%&,(*$+/,7:'&,( ! ('$(1,/&%$(':-,.,,(1(V.(4*$3,:'(',W&+(=,U(+&4*&7/,1($
-$4&,U(&.&+H,&,U(,-*:'4:':,U('$(&)*+&4,,'&(70+&4*:.%2/0$+&(*$+/,7:'&,(V.(+&*$:4"(f4/A&'U
!
4&( D&A,.&47J
! !! !
β= , γ = =
S ( S
, η = 1 , ξ= = γβ .
! 5 !
1 SZ (Z SZ (Z 1
b,/&%$( ':-,.,,( V.( 4*$3,:'( ',W&+( &4/&( 0( 70.4/$./2( :.,1&+4$'2( =,(!&4/&( 70.4,D&+$/2
$,7,( V.( -0D:'U( $4/A&'( 72( 1,/&%$( .0+-$/2( β ( =,( ,-*:'4:'( .0+-$/( ξ sunt vectori.
!
6&'$3,,'&( D&( -$,( 4:4( *&+-,/( &)*+,-$+&$( $7&4/0+( -2+,-,( V.( A:.73,&( D&( 0+,7$+&
$'/$( O1"[/$W&':'( !"!RJ
N.(A,H:+$(!"`(&4/&(+&*+&%&./$/2(1$+,$G Tabelul 1.1
3,$( -2+,-,'0+( .0+-$/&( β, γ( =,( ξ( V.
A:.73,&( D&( &.&+H,$( 7,.&/,72( .0+-$/2( η. β (1+η)–1(η2+2η)1/2 (γ2–1)1/2γ –1 ξ(1+ξ2)–1/2
h:.73,&(D&(,./&+1$':'(7,.&/,7(V.(7$+& γ (1–β2)–1/2 η + 1 (ξ2+1)1/2
,$:( 1$'0+,( 5#+#($!+''% +$*0L'<( 7:-( 4& η (1–β ) – 1
2 –1/2
γ – 1 (ξ +1)1/2– 1
2

-$,( .:-&47( -2+,-,'&( .0rmate, putem ξ (γ2–1)1/2 [η(η+2)]1/2 β (1–β2)–1/2

delimita trei domenii dinamice:
$R( D0-&.,:'( .&+&'$/,1,4/U( V.( 7$+&
-$4$( *$+/,7:'&,( *0$/&( A,( 70.4,D&+$/2
$*+0),-$/,1(70.4/$./2(=,(&H$'2(7:(-$4$
D&( +&*$:4( Oγ ≈( !U( $D,72( β ≈ 0,4).
b) domeniul extrem relativist, în
care viteza particulei poate fi c0.4,G
D&+$/2( 70.4/$./2( =,( &H$'2( 7:( 1,/&%$
':-,.,,( Oβ ≈ 1);
7R( D0-&.,:'( +&'$/,1,4/( 7:*+,.4( V./+&
7&'&( D0:2( D0-&.,,( $-,./,/&( -$,( 4:4 "#$%! &%-%! S&*&.D&.3$( 1,/&%&,U( &.&+H,&,( =,
O!Z]![t[η < 7). ,-*:'4:':,(.0+-$/&U(D&(&.&+H,$(7,.&/,72(.0+-$/2
?&./+:( -24:+$+&$( &.&+H,&,( =,( $ O+&*+&%&./$+&( 4&-,'0H$+,/-,72U( *&( 4&-,$)$
,-*:'4:':,( 4&( A0'04&47( V.( /&<.,7$ $W47,42R"
$77&'&+2+,,( *$+/,7:'&'0+U( V.( A,%,7$( $/0G
-,72(=,(.:7'&$+2U(:.,/23,(7$+&(.:(A$7(*$+/&(D,.(PQU(D$+(*+&%,./2($1$./$q&(V.(7$'7:'&'&
7:+&./&"( 9.&+H,$( :.&,( *$+/,7:'&( &4/&( D$/2( D&( 0W,7&,( V.( &'&7/+0.G10'3,( y&bz"
9'&7/+0.G10'/:'( +&*+&%,./2( &.&+H,$( 75=/,H$/2( D&( :.( &'&7/+0.( $77&'&+$/( 4:W( 0
D,A&+&.32( D&( *0/&.3,$'( D&( !( b"
6&'$3,$( D&( /+$.4A0+-$+&( V.( 4,4/&-:'( ,./&+.$3,0.$'( D&( :.,/23,( OPQR( &4/&J
!( &b( l( !UaZ8w!Z–19 J.
S
În domeniul extrem relativist, impulsul este p ≈( (1( l( U( 7&&$( 7&( *&+-,/&
1
8C
  &b 
,./+0D:7&+&$(:.&,(:.,/23,($+W,/+$+&(*&./+:(,-*:'4U(   U(7:(+&'$3,$(D&(/+$.4A0+-$+&
 1 
V.( PQJ
&b
1 = 5,35·10–28 N·s.
! 1

!"#$%&'() "&*#%+,-(
E:($q:/0+:'(+&'$3,,'0+(D,.(/$W&':'(!"!(/0$/&(*+0W'&-&'&(D&(D,.$-,72(+&'$/,1,4/2(4&(+&%0'12
+$*,D"
&%!I.(&'&7/+0.($A'$/(V./+G:.(75-*(-$H.&/,7(:.,A0+-(D&(,.D:73,&(I(l(8U!w!Z–2 @(4&(-,=72
*&(0(/+$,&7/0+,&(7,+7:'$+2U( ! ⊥ I U($15.D(+$%$(V(l(!Z(7-"(E:.0475.D(72(1$'0$+&$($W40':/2
! !
$(4$+7,.,,(4*&7,A,7&($(&'&7/+0.:':,(&4/&(e/m0 = 1,76·1011 C/kgU(42(4&(7$'7:'&%&(D&(75/&(0+,
&4/&(-$,(-$+&(-$4$(D&(-,=7$+&($(&'&7/+0.:':,(A$32(D&(-$4$(':,(D&(+&*$:4((c = 3·108 m/s).
(! 8
S,.(&H$'$+&$(A0+3&,(7&./+,*&/&( (7:(A0+3$(':,(B0+&./%($!I(+&%:'/2(,-*:'4:'(&'&7/+0G
V
.:':,(*&(0+W,/$(H,+0-$H.&/,72J((![l[$VI"(S,.(/$W&':'(!"!U(+&'$3,$(D,./+&(-$4$(.0+-$/2(γ
=,( ,-*:'4:'( .0+-$/( ξ, γ = ! + ξ 8 , permite un calcul rapid pentru raportul

 $VI 
8

= γ = ! +   = !U^g "
(
(Z  (Z 1 
624*:.4:'( &4/&( (( l( !U^g( (0.
'%%Y(*$+/,7:'2(α (m0 = 6,65·10–27 kg, q = 3,2·10–19C, E0 = 6·10–10_R($+&(&.&+H,$(7,.&/,72
Sc = 5·108[&b( =,( 4&( -,=72( *&( 0( /+$,&7/0+,&( 7,+7:'$+2( D&( +$%2( V% l( d^UF`( 7-( V./+G:.( 75-*
-$H.&/,7( :.,A0+-"( P2( 4&( $A'&J( $R[,-*:'4:'( *$+/,7:'&,\( WR( D&( 75/&( 0+,( &4/&( -$,( -$+&( -$4$
D&( -,=7$+&( $( *$+/,7:'&,( A$32( D&( -$4$( 4$( D&( +&*$:4\( 7R[,.D:73,$( 75-*:':,( -$H.&/,7\
DR[A+&71&.3$( D&( +0/$3,&( (c = 3·108 m/s).
$R( S,.( /$W&':'( !"!( $1&-( +&'$3,$( ξ = [η(η + 2)]1/2U( $4/A&'( 72
!
p = [Ec(Ec + E0)]1/2 = 10–18 N·s.
1
S1 + SZ 5 WI
b) Din γ = η + 1= = 1,13; c) I = = 4,14 T; d) ν = = 28 MHz.
SZ WV 8πγ(Z

:;-"&$("0<) 45&"10200<) !"#$%&'&) /"#/68&

1. Viteza luminii în vid (mai exact în &5#.'0)% )'C$+<% $D,72( V.( 4*$3,:'( A2+2( 4:W4/$.32( =,
A2+2( 75-*:+,( H+$1,/$3,0.$'&( ,./&.4&R( &4/&( 0( -2+,-&( +&'$/,12( 4$:( 0( -2+,-&( $W40':/2u
'%( N.( +$*0+/( 7:( 1,/&%$( D&( D&*'$4$+&( $( 4:+4&,( D&( ':-,.2( 4&( -0D,A,72( 4$:( .:( 1iteza
luminii?
(%(B:-,.$(7$+&(1$(4/+2W$/&(:.(-&D,:(7:(,.D,7&'&(D&(+&A+$73,&(-(m(!U(7:(0(1,/&%2(![t[1U
D:*2( ,&=,+&$( V.( 1,D( V=,( +&7$*2/2U( 4$:( .:U( 1,/&%$( 1u
./( D$"

8F
 )%( f( *:/:/( 4$:( .:( .$/:+$( 42( .&( V.%&4/+&%&( 7:( :.( 4,-3( 4*&7,$'( *&./+:( 1,/&%2U( 4$:( D0$+
+&A&+,+&$( '$( :.( 4,4/&-( D&( +&A&+,.32( ,.&+3,$'( .&( *&+-,/&( 4&4,%$+&$( $7&4/&,$u
*%!I.(72'2/0+(1&D&(D,.(/+&.(D0:2(/+2s.&/&('01,.D(4,-:'/$.(40':'(V./+G:.(*:.7/(J(D,.$,./&$
/+&.:':,( =,( V./+G:.( *:.7/( I( D,.( :+-$( /+&.:':,U( +$*0+/$/&( '$( 4&.4:'( D&( -,=7$+&( $( /+&.:':,"
E$+&( D,./+&( /+2s.&/&( $( '01,/( *+,-:'( 40':'( *&./+:( :.( 0W4&+1$/0+( $A'$/( *&( ?2-5./u
+%( P2( 4&( 7$'7:'&%&( !( D,.( :'/,-$( *+0W'&-2( +&%0'1$/2"
`
!
./( !UFw!Z ( -K4"
,%( N.( :.&'&( $77&'&+$/0$+&( D&( *$+/,7:'&( 7:( 4$+7,.2( &'&7/+,72U( 4&( ,-*:.&( 70.D,3,$( 7$
1$+,$3,$(-$4&,(*$+/,7:'&,(7:(1,/&%$(42(.:(D&*2=&$472(!{(D,.(-$4$(D&(+&*$:4($(*$+/,7:'&,"
P2( 4&( 7$'7:'&%&( 1,/&%$( *5.2( '$( 7$+&( *0/( A,( $77&'&+$/&( *$+/,7:'&'&"
R: 0,14c.
-%(Y(*$+/,7:'2(4&(-,=72(V.(1,D(7:(1,/&%$(! = 2/3c"(S&(75/&(0+,(&4/&(-$,(-$+&(&.&+H,$
/0/$'2( $( *$+/,7:'&,( D&75/( &.&+H,$( D&( +&*$:4u
R: de 1,34 ori.
!
0%( P2( 4&( D&-0.4/+&%&( 72( V.( D,.$-,7$( +&'$/,1,4/2( $77&'&+$3,$( # ( .:( -$,( &4/&( D,+&7/
*+0*0+3,0.$'2( 7:( A0+3$( =,( .,7,( D,+&73,$( &,( .:( -$,( 70,.7,D&( 7:( D,+&73,$( A0+3&,U( 7$( V.( 7$%:'
D,.$-,7,,(.&+&'$/,1,4/&"
&1%( E0.4,D&+2-( 72( :.( 70+*( *+,-&=/&( 72'D:+$( D&( ![_\( 7:( 75/( 7+&=/&( -$4$( $7&4/:,$u
R: ∆m = 1,11·10–17 kg.
&&%( E$+&( &4/&( -$4$( 70+*:':,( 72+:,$( V,( 70+&4*:.D&( 0( &.&+H,&( D&( ^ZZ( -,',$+D&( Mi<u
R: 20 kg.

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D,.( 7"( S,4/$.3$( *+0*+,&( *0 dintre particule înainte de ciocnire este:
A) 8 cm; B) 2 m; C) 0,2 m; D) 0,8 m; E) 1 m.
2. D0:2(+$7<&/&(704-,7&(4&(D&*'$4&$%2(:.$(4*+&(7&$'$'/2(7:(1,/&%&(&H$'&(3c/4(V.(+$*0+/
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A) 0,9c; B) 0,96c; C) 0,88c; D) 0,92c; E) 1,12c.
(%( Y( .$12( 704-,72( 4&( D&*'$4&$%2( A$32( D&( :.( 0W4&+1$/0+( $A'$/( *&( ?2-5./( 7:( 1,/&%$
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A) 7 ani; B) 8 ani; C) 5 ani; D) 5,2 ani; E) 7,1 ani.
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4. Pentru ce valoare a vitezei de transport V, γ = ( D,A&+2( D&( :.,/$/&( 7:( !{u
98
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A) c/7; B) c/7,2; C) c/6; D) c/7,1; E) c/6,8.
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A) 5%; B) 0,06; C) 5,3%; D) 4%; E) 3,8%.
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 D&75/(-$4$(D&(+&*$:4($(:.:,(*+0/0."(S$72(-$4$(D&(-,=7$+&($(*+0/0.:':,(D&1,.&(&H$'2(7:
-$4$( D&( +&*$:4( $( *$+/,7:'&,( α, viteza lui ar fi:
A) 0,96c; B) 0,9(6)c; C) 0,968c; D) 0,970c; E) 2,92·108 m/s.
,%( S$72( -$4$( D&( -,=7$+&( $( :.:,( *+0/0.( +&*+&%,./2( !`Z{( D,.( -$4$( D&( +&*$:4
(0 = 1,67·10–27( MHU( 1,/&%$( =,( &.&+H,$( 7,.&/,72( ale protonului au valorile:
! A) 2,492·108 m/s;1,2·10–10 J;
B) 2,6·108 m/s; 2,7·10–10 J;
C) 2,40·108 m/s; 2,8·10–11 J;
D) 2,3(6)·108 m/s; 1,4·10–11 J.
-%(b,/&%$('$(7$+&($q:.H&(:.(&'&7/+0.($77&'&+$/(V./+G:.(75-*(&'&7/+04/$/,7('$(0(D,A&+&.32
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A) 0,87c; B) 2,8·108 m/s; C) 2,78·105 km/s; D) 9,42·108 km/h; E) 0,72c.
0%(S&(75/&(0+,(&4/&(-$,(-$+&(':7+:'(-&7$.,7(&A&7/:$/(*&./+:($(-2+,(1,/&za unei particule
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A) 3 ori; B) 3,35; C) 4; D) 2,8; E) 2,5.
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Lν+ ]+ N-' O' ,%; 6 P!"!Q
NE5+ ',0:.>&-5(+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ A5/.ADK+ >&,5-&'&+ Ne+ -&4-&7.0(D+ *)'-)*+ >&
&/(-5';.&+ 5+ )0).+ &*&'(-,0+ >&+ 4&+ :)4-5%5;5+ A&(5*)*)."+ 8&0(-)+ &*&'(-,0..+ 5%*5;.+ 4&
:(-5()-.+ .0(&-.,5-&+ >.0+ A&(5*K+ &0&-2.5+ >&+ &/(-5';.&+N+ &:(&+ A5.+ A5-&+ PNYkYNeQK+ >&'.
&0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ 5+ %,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-+ &:(&+ A5.+ A.'D+ >&'H(+ 5'&&5+ >.0+ &')5;.5+ *).
$.0:(&.0K+ 5:(%&*+ 'D+ 5'&5:(5+ :&+ :'-.&Z
me! 2 " P!"6Q
Lν+ ]+ 1+ l+
2
Deoarece eUf = EcMK+ &')5;.5+ *).+ $.0:(&.0+ :&+ A5.+ 4,5(&+ :'-.&+ L.+ :)O+ %,-A5Z
hν = Le + eUf . (2.4)
1)A.05+&:(&+%,-A5(D+>.0(-E)0+50:5AO*)+>&+%,(,0."+@5+,-.'&+45-(.')*DK+%,(,0)*
5-&+ &0&-2.&+ L.+ .A4)*:"
C.0+ (&,-.5+ -&*5(.?.(D;..+ ')0,5L(&A+ -&*5;.5+ >.0(-&+ &0&-2.&+ L.+ A5:DZ
E = mc 2 
 + -&7)*(D+ Lν+ ]+ B% a+ >&+ 5.'.K+ B=+ B&?&' >-' B$G%&0-+ 5+ %,(,0)*).+ &:(&Z
!
')A+
E = hν 
hν
B+ ]+ " P!"cQ
c2

6#
 I,(,0)*+:&+>&4*5:&57D+')+?.(&75+*)A.0..+E+]+%"+C.0+%,-A)*5+?5-.5;.&.+A5:&.+')
!2
?.(&75+ B+ ]+ 1 − + -&7)*(D+ 'D+ A5:5+ >&+ -&45):+ 5+ %,(,0)*).+ &:(&+ 7&-,Z
c2

!2
B`+ ]+ B 1 − + ]+ `"
c2
3A4)*:)*+ &:(&Z
! hν h
"' <' B%' ]+ + ]+ P!"hQ
c λ
^D-.A.*&+ '5-&+ '5-5'(&-.7&57D+ 45-(.')*5+ 0)A.(D+ %,(,0+ :)0(Z
_+ &0&-2.5 LEP
_+ ?.(&75 !+ ]+ %P
hν
_+ A5:5+ >&+ A.L'5-& B+ ]+ 2 a
c
_+ A5:5+ >&+ -&45): B`+ ]+ `a
hν h
_+ .A4)*:)* + ]+ "
λ
"' <'
c
@)A+&/4*.'D+%.7.'5+')50(.'D+*&2.*&+&%&'()*).+%,(,&*&'(-.'+&/(&-0+:(5O.*.(&+&/4&E
-.A&0(5*m
d+1&2&5+3+4,5(&+%.+&/4*.'5(D+L.+4&+O575+(&,-.&.+,0>)*5(,-..+L.+')+5[)(,-)*+%.7.'..
')50(.'&"
@)-&0()*+ 5(.02&+ ?5*,5-&5+ >&+ :5()-5;.&+ 'H0>+ (,;.+ &*&'(-,0..+ &A.L.+ >&+ '5(,>+ M0
)0.(5(&5+ >&+ (.A4+ :)0(+ '54(5;.+ >&+ 50,>"
@)+'H(+%*)/)*+-5>.5;.&.+.0'.>&0(&+&:(&+A5.+A5-&+L.+0)AD-)*+%,(,0.*,-+.0'.>&0;.
&:(&+A5.+A5-&+L.K+4-.0+)-A5-&K+0)AD-)*+&*&'(-,0.*,-+'-&L(&K+'&&5+'&+>)'&+*5+'-&L(&-&5
?5*,-..+ .0(&0:.(D;..+ >&+ :5()-5;.&"
d+ C.0+ -&*5;.5+ !"!+ -&7)*(D+ 'D+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ A5/.AD+ 5+ %,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-+ &A.L.
&:(&+ &25*D+ ')Z
,%;+ ]+ LE+ _+ N-6 P!"RQ
='&5:(D+ -&*5;.&+ 4)0&+ M0+ &?.>&0;D+ ?5-.5;.5+ *.0.5-D+ 5+ &0&-2.&.+ '.0&(.'&+ 5+ &*&'(-,E
0.*,-+ &A.L.+ ')+ %-&'?&0;5+ 5L5+ ')A+ -&7)*(D+ L.+ >.0+ *&2&5+ 5+ 33E5+ P%.2"+ !"cQ"
d+ 8&0(-)+ ,+ 50)A.(D+ ?5*,5-&+ 5+ %-&'?&0;&.K+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ 5+ %,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-
&A.L.+ >&?.0&+ 0)*D+ L.+ -&*5;.5+ !"!+ >&?.0&Z
N-' <' LE`" P!"JQ
b0+ 5'&:(+ '57+ &0&-2.5+ 5O:,-O.(D+ >&+ *5+ %,(,0+ &:(&+ %,*,:.(D+ >,5-+ 4&0(-)+ 5+ &/(-52&
%,(,&*&'(-,0)*+5L5+')A+5%.-A5+*&2&5+5+333E5"+15+%-&'?&0;&+A5.+A.'.+>&'H(+%-&'?&0;5
>&+ 4-52K+ E`K+ &%&'()*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ &/(&-0+ 0)+ A5.+ 545-&"
d+ $%&'()*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ &/(&-0+ :&+ 4-,>)'&+ 54-,54&+ .0:(50(50&)K+ 5L5+ ')A+ 5-5(D
*&2&5+ 5+ 3\E5K+ M0(-)'H(+ .0(&-5';.)0&5+ >.0(-&+ %,(,0+ L.+ &*&'(-,0+ :&+ 4-,>)'&+ M0(-E)0
.0(&-?5*+ >&+ (.A4+ 0&2*.[5O.*"
6!
 =L5>5-K+ .4,(&75+ 4-.?.0>+ '5-5'(&-)*+ ',-4):')*5-+ 5*+ -5>.5;.&.+ &*&'(-,A520&(.'&
&/4*.'D+ ',-&'(+ *&2.*&+ &%&'()*).+ %,(,&*&'(-,0.'"+ 8&+ >&+ 5*(D+ 45-(&K+ M0:DK+ (&,-.5
,0>)*5(,-.&+5+)0>&*,-+&*&'(-,A520&(.'&+(-&O).&+A&0;.0)(DK+>&,5-&'&+*&2.*&+'*5:.'&
:)0(+ ?5*5O.*&+ M0+ 4-.?.0;5+ 4-,452D-..+ 'HA4)*).+ &*&'(-,A520&(.'+ P>.%-5';.5K
.0(&-%&-&0;5+ &('"Q"+ N&+ ?5+ 4-&7&0(5+ A5.+ (H-7.)+ ')A+ 4,(+ %.+ ',-&*5(&+ 5'&:(&+ >,)D
'5-5'(&-.:(.'.+ >.%&-.(&+ 5*&+ -5>.5;.&.+ &*&'(-,A520&(.'&"

!"#$%&'&( "&)#%*+,&
'$+ ND+ :&+ 5-5(&+ 'D+ &%&'()*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ 0)+ 4,5(&+ :D+ 545-D+ 4&0(-)+ )0+ &*&'(-,0+ *.O&-"
!
@,0:.>&-DA+)0+:.:(&A+.7,*5(+'5+%..0>+%,-A5(+>.0+'&*&+>,)D+45-(.')*&+'5-&+.0(&-5';.,0&57DK
%,(,0)*+.0'.>&0(+L.+&*&'(-,0)*+4-&:)4):+*.O&-"+N'-.&A+4&0(-)+5'&:(+:.:(&A+*&2&5+',0:&-?D-..
&0&-2.&.+L.+*&2&5+',0:&-?D-..+.A4)*:)*).Z

 B! !
Lν = !
! ⇒ B! = B! ⇒ ! = !% "

 Lν = B! !%
 %

3A4,:.O.*n
2. Pragul fotoelectric al fotocatodului unui dispozitiv fotoelectric este λ0 = 6·10–7 m.
5Q+ ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ *)'-)*+ A&'50.'+ >&+ &/(-5';.&+ 5+ )0).+ &*&'(-,0K+ N-"
OQ+I,(,'5(,>)*+&:(&+.*)A.05(+')+-5>.5;.&+*)A.0,5:D+5?H0>+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+λ = 5·10–7+A"
@5-&+ &:(&+ !;K+ ?.(&75+ A5/.AD+ ')+ '5-&+ 4D-D:&:'+ &*&'(-,0..+ %,(,'5(,>)*m
c) Care este tensiunea de frânare?
>Q+ C5'D+ 4)(&-&5+ (-50:A.:D+ %,(,'5(,>)*).+ >&+ -5>.5;.5+ %,(,0.'D+ &:(&+ Q+ ]+ !i#`–4+ UK
.0(&0:.(5(&5+')-&0()*).+>&+:5()-5;.&+%..0>+9s = 1,6 µ=K+:D+:&+>&(-A.0&+-50>5A&0()*+%,(,0.'K
5>.'D+ 4-,'&0()*+ >&+ %,(,0.+ '5-&+ .0(&-5';.,0&57D+ ')+ &*&'(-,0..+ %,(,'5(,>)*)."

% 6 ⋅ #`J
5Q+ N-+ ]+ Lν`+ ]+ L + ]+ hKh!i#`_6< + ]+ 6K6#i#`_#W+ j+ ]+ !K`hJ+ &\a
λ` h ⋅ #` _ R

 % % 
! L _ L 
#
OQ+ Lν+ ]+ N-+ l+ B!;! a+ !;+ ]+  λ λ` 
+ ]+ 6KJ6i#`c+ Ao:"
! B
'Q+ 30(&0:.(5(&5+ %,(,')-&0()*).+ :&+ 50)*&57D+ 4&0(-)
B! !; B! !;
-: ( = K+ 5>.'DZ+ : ( = = `K<# \ "
! !-
>Q+ 8)(&-&5+ 4-.A.(D+ >&+ %,(,'5(,>+ 4-.0+ .*uminare este P = nhν. C&+ 5.'.K+ *=+ 0)AD-)*+ >&
Q
%,(,0.+4-.A.;.+>&+%,(,'5(,>+M0(-E,+:&')0>D+&:(&+*Y]Y Y%,(,0.o:"+C.0+&/4-&:.5+.0(&0:.(D;..
Lν
%,(,')-&0()*).+>&+:5()-5;.&+9sR]Y*S-='*S+%..0>+0)AD-)*+>&+&*&'(-,0.+&A.L.+>&+%,(,'5(,>+M0(-E,
:&')0>DK+ :&+ ,O;.0&Z

66
 9?
*S+ ]+ + %,(,&*&'(-,0.o:"
-
*′ 9 ? ⋅ L ⋅ %
X&7)*(DZ+ = + ≈+ !p"
* Q⋅-⋅λ
b0:&5A0D+'D+>.0+%.&'5-&+,+:)(D+>&+%,(,0.+'5-&+'5>+4&+%,(,'5(,>+0)A5.+>,.+%,(,&*&'(-,0.
:)0(+ &A.L.+ >&+ %,(,'5(,>"

! !"#"<" =4+.(5;..$ 5+'$ >.:4,7.).?'+,-$ ,4),'+'()-,0.('

$%&'()*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ :(D+ *5+ O575+ %)0';.,0D-..+ '&*)*&.+ %,(,&*&'(-.'&+ _+ >.:4,7.(.?
'5-&+4-,>)'&+:&A05*&+&*&'(-.'&+4-.0+.*)A.05-&"+@&*)*5+%,(,&*&'(-.'D+:&+%,*,:&L(&K
>&+ &/&A4*)K+ *5+ -&*&)*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'K+ *5+ -&>5-&5+ :)0&(&*,-+ M0+ '.0&A5(,2-5%)*+ :,0,-K
M0+(&*&?.7.)0&+_+4&0(-)+(-50:%,-A5-&5+:&A05*&*,-+*)A.0,5:&+M0+:&A05*&+&*&'(-.'&"
Releul fotoelectric &:(&+ )0+ -&*&)+ &*&'(-,A520&(.'+ ',A50>5(+ >&+ ,+ '&*)*D
%,(,&*&'(-.'D+P%.2"+!"RQ"+='&:(5+%)0';.,0&57D+5:(%&*Z+*)A.05+'5>&+4&+%,(,'5(,>+P>.0
@:K+ g5Q+ L.+ >&(&-A.0D+ 545-.;.5+ )0).+ %,(,')-&0(+ >&+ .0(&0:.(5(&+ 9f+ '5-&K+ >)4D
5A4*.%.'5-&K+ (-&'&+ 4-.0+ '.-').()*+ )0).+ &*&'(-,A520&(+ ,m;+ 'HA4)*+ A520&(.'+ 5*
5'&:().5+4-,?,5'D+M0'T.>&-&5+'.-').()*).+',A50>5("+@,A50>5+%..0>+:.2)-DK+4-5'(.'
%D-D+.0&-;.&K+-54.>DK+-&*&)*+%,(,&*&'(-.'+:&+%,*,:&L(&+*5+0)AD-5-&5+)0,-+',-4)-.+M0
A.L'5-&K+ *5+ :&A05*.75-&5+ 4-&7&0;&.+ )A50&+ _+ 'H0>+ )0+ ,4&-5(,-+ .0(-D+ M0(-E,+ 7,0D
4&-.')*,5:D+ _K+ *5+ ',0&'(5-&5+ 5)(,A5(D+ 5+ -&;&*&.+ >&+ .*)A.05(+ 'H0>+ :&+ M0()0&'DK+ *5
',A50>5+ 5';.,0D-..+ )L.*,-+ M0+ *,')-.*&+ >&+ 5%*)&0;D+ A5-&+ &('"

!"#$% &$,$+ X&*&)+ %,(,&*&'(-.'"

Fotomultiplicatorul este )0+ >.:4,7.(.?+ '5-&+ (-50:%,-AD+ :&A05*)*+ *)A.0,:+ M0
:&A05*+ &*&'(-.'"+ $:(&+ -&5*.75(+ >.0+ 5:,'.&-&5+ )0).+ A)*(.4*.'5(,-+ ')+ ,+ %,(,'&*)*D"
X5>.5;..*&+ *)A.0,5:&+ 'D7)(&+ 4&+ %,(,'5(,>+ >&(&-A.0D+ &A.:.5+ )0).+ %5:'.')*+ >&
%,(,&*&'(-,0.K+ '5-&+ &:(&+ 5''&*&-5(+ M0+ 'HA4)*+ &*&'(-,:(5(.'+ '-&5(+ >&+ )0+ 50,>+ >&
5''&*&-5-&"+ I5:'.')*)*+ '5>&+ :)''&:.?+ 4&+ ,+ :&-.&+ >&+ >.0,>&K+ %..0>+ 5A4*.%.'5(+ 4-.0
&%&'()*+>&+&A.:.&+:&')0>5-D+>&+4&+%.&'5-&+>.0,>DK+0)AD-)*+&*&'(-,0.*,-+:&')0>5-.
-&7)*(5;.+ &:(&+ A5.+ A5-&+ >&'H(+ '&*+ 5*+ &*&'(-,0.*,-+ 4-.A5-.+ P.0'.>&0;.+ 4&+ >.0,>DQ"
@)-&0()*+,O;.0)(+4&+50,>)*+%.05*+&:(&+4-,4,-;.,05*+')+%*)/)*+*)A.0,:+.0'.>&0("+q0
%,(,A)*(.4*.'5(,-+:&+'5-5'(&-.7&57D+4-.0+sensibilitate+P?5-.5;.5+.0(&0:.(D;..+cur&0()*).
*5+ .&L.-&+ M0+ %)0';.&+ >&+ ?5-.5;.5+ %*)/)*).+ -5>.5;..*,-+ .0'.>&0(&QK+ 4-.0+ curentul de
6<
întuneric P.0(&0:.(5(&5+')-&0()*).+>&+*5+.&L.-&+M0+5O:&0;5+-5>.5;..*,-QK+4-.0+zgomot
P%*)'()5;.5+ .0(&0:.(D;..+ ')-&0()*).+ >&+ .&L.-&K+ '&&5+ '&+ >&(&-A.0D+ )0+ 50)A.(+ -54,-(
:&A05*/zgomot), prin %&0&%#-0$?#$%&'?"-%#0&/+ P?5-.5;.5+:&0:.O.*.(D;..+M0+%)0';.&+>&
*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+5+-5>.5;.&.+.0'.>&0(&Q+L.+4-.0+?-*?$J$/$#&#-&'/$B$#&#+'>-'0&")0#./
?-B*&/TIC)B)#6'b0+(&*&?.7.)0&K+%,(,A)*(.4*.'5(,-)*+:&+54*.'D+*5+:.:(&A&*&+>&+'54(5-&
5+.A52.0.*,-"+$:(&+%,*,:.(+L.+*5+>&(&';.5+-5>.5;..*,-+0)'*&5-&K+>)4D+')A+?,A+?&>&5
*5+ 45-52-5%)*+ -&:4&'(.?"

!"!" %&'()*+$ @,A4),0B !

C5'D+ )0+ %5:'.')*+ M02):(+ >&+ -57&+ rK
4-,?&0.(+ >&+ *5+ ,+ :)-:D+ UK+ (-&'&+ 4-.0(-E)0
O*,'+ >&+ 2-5%.(+ 8+ P%.2"+ !"JQK+ -5>.5;..*&
.0'.>&0(&+:)0(+MA4-DL(.5(&+M0+(,5(&+>.-&';..*&"
8&0(-)+ >.%&-.(&+ )02T.)-.+ >&+ MA4-DL(.&-&
θK+ >&(&'(,-)*+ V+ M0-&2.:(-&57D+ 4&+ *H02D !"#$% &$-$% X&4-&7&0(5-&5+ :'T&A5(.'D+ 5
-5>.5;.5+ .0'.>&0(D+ ')+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ λ0
&/4&-.A&0()*).+ @,A4(,0"

L.+ ,+ 5*(D+ -5>.5;.&+ ')+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>DK+ λ > λ0.

C.0+4)0'(+>&+?&>&-&+A5'-,:',4.'K+*)A.05+L.+M0+2&0&-5*+-5>.5;.5+&*&'(-,A520&(.'D
&:(&+ ,+ )0>D"+ C.0+ 4)0'(+ >&+ ?&>&-&+ A.'-,:',4.'K+ *)A.05+ &:(&+ )0+ 50:5AO*)+ >&
45-(.')*&+ ')50(.'&"
Fenom&0)*+ :&+ ,O:&-?D+ 4&0(-)+ *)02.A.+ >&+ )0>D+ A.'.+ P-5>.5;..+ r+ L.+ -5>.5;..+ γQK
>&'.K+4&0(-)+%-&'?&0;&+A5-.K+λ = c/ν"+@,A4(,0+5+&/4*.'5(+5'&:(+%&0,A&0+4&+O575
05()-..+ ',-4):')*5-&+ 5+ )0>&*,-+ &*&'(-,A520&(.'&K+ 5>.'D+ 5+ &/.:(&0;&.+ %,(,0.*,-"
W-*)B-*./' >-' HB"0+G#$-0-' -/&?#$%+' &' ()#)*$/)0' "-' -/-%#0)*$$' /$J-0$=' H*' .0B&
%+0-$&' "-' /D*C+' 0&>$&@$&' $*%$>-*#+' B&$' &"&0-' )' 0&>$&@$-' %.' /.*C$B-&' >-' .*>+
B&$' B&0-' K(0-%E-*@+' B&$' B$%+M=' &' ()?#' *.B$#' !"!#$% &'()$'*+
C5'D+5(,A..+:)O:(50;&.+4&+'5-&+:&+4-,>)'&+MA4-DL(.&-&5+:)0(+)L,-.+PN.K+FK+F5QK
5()0'.+ &0&-2.5+ >&+ *&2D()-D+ 5+ &*&'(-,0.*,-+ >&+ ?5*&0;D+ &:(&+ A)*(+ A5.+ A.'D+ >&'H(
&0&-2.5+ %,(,0)*).+ .0'.>&0(+ Lν0+ L.+ &*&'(-,0)*+ 4,5(&+ %.+ ',0:.>&-5(+ 4-5'(.'+ *.O&-"
N&+:(5O.*&L(&+&/4&-.A&0(5*+'DK+$*>$(-0-*#'>-'*&#.0&'?.J?#&*@-$'HB"0+G#$-#)&0-=
>.%&-&0;5+ >.0(-&+ *)02.A.*&+ >&+ )0>D+ 5*&+ -5>.5;.&.+ MA4-DL(.5(&+ λ+ L.+ 5*&+ -5>.5;.&.
.0'.>&0(&+λ0+&:(&+')+5(H(+A5.+A5-&+')+'H(+)02T.)*+>&+MA4-DL(.&-&+θ+&:(&+A5.+A5-&"
N&+ 4,5(&+ 5-D(5+ 'DZ
λ – λ0 = a(1 – cos θ),
unde a = 2,423·10–3+ 0AK+ 5'&&5L.+ 4&0(-)+ (,5(&+ :)O:(50;&*&+ MA4-DL(.&(,5-e.
8-&:)4)0H0>+ 'D+ &*&'(-,0)*+ >.0+ :)O:(50;5+ MA4-DL(.&(,5-&+ &-5+ M0+ -&45):+ M05.0(&
>&+ 5+ .0(&-5';.,05+ ')+ %,(,0)*K+ *&2&5+ ',0:&-?D-..+ &0&-2.&.+ :&+ :'-.&+ :)O+ %,-A5Z
hν0 = hν + Ec + L,
unde: hν0 este energia fotonului incident, hν _+ &0&-2.5+ %,(,0)*).+ MA4-DL(.5(+ :)O
unghiul θK+ ,%+ %..0>+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ 5+ &*&'(-,0)*).+ >&+ -&')*+ L.+ NK+ *)'-)*+ A&'50.'

6c
 >&+ .&L.-&+ 5+ &*&'(-,0)*).+ >.0+ 5(,A)*+ ',0:(.()&0(+ 5*
:)O:(50;&.+ MA4-DL(.&(,5-&+ P%.2"Y!"WQ"
Deoarece putem conside-5+'D+&*&'(-,0)*+este liber,
putem neglija L.
30(&-5';.)0&5+>.0(-&+%,(,0+L.+&*&'(-,0)*+*.O&-+4,5(&
!"#$% &$.$% I,(,0)*+ MA4-DL(.5(+ L. %.+(-5(5(D+'5+,+'.,'0.-&+&*5:(.'D+M0+'5-&+:&+54*.'D+*&2&5
&*&'(-,0)*+ >&+ -&')*+ M0+ &%&'()* ',0:&-?D-..+ &0&-2.&.+ L.+ *&2&5+ ',0:&-?D-..+ .A4)*:)*)."
@,A4(,0"
$*&'(-,0)*+ _+ 5?H0>+ ,+ A5:D+ %,5-(&+ A.'D+ _+ 5(.02&
! ?.(&7&+ A5-.+ L.K+ 4-.0+ )-A5-&K+ *&2.*&+ >&+ ',0:&-?5-&+ 5*&+ &0&-2.&.+ L.+ .A4)*:)*).+ :&
:'-.)+ -&*5(.?.:("
Legea de conservare a energiei se scrie sub forma:
Lν`+ l+ B`%!+ ]+ Lν+ l+ B%!K P!"WQ
iar legea de conservare a impulsului (fig. 2.10):
"` = " + "- "
! ! !
P!"#`Q
Lν ` Lν
s(..0>+ 'DZ "` = K+ " = + L.+ "e = m!K
% %
4-,.&'(H0>+-&*5;..*&+4&+'&*&+>,)D+5/&+>&+',,->,05(&K
!A+ L.+ !XK+ *&2&5+ ',0:&-?D-..+ .A4)*:)*).+ :&+ :'-.&Z
Lν ` Lν
pe axa Ox: = cosθ + m!cosϕa
% %
Lν !"#$% &$'/$+ @,0:&-?5-&5+ .A4)*:)E
4&+ 5/5+ !XZ `+ ]+ :.0θ+ _+ m!:.0ϕK *).+ M0+ '57)*+ &%&'()*).+ @,A4(,0"
%
Lν ` Lν Lν
sau: m!cosϕ = _ cosθK m!:.0ϕ+ ]+ :.0θ"
% % %
X.>.'H0>+ *5+ 4D(-5(+ L.+ 5>)0H0>+ )*(.A&*&+ >,)D+ -&*5;..K+ :&+ ,O;.0&Z
m2!2c2 = h2(ν02 + ν2 – 2ν0νcosθ). (2.11)
N'-.&A+ -&*5;.5+ !"W+ :)O+ %,-A5Z
mc2 = [h(ν0 – ν) + m0c2],
L.+ ,+ -.>.'DA+ *5+ 4D(-5(Z
B2c4 = [h(ν0 – ν) + m0c2]2.

$%&'()H0>+ '5*')*&*&K+ ,O;.0&AZ

B2c4 = h2(ν02 + ν2 – 2ν0ν) + m02c4 + 2m0c2h(ν0 – ν). (2.12)
N'D7H0>+ -&*5;.5+ !"##+ >.0+ -&*5;.5+ !"#!K+ ,O;.0&A+ &/4-&:.5Z

 !! 
m2c4 # _ !  = – 2ν0νh2(1 – cosθ) + m02c4 + 2m0c2h(ν0 – ν). (2.13)
 % 

6h
 @)0,:'H0>+ >&4&0>&0;5+ A5:&.+ >&+ ?.(&7DZ

B=
B` ,
!!
#_ !
%
-&*5;.5+ !"#6+ >&?.0&Z
ν0νh(1 – cosθ) = m0c2(ν0 – ν)
sau: !
B` % !  # #  B` %
(1 – cosθ) =  _ = (λ – λ0).
L  ν ν `  L

L
C&'. ∆λ+ ]+ P#+ _+ ',:θQ" P!"#<Q
B` %

L
^D-.A&5+ Λ = + :&+ 0)A&L(&+ /.*C$B-' >-' .*>+' 3)B"#)*6
B` %
@H0>+45-(.')*5+')+'5-&+.0(&-5';.,0&57D+%,(,0)*+&:(&+)0+&*&'(-,0K+5+'D-).+A5:D
&:(&+WK#YiY#`–31 kg, valoarea lui h este de 6,626 · 10–34+j+i+:+L.+%+&:(&+6+i+#`8YAo:K
*)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ @,A4(,0+ 5-&+ ?5*,5-&5Z
Λ = 2,427 · 10–3nm = 2,427 pm.
X&7)*(D+'D+>.%&-&0;5+*)02.A.*,-+>&+)0>D+5*&+'&*,-+>,)D+-5>.5;..+>&'&*5(&+&:(&Z
θ
∆λ+ ]+ ΛP#+ _+ ',:θQ+ ]+ !Λ:.0! " P!"#cQ
!
Pentru particule cu mase mai mari decât cea a electronului, Λ ia valori+%,5-(&
A.'.K+ >&+ '&*&+ A5.+ A)*(&+ ,-.+ 0&2*.[5O.*&+ %5;D+ >&+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ -5>.5;.&.
.0'.>&0(&"

!"#$%&'&( -"#-./&
1. Pe fotocatod (Le+]+<K!+&\Q+'5>&+,+-5>.5;.&+*)A.0,5:D+')+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+λ = 2·10–7+A"
ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&Z
5Q+ *.A.(5+ :)4&-.,5-D+ 5+ ?.(&7&.+ %,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-a
b) tensiunea de frânare (stopare);
'Q+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ 4-52"
R: a) 8,36 · 105 m/s; b) ~ 2 V; c) 2,95 · 10–7 m.
&$%f+-5>.5;.&+:',5(&+&*&'(-,0.+>.0(-E)0+A&(5*+4-.0+&%&'(+%,(,&*&'(-.'"+='&L(.5+:)0(+-&;.0);.
*5+:)4-5%5;5+A&(5*)*).+')+5[)(,-)*+)0).+4,(&0;.5*+>&+%-H05-&+:f+]+hKh6+\"+ND+:&+>&(&-A.0&
%-&'?&0;5+ 5'&:(&.+ -5>.5;..+ ')0,:'H0>+ L+ ]+ hKh6+ i+ #`–34+ ji:+ L.+ ν0 = 4,78 · 1014 s–1.
R: 20,78 · 1014 s–1.

6R
 ($% q0+ >.:4,7.(.?+ t,)02K+ ')+ >.:(50;5+ >.0(-&+ %50(&+ /+ ]+ #+ AA+ L.+ >.:(50;5+ >.0(-&+ %50(&+ *5
&'-50)*+>&+,O:&-?5;.&+V'<+6+AK+*)'-&57D+')+*)A.0D+A,0,'-,A5(.'D"+b0+4*50)*+>&+,O:&-?5;.&
:&+>&4*5:&57D+,+'&*)*D+%,(,&*&'(-.'D+5?H0>+'5(,>+%,5-(&+%.0K+'5-&+.0>.'D+.0(&0:.%.'D-.+4&-.,>.'&
5*&+ %,(,')-&0()*).+ 4&0(-)+ 4,7.;..+ >.:(50;5(&+ ')+ $' <+ #+ AA"
ND+ :&+ >&(&-A.0&Z+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ -5>.5;.&.+ )(.*.75(&+ L.+ 4,(&0;.5*)*+ >&+ %-H05-&+ 5
%,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-K+ >5'D+ %-&'?&0;5+ 4-52)*).+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ ',-&:4)07H0>+ %,(,'5(,>)*).+ &:(&
ν0 = 5 · 1014 Hz.
R: 333 nm; 1,65 V.

! )$% ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ 4-52)*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ 5*+ '&:.)*).+ P@&QK+ L(..0>+ 'D+ &0&-2.5+ >&+ &/(-5';.&
&:(&+ >&+ #KJW+ &\"
R: 4,58 · 1014 Hz.
*$+ f+ -5>.5;.&+ A,0,'-,A5(.'D+ ')+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ λ = 560 nm cade pe fotocatodul
unei celule cu λ0 = 600 nm.+ ND+ :&+ >&(&-A.0&Z
5Q+&0&-2.5+'.0&(.'D+P&/4-.A5(D+M0+&\Q+5+&*&'(-,0.*,-+&A.L.+>&+%,(,'5(,>+L.+*)'-)*+A&'50.'
>&+ &/(-5';.&a
OQ+0)AD-)*+&*&'(-,0.*,-+&A.L.+M0(-E,+:&')0>DK+>5'D+.0(&0:.(5(&5+')-&0()*).+%,(,&*&'(-.'
&:(&+ 9' ]+ <KJ+ i+ #`–6 A.
Se cunosc: e = 1,6 · 10–19 C; h = 6,6·10–34 J·s; c = 3·108 m/s.
R: a) 0,147 eV; 3,3 · 10–19 J; b) 3 · 1013 electroni/s.
+$+f+:)-:D+>&+*)A.0D+A,0,'-,A5(.'DK+5?H0>+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+λ = 0,5 µAK+.*)A.0&57D
,+ '&*)*D+ %,(,&*&'(-.'D+ '&+ 5-&+ %,(,'5(,>5+ >.0+ 4,(5:.)+ PuQa+ *)'-)*+ A&'50.'+ >&+ &/(-5';.&+ 5*
4,(5:.)*).+ &:(&+ N-+ ]+ !K!WW+ &\"+ @5-&+ &:(&+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ A5/.AD+ P&/4-.A5(D+ M0+ jQ+ L.
(&0:.)0&5+ >&+ %-H05-&m
R: 0,28 · 10–19 J; 0,175 V.
,$+ 15+ .*)A.05-&5+ )0).+ A&(5*+ ')+ -5>.5;..+ >&+ %-&'?&0;&+ ν1 = 9,6 · 1014+ S7+ L.K+ -&:4&'(.?
ν2 = 6,72 · 1014+ S7K+ :&+ 2D:&:'+ (&0:.)0.*&+ >&+ %-H05-&+ :f1+ ]+ #KWh+ \+ L.K+ ',-&:4)07D(,-K
:f2Y]Y`KRR+ \"+ ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ ',0:(50(5+ *).+ 8*50'9"
R: 6,6 · 10–34 J·s.
-$+ @5(,>5+ )0&.+ '&*)*&+ %,(,&*&'(-.'&+ &:(&+ .*)A.05(D+ ')+ -5>.5;..+ >&+ *)02.A&+ >&+ )0>D
λ = 3500 Å+ L.+ 54,.+ :&+ 54*.'D+ ,+ >.%&-&0;D+ >&+ 4,(&0;.5*+ '5-&+ :(,4&57D+ &*&'(-,0..+ &/(-5L."
='&&5L.+%,(,'5(,>D+:&+.*)A.0&57D+54,.+')+,+-5>.5;.&+5+'D-&.+*)02.A&+>&+)0>D+>.%&-D+')
∆λ = 500 Å+ >&+ '&5+ 4-&'&>&0(D+ L.+ :&+ ',0:(5(D+ 'D+ >.%&-&0;5+ >&+ 4,(&0;.5*+ 0&'&:5-D+ %-H0D-..
%,(,&*&'(-,0.*,-+ &:(&+ ')+ ∆U = 0,59 V mai mare decât în primul caz.+ ND+ :&+ >&(&-A.0&
:5-'.05+&*&'(-,0)*)."
R: ≈ 1,6 · 10–19 C.
.$%C&0:.(5(&5+&0&-2.&.+*)A.0..+:(&*5-&+M0+:45;.)*+.0(&-25*5(.'+&:(&+10–15 J/m3"+@5-&+&:(&
',0'&0(-5;.5+ ',-&:4)07D(,5-&+ M0+ %,(,0.K+ >5'D+ :&+ ',0:.>&-D+ 'D+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ A&>.&+ 5
%,(,0.*,-+ &:(&+ >&+ c```+ Å?
R: 2,5 · 103 fotoni/m3.
'/$+C&0:.(5(&5+%*)/)*).+>&+&0&-2.&+5*+-5>.5;.&.+:(&*&.+@54&**5+'5-&+5[)02&+4&+G&--5+&:(&
>&+1,2 · 10–8 J/m2YiY:"+C5'D+0&+).(DA+*5+5'&5:(D+:(&5K+'H;.+%,(,0.+4&+:&')0>D+4D(-)0>+4-.0
4)4.*DK+ 5'&5:(5+ 5?H0>+ R+ AA+ M0+ >.5A&(-)m+ N&+ ',0:.>&-D+ 'D+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ -5>.5;.&i
este 5000 Å?
R: 1,16 · 106 fotoni/s.

6J
 ''$% 1)'-)*+ >&+ &/(-5';.&+ 4&0(-)+ &*&A&0(&*&+ uK+ @-K+ v0+ L.+ U+ :)0(K+ -&:4&'(.?K+ !K!h+ &\K
<K6RY&\K+<K!<+&\+L.+<K<W+&\"+@5-&+>.0+5'&:(&+A&(5*&+?,-+&A.(&+%,(,&*&'(-,0.+*5+.*)A.05-&5K
4&+ -H0>K+ ')+ *)A.0D+ -,L.&+ PλR = 7000 ÅQK+ ')+ *)A.0D+ 5*O5:(-D+ PλA = 4000 ÅQK+ ')+ -5>.5;.&
)*(-5?.,*&(D+ PλUV = 2800 Å)?
R: nici unul; K; K, Cr, Zn.
12. 8&0(-)+4-,O5+%,-A5(D+>.0+.7,(,4)*+ 40 19
K+',0;.0)(+M0+4,(5:.)+05()-5*+M0+4-,4,-;.&+>&
`K`##pK+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ A5/.AD+ 5+ &*&'(-,0.*,-+ @,A4(,0+ &:(&+ ,%+ ]+ #K!h+ ^&\"+ ND+ :&
'5*')*&7&Z
5Q+ >&+ 'H(&+ ,-.+ &:(&+ A5.+ A5-&+ A5:5+ >&+ A.L'5-&+ 5+ &*&'(-,0)*).+ @,A4(,0+ M0+ ',A45-5;.&
')+ A5:5+ :5+ >&+ -&45):a !
b) viteza electronului Compton;
'Q+ ?.(&75+ :5+ -&*5(.?D+ P0,-A5(DK+ β).
(I*>$%&@$-Y':&+?,-+%,*,:.+-&*5;..*&+>.0(-&+AD-.A.*&+0,-A5(&+γ+L.+ηK+'H(+L.+>.0(-&+AD-.A.*&
0,-A5(&+ β+ L.+ γ – v. tabelul 1.1).
R: a) γ = 3,5; b) ! = 2,875·108 m/s; c) β = 0,8593.
'($+ q0+ %,(,0+ ')+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ >&+ #`Yk&\+ :)%&-D+ ,+ '.,'0.-&+ >.-&'(D+ ')+ )0+ &*&'(-,0
*.O&-+M0+-&45):+L.+&:(&+MA4-DL(.5(+:)O+)0+)02T.+>&+π/3.+ND+:&+'5*')*&7&+&0&-2.5+'.0&(.'D+5
&*&'(-,0)*).+@,mpton.
R: 96,9 eV.
')$+I,(,0..+>.0(-E)0+%5:'.')*+>&+-5>.5;..Yr+')+λ0+]+#+Å+:)0(+MA4-DL(.5;.+>&+)0+O*,'+>&
2-5%.("
q02T.)*+>&+MA4-DL(.&-&+&:(&+θ = 90°.+@5-&+&:(&+'-&L(&-&5+*)02.A..+>&+)0>D+∆λ ('5-&+:&
A5.+ 0)A&L(&+ deplasare Compton)?
R: 2,423 · 10–12 m.

!"6" C*5+.:A*+$ *0>DE(,-4*:(*+

C)4D+')A+5A+?D7)(K+%&0,A&0&*&+>&+.0(&-%&-&0;DK+>.%-5';.&+L.+4,*5-.75-&+4)0+M0
&?.>&0;D+ 4-,4-.&(D;.*&+ ,0>)*5(,-..+ 5*&+ *)A.0..K+ .5-+ &%&'()*+ %,(,&*&'(-.'+ L.+ &%&'()*
@,A4(,0+ 4)0+ M0+ &?.>&0;D+ 4-,4-.&(D;.*&+ ',-4):')*5-&"
N&+ ',0:(5(D+ >&'.K+ '5-5'(&-)*' >.&/=' )*>./&#)0$.+ L.+ %)0".?%./&0' 5*+ )0>&*,-
&*&'(-,A520&(.'&+ P5*+ *)A.0..Q"
$%&'()*+%,(,&*&'(-.'+L.+&%&'()*+@,A4(,0+5)+%,:(+&/4*.'5(&+4-&:)4)0H0>+'D+-5>.5;.5
&*&'(-,A520&(.'D+&:(&+)0+%*)/+>&+45-(.')*&+0)A.(&+%,(,0.+'5-&+.0(&-5';.,0&57D+')
:)O:(50;5"
X&5A.0(.A+ AD-.A.*&+ '5-&+ '5-5'(&-.7&57D+ %,(,0)*Z
_+ :5-'.05+ &*&'(-.'D Z+ ]+ `a
– masa de repaus m0 = 0;
– energia E = hν;
Lν
_+ A5:5+ >&+ A.L'5-& B= ;
%!
Lν L
_+ .A4)*:)* "= = " P!"#WQ
% λ
6W
 \&-.25+ >&+ *&2D()-D+ >.0(-&+ 5:4&'()*+ ,0>)*5(,-.)+ L.+ '&*+ ',-4):')*5-+ 5*+ *)A.0..
&:(&+',0:(50(5+*).+8*50'9K'L6+$5+4,5(&+%.+&/4-.A5(D+4-.0+4-,>):)*+5+>,)D+AD-.A.K
#
)05+'&+'5-5'(&-.7&57D+)0>5+P%-&'?&0;5+νK+4&-.,5>5+ 1 = +:5)+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>DYλQ
ν
L.+ )05+ '5-5'(&-.:(.'D+ 45-(.')*&.+ P&0&-2.5+ ,Y:5)+ .A4)*:)*Y"QZ
h = ET = pλ.
N&+ ,O:&-?D+ 'D+ >5'D+ &0&-2.5+ ,+ L.+ .A4)*:)*+ :)0(+ A5-.K+ 4&-.,5>5+ 1+ L.+ *)02.A&5
! >&+)0>D+(-&O).&+:D+%.&+A.'."+='&:(5+&:(&+'57)*+-5>.5;..*,-+r+L.+γK+*5+'5-&+4-&>,A.0D
'5-5'(&-)*+ ',-4):')*5-"
b0+ '57)*+ )0>&*,-+ -5>.,K+ 1+ L.+ λ+ %..0>+ A5-.K+ 4-&>,A.0D+ '5-5'(&-)*+ ,0>)*5(,-.)"
8&0(-)+:.:(&A&*&+A5'-,:',4.'&+',0:(50(5+*).+8*50'9+&:(&+5(H(+>&+A.'D+M0'H(+&5
4,5(&+ %.+ ',0:.>&-5(D+ 0)*D"

!"<" 34,)'75$ >'$ F-,2+.'"$ C.&-5(;.5$ '+'()-,0.+,-"

=4+.(5;..
8-.0+505*,2.&+')+>)5*.:A)*+)0>DE',-4):')*+M0+'57)*+)0>&*,-+&*&'(-,A520&(.'&K
1,).:+>&+F-,2*.&+5:,'.57D+,-.'D-&.+A.'-,45-(.')*&+5%*5(&+M0+A.L'5-&+')+&0&-2.5+,
L.+ .A4)*:)*+ "+ ,+ )0>D+ '5-5'(&-.75(D+ 4-.0+ %-&'?&0;5+ ν+ L.+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ λ"
X&*5;..*&+ M0(-&+ 5'&:(&+ AD-.A.+ :)0(Z
ν λ
, = Lν  "= "
L
λ
P!"!`Q
 , " 
1,).:+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5+ 4-&:)4):+ 'D+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ )0>&*,-+ 5:,'.5(&
A.'-,45-(.')*&*,-+ (-&O).&+ :D+ %.&+ >5(D+ (,(+ >&+ -&*5;.5

λ=
L
,
"

în care p este impulsul microparticulei.

9")#-I&' >-' [0)C/$-Y' )0$%+0-$' B$%0)"&0#$%./-=' %&0-' ")?->+' .*' $B"./?' "=' $' ?-

")&#-'&?)%$&'H*'B)>'()0B&/')'.*>+'%.'/.*C$B-'>-'.*>+' λ =
L
, *.B$#+'/.*C$B-
"
>-' .*>+' >-' [0)C/$-' pe care o vom nota cu λB.
Undele de Broglie :)0(+ 5:,'.5(&+ 45-(.')*&*,-+ ')+ A5:D+ >&+ -&45):+ P&*&'(-,0.K
4-,(,0.K+ 0&)(-,0.K+ 45-(.')*&+ α+ L.+ A,*&')*&+ >&+ T.>-,2&0QK+ 5L5+ ')A+ )0>&*,-
&*&'(-,A520&(.'&+*&+:)0(+5:,'.5;.+%,(,0.+'5-&+0)+5)+A5:D+>&+-&45):"+C&'.+0&>$&@$&
-/-%#0)B&C*-#$%+=' /&' (-/' %&' G$' 0&>$&@$&' %)0".?%./&0+=' "0-I$*#+' &#D#' "0)"0$-#+@$
)*>./&#)0$$' %D#' G$' "0)"0$-#+@$' %)0".?%./&0-6
I.7.'.&0..+C5?.::,0+L.+w&-A&-+5)+,O;.0)(+,+4-.AD+',0%.-A5-&+&/4&-.A&0(5*D+5
.4,(&7&.+ *).+ >&+ F-,2*.&"+ $.+ 5)+ >&A,0:(-5(+ 'D+ &*&'(-,0..+ M0+ A.L'5-&+ 4-&7.0(D
<`
4-,4-.&(D;.+ ,0>)*5(,-..K+ 2&0&-H0>+ %&0,A&0&+ >&+ >.%-5';.&+ M0:,;.(&+ >&+ .0(&-%&-&0;DK
:4&'.%.'&+ ',A4,-(D-..+ ,0>)*5(,-.."

%/4'-.A'0)*+$C5?.::,0EG'-A'-
N'T&A5+ &/4&-.A&0()*).+ C5?.::,0+ L.
w&-A&-+ &:(&+ >5(D+ M0+ %.2)-5+ !"##"
$*&'(-,0..+ &A.L.+ >&+ )0+ %.*5A&0(+ WK
5*.A&0(5(+ >&+ *5+ ,+ :)-:D+ ,1K+ :)0(+ 5''&*&-5;.
M0(-E)0+()0+&*&'(-,0.'"+N)-:5+>&+5''&*&-5-& !
5+&*&'(-,0.*,-+&:(&+,2. Tensiunea de+5''&*&E
-5-&+ :+ 4,5(&+ %.+ ?5-.5(D+ ')+ 5[)(,-)*+ -&,:(5E
()*).+ 5+ L.+ AD:)-5(D+ ')+ ?,*(A&(-)*+ 76
Din tunul electronic iese un fascicul
monoenergetic de electroni („monocro- !"#$% &$''$% N'T&A5+ &/4&-.A&0()*).
matic”) cu energia: C5?.::,0Ew&-A&-"

B-! !
= -: " P!"!#Q
!
Fasciculul cade pe un monocristal de nichel. Fasciculul difrac(5(+ &:(&+ '54(5(
>&+ )0+ '.*.0>-)+ I5-5>5x' 3+ ',*&'(,-+ L.+ ')-&0()*+ >&+ &*&'(-,0.+ &:(&+ AD:)-5(+ >&+ )0
25*?50,A&(-)+ 86
N&+',0:(5(D+'D+.0(&0:.(5(&5+%5:'.')*)*).+>&+&*&'(-,0.+>.%-5'(5;.+4-&7.0(D+A5/.A&
L.+A.0.A&+'5-&+>&4.0>+>&+:+L.+>&+θ+P)02T.)*+>.0(-&+>.-&';.5+%5:'.')*)*).+.0'.>&0(
L.+ >.-&';.5+ '&*).+ -&%*&'(5().
!-:
C.0+ -&*5;.5+ !"!#Z !+ ]+ B- "

b0+ '57)*+ 0&-&*5(.?.:(Z "+ ]+ B-!+ ]+ !-B-: P!"!!Q

L.+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5:,'.5(D+ &:(&Z

# #!K!6 ⋅ #` _#`
λ[' = = = +=
L L L
" P!"!6Q
" !-B-: !-B- : :
b0+5'&:(+'57K+4&0(-)+)0+4,(&0;.5*+>&+5''&*&-5-&+7+]+c<+\K+-&7)*(D+4&0(-)+*)02.A&5
>&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&Z
#!K!6 ⋅ #` _#`
λ[+ ]+ + ]+ #Khh<i#`_#`+ AK P!"!<Q
c<
>&+ 5'&*5L.+ ,->.0+ >&+ AD-.A&+ ')+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ -5>.5;.&.+ r"
I&0,A&0&*&+>&+>.%-5';.&+4,(+%.+,O:&-?5(&+>5'D+)0>5+.0(&-5';.,0&57D+')+,+y-&;&5
>&+>.%-5';.&z+5+'D-&.+',0:(50(D+>&+-&;&5+5-&+>.A&0:.)0.+',A45-5O.*&+')+*)02.A&5
>&+ )0>D+ P#`–10 m).
<#
 =(,A..+A,0,'-.:(5*)*).+:)0(+5L&75;.+,->,05(K+*5+>.:(50;&+&25*&+)0)*+>&+5*()*+L.
>.:(50;5+ >.0(-&+ >,.+ 5(,A.+ ?&'.0.+ &:(&+ >&+ ,->.0)*+ #`–10 m. =-50[5-&5+ -&2)*5(D+ 5
.,0.*,-K+ 5(,A.*,-K+ -5>.'5*.*,-+ A,*&')*5-.K+ M0+ 0,>)-.*&+ -&;&*&.+ '-.:(5*.0&K+ ',0%&-D
'-.:(5*)*).+ M0:)L.-.*&+ )0&.+ -&;&*&+ >&+ >.%-5';.&+ (-.>.A&0:.,05*&"
N()>..0>+ >.%-5';.5+ -&7&*,-+ r+ 4&+ A,0,'-.:(5*&K+ F-522+ 5+ :(5O.*.(+ 'D+ .0(&0:.(5(&5
%5:'.')*)*).+ >.%-5'(5(+ (-&'&+ 4-.0+ ?5*,-.+ A5/.A&+ 'H0>Z
2dsinθ = kλ (k = 1, 2, 3, …), (2.25)
unde: θ este unghiul format+ >&+ 4*50)*+ -&E
! (.')*5-+ ')+ >.-&';.5+ %5:'.')*)*).+ .0E
'.>&0(+ L.+ ')+ '&5+ 5+ %5:'.')*)*).
>.%-5'(5(a
> _+',0:(50(5+-&;&*&.+P>.:(50;5+>.0(-&
>,)D+4*50&+-&(.')*5-&Q+P%.2"Y!"#!Qa
λ+_+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+5+-5>.5;.&.+r"
2dsinθ+ _+ >.%&-&0;5+ >&+ >-)A+ >.0(-&+ -57&*&
>.%-5'(5(&+ >&+ >,)D+ 4*50&+ -&(.E !"#$% &$'&$+ C.%-5';.5+ -57&*,-+ r+ 4&+ )0
A,0,'-.:(5*"
')*5-&+ ?&'.0&"
8-&:)4)0H0>+'D+45-(.')*&*&K+'D-,-5+*.+:E5+5(5L5(+*)02.A&5+>&+)0>D+>&+F-,2*.&K
:)%&-D+ ,+ >.%-5';.&K+ 54*.'DA+ -&*5;.5+ !"!c+ L(..0>+ 'D+ >+ ]+ `KW#i#`–10+ AK+ ',0:.>&-H0>
\Y]Y#+ *5+ (&0:.)0&5+ :Y]Yc<Y\K+ )0>&+ :&+ ,O;ine primul maxim pentru θ = 65°, :&
,O;.0&Z
λB = 2dsinθ = 2·0,91·10–10·0,906 = #Khci#`_#`+ A" P!"!hQ
@,0',->50;5+ '&*,-+ >,)D+ ?5*,-.+ ,O;.0)(&+ M0+ -&*5;..*&+ !"!<+ L.+ !"!hK+ ',0%.-AD+ 'D
&*&'(-,0..+ M0+ A.L'5-&+ 5)+ 4-,4-.&(D;.+ ,0>)*5(,-.."
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',-&:4)07D(,5-&+ 5-&+ ?5*,-.+ %,5-(&+ A.'."
Microparticulele sunt radical diferite d&+ 45-(.')*&*&+ '*5:.'&"+ $*&+ 0)+ :)0(+ 0.'.
45-(.')*&K+0.'.+)0>&+M0+:&0:)*+'*5:.'+5*+5'&:(,-+(&-A&0.K+',A4,-(5-&5+*,-+-&%*&'(H0>
>)5*.:A)*+ ',-4):')*E)0>D"+ Microparticulele, numite particule cuantice, se
deosebesc calitativ de particulele clasice, supunându-se unor legi specifice.
C&L.+ )0>5+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5:,'.5(D+ A.L'D-..+ A.'-,45-(.')*&*,-+ *.' -?#-' )' .*>+' M0
:&0:)*+ '*5:.'+ 5*+ ')?H0()*).K+ :&+ %,*,:&L(&+ 0,;.)0&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&"
15+ 0.?&*+ A5'-,:',4.'K+ )0+ ',-4):')*+ 0)+ 4,5(&+ 5?&5+ 4-,4-.&(D;.+ ,0>)*5(,-..+ L.
0.'.+)0>5+0)+4,5(&+%.+',0'&4)(D+'5+)0+%*)/+>&+45-(.')*&+>.:'-&(&"+C5-+45-(.')*&*&
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45-(.')*&*&+ ')50(.'&+ nu au traiectorii.
$*&+ :)0(+ ,O.&'(&+ -5>.'5*+ >.%&-.(&+ L.+ >&+ )0>&+ L.+ >&+ ',-4):')*."
Asupra sistemelor cuantic&+ 0)+ 4)(&A+ %5'&+ >&'H(+ 5%.-A5;..+ :(5(.:(.'&"

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'5-&+'5>&+4&+)0+4-&45-5(K+M*+(-5?&-:&57DK+.5-+?5-.5;..*&+>&+2-,:.A&+5*&+4-&45-5()*).
:&+ (-50:%,-AD+ M0+ ?5-.5;..+ >&+ .0(&0:.(5(&+ 5+ %5:'.')*)*).+ >&+ &*&'(-,0.+ (-50:A.L."
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>.0(-&+ &*&+ :D+ %.&+ A5.+ A5-&+ >&'H(+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ 5+ *)A.0..+ %,*,:.(&K+ >&'.+ A5.
A5-&+ >&+ 7&'.A.+ >&+ A.'-,0.+ P4)(&-&5+ >&+ :&45-5-&Q"
Rolul lentilelor optice îl au bobinele parcurse de curent electric – lentile
magnetice – :5)+&*&'(-,7..+M0'D-'5;.+&*&'(-.'+_+lentile electrice – care pot focaliza
sau defocaliza un fascicul de electroni.
N'T&A5+ >&+ %)0';.,05-&+ 5+ A.'-,:',4)*).+ &*&'(-,0.'+ &:(&+ 5:&AD0D(,5-&+ ')+ '&5+ 5 !
A.'-,:',4)*).+ ,4(.'+ P%.2"+ !"#6Q"
8)(&-&5+ >&+ :&45-5-&+ 5+ A.'-,:',4)*).+ &*&'(-,0.'+ &:(&+ A)*(+ :)4&-.,5-D+ '&*&.+ 5

&Q JQ

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&*&'(-,0.+ P5Q+ L.+ >&+ *)A.0D+ POQK+3+ _+ @,0>&0:5(,-K+ !J+ _+ ,O.&'(.?K+ 9$+ _+ .A52.0&+ .0(&-A&>.5-DK
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>&+ )0>D+ A)*(+ A5.+ A.'.+ 5+ )0>&*,-
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(-&O).&+'5+&5+:D+%.&+(-50:%,-A5(D+M0(-E)05
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'&0("
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!"#$%&$')$%ND+%.&+)0+L5-4&+M0',*D'.(m+g.'.>&')A" >&+ 4D(-)0>&-&K+ 4-,O&*&+ &/5A.05(&+ :)0(
$+ )0+ %.-+ >&+ 4D-K+ M00,>5(K+ AD-.(+ >&+ <``+ >&+ ,-.+ *5 4-&7&0(5(&+:)O+%,-AD+>&+4&*.')*&+%,5-(&
A.'-,:',4)*+ &*&'(-,0.'" :)O;.-."
NE5)+',0:(-).(+L.+A.'-,:',54&+4-,(,0.'&+L.+.,0.'&K+'5-&+>5)+AD-.-.+>&+#`_#c+,-.
A5.+ A5-.+ >&'H(+ '&*&+ ,O;.0)(&+ ')+ A.'-,:',4)*+ &*&'(-,0.'"
În figura 2.14 este repreze0(5(D+ .A52.0&5+ )0).+ %.-+ >&+ 4D-+ M00,>5(K+ AD-.(D+ >&
<``+ >&+ ,-.K+ ,O;.0)(D+ ')+ )0+ A.'-,:',4+ &*&'(-,0.'"

!"#$%&'&( "&)#%*+,&
'$+ ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ &0&-2.5K+ .A4)*:)*K+ A5:5+ >&+ A.L'5-&+ L.+ %-&'?&0;5+ )0).+ %,(,0+ '5-&
',-&:4)0>&+ )0&.+ -5>.5;..+ ')+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ λ = 6·10–7 m.

L% 6,6 ⋅ 10−34 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 108

,' <' Lν+ ]+ ]+ + ]+ 6K6#i#`_#W+ j"
λ 6 ⋅ 10−7
6,6 ⋅ 10−34 Lν hKh! ⋅ #` _6<
=
_!R
L
+]+#K#`6i#` +92iAo:a+B+ ]+ ]+ +]+`K6Ri#`_6c+ 92"
6 ⋅ 10−7 % ! %λ
"+]+
6 ⋅ #`J ⋅ h ⋅ #` _ R

6 ⋅ #`J
ν+ ]+ + ]+ ci#`#<+ S7"
h ⋅ #` _ R
2. Un fascicu*+>&+&*&'(-,0.+&A.L.+>&+)0+()0+&*&'(-,0.'+&:(&+(-.A.:+4&-4&0>.')*5-+4&+)0
'-.:(5*"+C.%-5';.5+5-&+*,'+4&+)0+:.:(&A+>&+4*50&+'-.:(5*.0&K+45-5*&*&K+>.:(50;5(&+')+>Y]Y`K6Y0A"
@&+(&0:.)0.+>&+5''&*&-5-&+:)0(+0&'&:5-&+4&0(-)+5+4)0&+M0+&?.>&0;D+',A4,-(5-&5+,0>)l5(,-.&
5+ &*&'(-,0.*,-+ 4-.0+ >.%-5';.&m
Se dau: h = 6,6 · 10–34 J·s; me = 9,1·10–31+ 92+ L.+ -+ ]+ _#Khi#`–19 C.

2dsin θ = kλ ⇒ !> =
L
a+ : = L! "
!-B-: !
<> !-B-

PhKh!hQ ! ⋅ #` _hJ
b0*,').0>+0)A&-.'K+:&+,O;.0&Z+ : = = +`K`<#Wi#`!+≈+<K!+\"
< ⋅ W ⋅ #` ⋅ ! ⋅ #Kh ⋅#` _#W ⋅ WK# ⋅ #` _ 6#
_ !`

<<
!"#$%&'&( -"#-./&
1. Tensiunea de accelerare a electronilor într-un dispozitiv Davisso0Ew&-A&-+ &:(&
:Y]Y#``+ \"+ ND+ :&+ >&(&-A.0&Z
5Q+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5:,'.5(D+ &*&'(-,0.*,-+ '5-&+ :&+ A.L'D+ 0&-&*5(.?.:(a
OQ+ &0&-2.5+ L.+ .A4)*:)*+ )0).+ %,(,0+ '5-&+ 5-+ 5?&5+ 5'&&5L.+ *)02.A&+ >&+ )0>D"
R: a) 1,22·10–10 m; b) 16,2·10–16 J; 5,41·10–24 kg · ms–1.
2. Electronii+:)0(+:)4)L.+)0&.+(&0:.)0.+>&+5''&*&-5-&+:+]+6K`!i#`4+\"+@5-&+&:(&+*)02.A&5
>&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5:,'.5(D+ 5'&:(,-+ &*&'(-,0.+ '5-&+ :&+ A.L'D+ 0&-&*5(.?.:(m
R: 70 nm.
!
($+ ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+F-,2*.&+ 4&0(-)+ )0+ &*&'(-,0+ L.+ 4&0(-)+ )0+ 5(,A
>&+ T.>-,2&0+ PBS+ ]+ #K``JYiY#KhhYiY#`_!R+ 92QK+ L(..0>+ 'D+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ 5+ %.&'D-&.+ 45-(.')*&
&:(&+ >&+ #``Y&\"
01+ #K!!+ ÅK+ `K`!Jc+ Å"
)$% ND+ :&+ '5*')*&7&+ *)02.A&5+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ 5+ )0).+ 4-,(,0K+ L(..0>+ 'D+ &0&-2.5+ *).
'.0&(.'D+ &:(&+ &25*D+ ')+ &0&-2.5+ >&+ -&45):+ 5+ &*&'(-,0)*).+ PB"+ ]+ #KhhYiY#`_!R+ 92Q"
R: ≈ 4·10–4+ Å"
*$+ ND+ :&+ >&(&-A.0&+ ?.(&75+ L.+ &0&-2.5+ '.0&(.'D+ 4&0(-)+ )0+ &*&'(-,0+ L.+ )0+ 0&)(-,0K+ L(..0>
'D+ *)02.A.*&+ *,-+ >&+ )0>D+ >&+ F-,2*.&+ :)0(+ &25*&+ ')+ #+ Å"
R: 7252 km/s; 3,94 km/s; 149 eV; 0,081 eV.

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hν hν h
5Q+ a OQ+ a 'Q+ "
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&:(&+ λK+ %,(,&*&'(-,0..+ &A.L.+ 5)+ ?.(&75Z

me  hc  2  hc 
5Q+  − Le  a OQ+  Le − a
2 λ  me  λ 

2  hc 
'Q+  − Le  "
me  λ 

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este constanta lui Rydberg ?5*(;(1. 9&. ,5//. ;,(*)/. ',* Ry@. E/. ;)&. B;-*;)&;
R* p. #Ab\Q!Q!m#b7 m–1.
Cu ajutorul acestei constante, expresia energiei cuantificate a electronului pe
un nivel energetic al atomului este:
! R'F
$" = X " ?!"22@
"2
l),%,-. 9&. -/5//. +%&'();-&. ';)&. ;)&. ;'&-;E/. "f. 8*)0&;C1. *. %&!5&* %#&'(!6:9-
]/5. )&-;>//-&. !"#\. E/. !"2bA. )&C,-(1. '1. %&5(),* "i → ∞. 5,01),-. 9&. ,591. &+(&
R
0;4/0A. ;BT59. B;-*;)&;. A. 5,0/(1. limita seriei.
"2
S"A&!%&:&*:)"B545:,!*3&*)"39*6:&*:5"55:,!*%#&'(!6:&*&45%&*3&*6(,4):*3&*F53!,B&"
+,5(. 9;(&. 9&. &',;>/;^
 # # 
ν = R 2 X 2  A
n
 "< "5 
?!"2!@

/;).%&5(),.6(,455*F53!,B&",5@5O.;BT59.+;)'/5;.Q&.E/.,5.+/5F,).&-&'()*5A.9&.&',;>/;^
 # # 
ν = RQ 2  2 X 2  "
n ?!"2G@
 "< "5 


Tabelul 3.1.

Denumirea seriei nf ni Domeniul spectral Limita seriei

spectrale
Lyman 1 2, 3, … ultraviolet R
Balmer 2 3, 4, … vizibil R/4
Y;+'7&5 ! GA. LA. s /58);)*E, R/9
<);'I&(( G LA. OA. s /58);)*E, R/16
Y8,59 L OA. QA. s /58);)*E,.W59&%1)(;( R/25

=,.0,-(.W5;/5(&.';.<*7).+1.&-;D*)&C&.0*9&-,-.;(*0/'.%&5(),.7/9)*F&5A.+(,9//59
-/5//-&. 9/5. B/C/D/-. ;-&. ;(*0,-,/. 9&. 7/9)*F&5A. <;-0&). ;. *D+&)B;(. '1. -,5F/0/-&. 9&
,591. ;-&. -/5//-*). +%&'();-&. &0/+&. )&+%&'(1. ;5,0/(&. )&F,-;)/(1>/"

Ob
 R&:6856* &4#5!5'9* 6* :)5* 26:4&!O* %&5(),
';-',-,-. -,5F/0/-*). 9&. ,591A. ;. 8*+(
h)&;);5[;(1i. 9&. 6t9D&)F. +,D. 8*)0;^
#  # # 
ν = = R 2 X 2  ,
n
λ 2 " 
W5. ';)&. (*(. &0%/)/'. ;. 9;(. B;-*;)&;. %&5(),
R.';)&.'*/5'/9&.',.B;-*;)&;.';-',-;(1.9/5
0*9&-,-. ;(*0/'. ;. -,/. <*7)"
$&)//-&.+%&'();-&.;-&.7/9)*F&5,-,/A.9,%1
5,0&-&.9&+'*%&)/(*)/-*).-*)A.+,5(.)&9;(&.W5
(;D&-,-`!"#"
!
M'&+(&. ();5C/>//. +,5(. /-,+();(&. W5
8/F,);`!"Q". ME;. ',0. +&. B&9&. W5. 8/F,)1A !"#$% &$2$% S);5C/>//-&. &-&'()*5,-,/. W5
();5C/>/;.+&.%*;(&.8;'&.9/)&'(.+;,.W5.()&%(&" 0*9&-,-. <*7). ;-. ;(*0,-,/. 9&. K"
e,01),-.();5C/>//-*).%*+/D/-&.&+(&.&F;-.',
5,01),-. 9&. '*0D/51)/. 9&. 'T(&. 9*,1. 5/B&-,)/. W5()&. '&-&. ". 5/B&-,)/"
N = (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n + 3) + ...+ 2 + 1;
"?" + #@ ?" X #@"
1 + 2 + ... + n = ⇒ 1 + 2 + ... + n – 1 = ,
2 2
?" X #@"
9&'/^ T= " ?!"2L@
2

I&./(57//$ 5.'$ ,&'()*+,(+&/'/

X. $%&'()*+'*%/;. '*5+(/(,/&. *. 0&(*91. '*0*91A. %)&'/+1. E/. );%/91. W5. ;5;-/C;
'7/0/'1". ];(*)/(1. ;5;-/C&/. +%&'();-&. +J;,. 9&+'*%&)/(. &-&0&5(&-&. '&+/,. ?=+@A. (;-/,
?S-@A. /59/,. ?Z5@. E/. F;-/,. ?l;@"
X. $,)+&-&. 0*9&)5&. 9&. /-,0/5;)&. ';. (,D,)/-&. ',. 9&+'1)';)&. &-&'()/'1. W5. B;%*)/
9&. +*9/,. +;,. 0&)',)A. -10%/-&. 8-,*)&+'&5(&. +J;,. )&;-/C;(. (*(. %&. D;C;. +(,9//-*)
+%&'()*+'*%/'&"
X. =&;+,)/-&. ;(*0/'&. ';)&. ;,. 9&B&5/(. &(;-*5. %&5(),. (/0%". 6&;0/5(/0. '1
#+`p`\#\2O!#QQb. %&)/*;9&. ;+*'/;(&. ();5C/>/&/. W5()&. 9*,1. 5/B&-,)/. &5&)F&(/'&. ;-&
'&+/,-,/. #!!"
– Cele mai marcante succese ale spec()*+'*%/&/.+J;,.)&;-/C;(.W5.;+()*5*0/&A.W5
+(,9/,-. (&0%&);(,)//A. '*0%*C/>/&/A. 9&%-;+1)//. ;+()&-*)"

O#
 !"J" 89&'*/0'2)-.$ K*52(LMN'*)F
M'&+(.&4%&)/0&5(.;.%,+.W5.&B/9&5>1
&4/+(&5>;. 5/B&-,)/-*). ',;5(/8/';(&. ;-&
;(*0/-*)"
$'7&0;. 9&. %)/5'/%/,. ;. &4%&)/0&5J
(,-,/.&+(&.)&%)&C&5(;(1.W5.8/F,);.!"UA*6-
V5()J,5. D;-*5. 9&. +(/'-1A. 9/5. ';)&. ;
6 8*+(.+'*+.;&),-A.;,.8*+(./5()*9,E/.B;%*)/
9&. 0&)',)". V5. (,D. +&. F1+&+'^. ,5. ';(*9
! ;A. ';)&. %)/5. W5'1-C/)&. &0/(&. &-&'()*5/A
*. F)/-1. U. E/. ,5. ;5*9. K"
V5()&. ';(*9,-. ;. E/. F)/-;. U. +&. ;%-/'1
*. (&5+/,5&. 9&. ;''&-&);)&. V* ;. '1)&/
01)/0&.%*;(&.8/.B;)/;(1.',.;[,(*),-.,5,/
%*(&5>/*0&(),"
V5()&.F)/-;.U*E/.;5*9,-.K.+&.;%-/'1.*
(&5+/,5&. de frânare Uf.
7

!"#$%&$3$.34%&)/0&5(,-.-,/.H);5'I.E/.K&)(C^ R;. ;5*9,-. K. %*(. ;[,5F&. 9*;)

6. X. +'7&0;. /5+(;-;>/&/_. 7. X. /5(&5+/(;(&;
&-&'()*5//. ';)&. -;. /&E/)&;. 9/5. F)/-1. ;,
',)&5(,-,/. W5. 8,5'>/&. 9&. (&5+/,5&;. 9&
;''&-&);)&. ;. &-&'()*5/-*)" &5&)F/;. '/5&(/'1. 0;/. 0;)&. 9&'T(
&Vf(Ec > eUf ).
Z5(&5+/(;(&;. ;'&+(,/. ',)&5(. &+(&. 01+,);(1. 9&. F;-B;5*0&(),-. UV.
d9;(1. ',. ')&E(&)&;. (&5+/,5//. 9&. ;''&-&);)&A. ')&E(&. E/. /5(&5+/(;(&;. ',)&5(,-,/"
V5+&;051.'1A.%&5(),.;'&+(&.B;-*)/.;-&.(&5+/,5//.9&.;''&-&);)&A.&-&'()*5//.5,.'&9&;C1
&5&)F/;.'/5&(/'1.;(*0/-*).9&.0&)',)".3/.+,8&)1.9*;).'/*'5/)/.&-;+(/'&.',.;(*0//.9&
0&)',). ';)&. ;,. *. 0;+1. 0,-(. 0;/. 0;)&"
Când tensiunea atinge 4,9 V, se în)&F/+()&;C1. *. +'19&)&. D),+'1. ;. /5(&5+/(1>//
',)&5(,-,/A.81)1.';.;'&;+(;.+1.9&B/51.5,-1".V5+&;051.'1.-;.;5*9.;[,5F.0;/.%,>/5/
&-&'()*5/_. )&+(,-A. +,8&)/59. '/*'5/)/. /5&-;+(/'&. ',. ;(*0//. 9&. 0&)',)A. WE/. %/&)9. 9/5
&5&)F/;. '/5&(/'1. E/. 5,. 0;/. %*(. +()1D;(&. 9/+(;5>;. 9/5()e. F)/-1. E/. ;5*9"
=)&+'T59.W5.'*5(/5,;)&.(&5+/,5&;.9&.;''&-&);)&.')&E(&.E/./5(&5+/(;(&;.',)&5(,J
-,/A. +'1CT59. D),+'. 'T59. (&5+/,5&;. ;(/5F&. B;-*;)&;. 9&. \AU. k". M'&-;E/. -,'),. +&
*D+&)B1. E/. -;. #GAQ. k. ?8/F". !"UA. 7@"
34%-/';>/;. ;'&+(*). 0/5/0&. %&)/*9/'&. &+(&. ,)01(*;)&;^. ;(,5'/. 'T59. &5&)F/;
'/5&(/'1. ;. &-&'()*5,-,/. &+(&. &F;-1. ',. GA\`&kA. &-&'()*5,-. +,8&)1. '/*'5/)/. /5&-;+(/'&
',.;(*0//.9&.0&)',)A.;'&E(/;.()&'T59.9/5.+(;)&;.8,59;0&5(;-1.W5()J*.+(;)&.&4'/(;(1"
];'1.;(*0,-.9&.0&)',).;)&.5/B&-,)/.9&.&5&)F/&.',;5(/8/';(&.&-.%*;(&.%)/0/.5,0;/
;5,0/(&.';5(/(1>/.D/5&.9&(&)0/5;(&.9&.&5&)F/&A.'*)&+%,5C1(*;)&.9/8&)&5>&-*).9/5()&
&5&)F//-&. 5/B&-,)/-*). &5&)F&(/'&"

O2
 =;.,)0;)&A.&5&)F/;.'/5&(/'1.;.&-&'()*5/-*).W5.(/0%,-.'/*'5/)//.B;)/;C1.W5.';5(/(1>/
D/5&. 9&(&)0/5;(&"
];'1.&4%&)/0&5(,-.+&.)&;-/C&;C1.',.B;%*)/.9&.+*9/,.+&.F1+&E(&.'1.h%*)>/;i.9&
&5&)F/&. &+(&. 9&. 2A#2. &kA. /;). %&5(),. B;%*)//. 9&. %*(;+/,A. 9&. #AO!`&k"
34%&)/0&5(,-.;.8*+(.)&;-/C;(.W5;/5(&.';.<*7).+1.&-;D*)&C&.(&*)/;.+;.)&8&)/(*;)&
-;. +(),'(,);. ',;5(/8/';(1. ;. ;(*0,-,/"

!"O" I)+0-.$ (-$ 05/$ 0-.7/$ '.'()*+2/P

:*9&-,-. -,/. <*7). 5,. 9&+')/&. '*)&'(. 9&'T(. +%&'(),-. 7/9)*F&5,-,/. E/. ;-. ;(*0/-*)
7/9)*F&5*/C/.?K&+, Li++, Be+++@".M'&E(/.;(*0/.+,5(.0;/.+/0%-/A.'*5>/5T59.,5.+/5F,)
&-&'()*5"
În cazul atomilor cu mai mult de un electron, problema deB/5&. 0;/. '*0%-&41A
!
W5(),'T(.8/&';)&.&-&'()*5./5(&);'>/*5&;C1.5,.5,0;/.',.5,'-&,-A.W5'1)';(.%*C/(/BA.9;).E/
',.'&/-;->/.&-&'()*5/"
V5.0*9&-,-.-,/.<*7)A.+/+(&0,-.&+(&.8*)0;(.9/5()J,5.5,'-&,.E/.,5.&-&'()*5.';)&.+&
0/E'1.W5.[,),-.5,'-&,-,/.%&.*.traiectorie circ):6!9-.ME;.',0.+J;.9/+',(;(.W5.';%/(*-,-`2A
%&5(),.*.%;)(/',-1.',;5(/'1A.'1)&/;./.+&.%*;(&.;+*'/;.*.,591A.5,.%,(&0.B*)D/.9&+%)&
();/&'(*)/&".3-&'()*5,-.5,.+&.0/E'1.%&.();/&'(*)//.D/5&.9&(&)0/5;(&.'/.;'*%&)1.W5.(/0%.*
)&F/,5&.;.+%;>/,-,/.9/5.[,),-.5,'-&,-ui.
Y&.9&.;-(1.%;)(&A.W5.+%&'()&-&.0&(;-&-*).;-';-/5&.+&.'*5+(;(1.;D;(&)/.9&.-;.8*)0,-&-&
+&)//-*).+%&'();-&"
d.&4(/59&)&.;.0*9&-,-,/.-,/.<*7).;.8*+(./5()*9,+1.9&.8/C/'/;5,-.$*00&)8&-9".M'&+(
0*9&-.0*9/8/';(.+&.5,0&E(&.4,3&:):*6(,45'*2,F!I/,44&!<&:3-
În a'&+(. 0*9&-. *)D/(&-&. +&. '*5+/9&)1. &-/%(/'&A. 5,'-&,-. F1+/59,J+&. W5. ,5,-. 9/5()&
8*';)&"
S*>/.&-&'()*5//.';)&.;,.;'&-;E/.5,01).',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-."O.+&.;8-1A.W5.0&9/&A.-;.;'&&;E/
9/+(;5>1.9&.5,'-&,A.;9/'1.;,.;'&&;E/.&5&)F/&"
T)49!):* ')6"(5'* #!5"'5#6:* "* ')6"(5<5'9* A6:,!5:&* &"&!B5&5* pe care le poate avea
electronul în atom.
3-&'()*5//.';)&.;,.;'&-;E/.5,01).',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-.*',%1.*.#9()!9*W5.[,),-.5,'-&,-,/"
e,01),-.',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-A."O./;.B;-*)/.W5()&F/.%*C/(/B&^.n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … /;)
%1(,)/-&.'*)&+%,5C1(*;)&.+&.5*(&;C1^ WO*0O DO TO XO*s
V5.0/E';)&;.+;.%&.*.;5,0/(1.*)D/(1.;.%1(,)//A.&-&'()*5,-.%*+&91.,5.0*0&5(.'/5&(/'"
:&';5/';.',;5(/'1.;);(1.'1.%&5(),.0/')*%;)(/',-&.B;-*)/-&.0*0&5(,-,/.'/5&(/'.+,5(
',;5(/8/';(&".e,01),-.W5()&F.:A.';)&.')6"(5<5'9*A6:,!5:&*4,4&"():)5*'5"&(5'O*s&.5,0&E(&
")49!*')6"(5'*,!75(6:-
3-&'()*5//.';)&.8;'.%;)(&.9/5.;'&&;E/.%1(,)1.?;,.;'&-;E/.5,01).',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-."@
E/. ,5. ;5,0/(. 5,01). ',;5(/'. *)D/(;-. :A. 8*)0&;C1. *. %)7#9()!9* &-&'()*5/'1" e,01),-
',;5(/'.*)D/(;-.:./;.B;-*)/-&^.l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, (n –1) iar subp1(,)/-&.'*)&+%,5C1(*;)&
+&.5*(&;C1^ %O*#O*3O*<O*s
3-&'()*5//. 9/5()J*. %1(,)1. +&. 9&*+&D&+'. %)/5. 0*0&5(&. '/5&(/'&. 9/8&)/(&". k;-*;)&;
9/8&)/(1. ;. 0*0&5(&-*). '/5&(/'&. +&. )&8-&'(1. W5. 8*)0;. *)D/(&/. &-&'()*5/-*). ?8/F". !"\@"
O!
 3-&'()*5//.',.;'&-;E/.5,01).',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-A.9;)
',. 5,01),-. ',;5(/'. *)D/(;-. 9/8&)/(A. +&. 0/E'1. %&
*)D/(&.9/8&)/(&A.9&.;'&&;E/.-,5F/0&.E/.';)&.;,.;'&&;E/
;41.0;)&"
Y&5(),. B;-*;)&;. -/0/(1. ;. 5,01),-,/. ',;5(/'
*)D/(;-.:*G*".X#A.*)D/(;.9&B/5&.'/)',-;)1"
!"#$% &$4$. =&-&. %;(),. 8*)0&. 9&. *)D/(& S*>/. &-&'()*5//. 9/5()J*. +,D%1(,)1. ;,. ;%)*;%&
;-&. ,5,/. &-&'()*5. W5. +(;)&. ',;5(/'1 ;'&&;E/.&5&)F/&"
"`p`GA* :. p. bA. #A. 2A. !"
Momentul cinetic 0 . &+(&. ,5. B&'(*). %&)%&5J
!
9/',-;). %&. %-;5,-. 0/E'1)//". :&';5/';. ',;5(/'1
+(;D/-&E(&. '1. +,5(. ',;5(/8/';(&. E/. 01)/0&;. E/
! 9/)&'>/;. 0*0&5(,-,/. '/5&(/'A. 9&. 8;%(. *)/&5(;)&;
+%;>/;-1. ;. 0*0&5(,-,/. '/5&(/'. ?;9/'1. ;. *)D/(&-*)
&-&'()*5,-,/. X. 8/F"`!"#b@". Y)*/&'>//-&. 0*0&5(,-,/
'/5&(/'.*)D/(;-.%&.*.9/)&'>/&.9;(1./;,.5,0;/.B;-*)/
9/+')&(&".M4;.W5.);%*)(.',.';)&.+&.8;'&.',;5(/8/';)&;
&+(&.9&(&)0/5;(1.9&.'*59/>//-&.8/C/'&.&4(&)5&.W5.';)&
!"#$% &$'5$% d)/&5(1)/-&. %*+/D/-&. ;-&
*)D/(&/. ,5,/. &-&'()*5. !3A. W5. +%;>/," +&.;8-1.;(*0,-"
];'1.;(*0,-.+&.;8-1.W5()J,5.'T0%.0;F5&(/'.9&
!
/59,'>/&. 2 A.;(,5'/.%)*/&'>//-&.0*0&5(,-,/.'/5&(/'.*)D/(;-.B*).8/.',;5(/8/';(&.%&.9/)&'>/;
-,/. 2 .
!
e,01),-.W5()&F.';)&.')6"(5<5'9*#!,5&'855:&*4,4&"():)5*'5"&(5'*,!75(6:*#&*,*6C9*%&
")4&>(&*")49!*')6"(5'*46B"&(5'*,!75(6:*4l.
Y&5(),.*.B;-*;)&.9;(1.;.-,/.:O.5,01),- cuantic magnetic orbital ml ia valorile:
ml = – l, – (l – 1), …, 1, …, (l – 1), l,
;E;.',0.&+(&./-,+();(.E/.W5.8/F,);.!"#b"
Y&5(),.*.B;-*;)&.9;(1.;.-,/.:A.4l ia (2l + 1) valori.
=,5*;E(&)&;.;'&+(*).()&/.5,0&)&.',;5(/'&A."A.:.E/.4l, a putut explica liniile spectrale
0;/.'*0%-/';(&.;-&.0&(;-&-*).;-';-/5&.';)&.;,.8*+(.*D+&)B;(&.&4%&)/0&5(;-".:*9&-,-A
W5+1A.5J;.%,(,(.&4%-/';.&4/+(&5>;.9,D-&>/-*).9/5.+&)//-&.+%&'();-&A.;E;J5,0/(;.h+(),'(,)1
8/51i.;.;'&+(*).-/5//".]&.&4&0%-,A.-/5/;.F;-D&51.&0/+1.9&.+*9/,.&+(&.8*)0;(1.9/5 9*,1
-/5//.',.-,5F/0/.9&.,591.8*;)(&.;%)*%/;(&"
V5.0&';5/';.',;5(/'1.)&-;(/B/+(1.+&./5()*9,'&.01)/0&;.5,0/(1.0*0&5(.'/5&(/'.9&
spin ( / ) ca o proprietate a particulelor elementare.
!

=&)'&(1)/-&.(&*)&(/'&.E/.&4%&)/0&5(;-&.;,.;)1(;(.'1.W5.5;(,)1.&4/+(1.9*,1.(/%,)/.9&
%;)(/',-&^.%;rticule cu spin semiîntreg, care se numesc fermioni ?&-&'()*5//A.%)*(*5//A
5&,()*5//@. E/. %;)(/',-&. ',. +%/5. W5()&FA. ';)&. +&. 5,0&+'. bosoni (fotonii, de exemplu).
Spinul / este un vector paralel sau antiparalel cu momentul cinetic orbital.
!

e,01),-. ';)&. cua"(5<5'9* #!,5&'856* A&'(,!):)5* %#5"* #&* ,* 6C9* %&* ")4&>(&* ")49!
')6"(5'*46B"&(5'*3&*%#5"O*4s. Acesta ia valorile:
ms = ± 1/2.
OG
 ]&'/.+(;)&;.&-&'()*5,-,/.W5.;(*0.&+(&.';);'(&)/C;(1.9&.%;(),.5,0&)&.',;5(/'&^
X.5,01),-.',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-.".p.#A.2A.!A.s_
X.5,01),-.',;5(/'.*rbital l = 0 , 1, 2, …, (n – 1);
X.5,01),-.',;5(/'.0;F5&(/'.*)D/(;-.4l = – l, ... 0 ... l;
#
X.5,01),-.',;5(/'.0;F5&(/'.9&.+%/5. 4% = ± .
2
Z5()*9,'&)&;. +%/5,-,/. &4%-/'1. +(),'(,);. 9&. 0,-(/%-&(A. ;9/'1. 9&. -/5//. +%&'();-&
9&+'*0%,+&.W5.-/5//.0;/.8/5&.X.+(),'(,);.8/51.;.-/5//-*).spectrale.
Y&5(),.%;)(/',-&-&.',.+%/5.+&0/W5()&F.&4/+(1.principiul de excluziune al lui Pauli:
V5()J,5.+/+(&0.9&.%;)(/',-&./9&5(/'&.?9&.&4&0%-,A.W5.;5+;0D-,-.&-&'()*5/-*).,5,/.;(*0@
5,.%*(.&4/+(;.9*,1.%;)(/',-&.';)&.+1.;/D1.(*;(&.'&-&.%;(),.5,0&)&.',;5(/'&.identice.
$1. ';-',-10. 5,01),-. 0;4/0. 9&. &-&'()*5/. 9/5()J,5. ;(*0. ';)&. ;,. ;'&-;E/. 5,01)
!
',;5(/'.%)/5'/%;-."-.Y&5(),.*.B;-*;)&.9;(1.;.-,/."O*:./;.B;-*)/.?bA.#A.sA."?X`#@".H/&'1)&/
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9&.7/9)*F&5.B&)/8/'1.0*9&-,-.;(*0/'.; lui Bohr. Se cunosc: k = 1,38·10–23 J/K (constanta
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NL = n – 1 = 12 linii (Lymann)
NB = n – 2 = 11 linii (Balmer)
NP = n – 3 = 10 linii (Paschen)
NBr = n – 4 = 9 linii (Brackett)
NPf = n – 5 = 8 linii (Pfund).
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0,1 nm. Se cunosc: h = 6,62·10–34 J·s, c = 3·108. 0x+. E/. &`p`#AOm#b–19 C.

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#VV
 Z&- @+A(1,- !"#^"- 6.
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>%/,1+?,1.- +&<.16.- H\<Tu\V"
Z&-'.6)1+.1.,-@(&)*+%&21++-!"#$%-.8+602-%-,&(4+02-<,/%,1.-,-0.&6+(&++-'.-A1+/2 !
H\<-W-?fD2&(4+02-m0.&6+(&.-'.->1,An-L6,(->.&.01,*+.M"-!1'6-+'102*12&30F-?f-.60.
,).,- 0.&6+(&.- '.- A1+/2- 3&).>K&'- '.- /,- ),1.- )./.- '%(2- 1.A+(&+- A%/+0.- '.- >(1020%1+
/+F.1+-6.-6.>,12R-,>21K&'-),&,/(/-'-7+R-0%0%',02R-)(1.&0(/-'.-'1.&2-LHS-≈-VR-=ST≠\VM"
P.&01(- ),1,)0.1+60+)+/.- '+&- @+A(1,- !"#^R- ?f2 W- [D- c"- :,)2- 6.- 421.70.- 01.>0,0- 0.&Q
6+(&.,- '.- '1.&2- HS<- 4.&*+&K&'- %- 0.&6+(&.- '.- A1+/2- )%&60,&02R- '.- .8.4>/(
H\<-W-[#-c-Lj?fMR-6.-)%&60,02-)2-/,-<,/%1+-4+)+->.&01(-HS<-),1,)0.1+60+),-)(1.&0Q
0.&6+(&.-.60.-/+&+,12R-01,&?+60%1(/-)%4>%10K&'(Q6.-),-(&-1.?+60%1-,-)21(+-1.?+60.&*2
.60.- )%4,&',02- >1+&- 0.&6+(&.,- '.- A1+/2"- T).60- 0+>- '.- 1.?+60%1- .60.- @%/%6+0- 3&
./.)01%&+)2"- e,- 0.&6+(&+- '.- '1.&2- 4,+- 4,1+R- )1.70.1.,- +&0.&6+02*++- =S- ,- )(1.&0(/(+
'.- '1.&2- .60.- '+&- ).- 3&- ).- 4,+- 4+)2"- $K&'- HS<D- +,- <,/%,1.,
HS2 60,2 W- H\<- [- ?fR L!"DM
+&0.&6+0,0.,-)(1.&0(/(+-'.-'1.&2-,0+&A.-%-<,/%,1.-=S260,-7+-124K&.-L)<,6+M)%&60,&02"
T).,60,- .60.- m1.A+(&.,- '.- 6,0(1,*+.n- ,- ),1,)0.1+60+)+/%1R- './+4+0,02- /,- 60K&A,- '.
)(1F,- )(- .)(,*+,- 6)1+62- 4,+- 6(6"
_+&K&'-6.,4,-'.-)./.-,&0.1+%1->1.?.&0,0.R-.8>/+),*+,-)%4>%1021++-01,&?+60%1(/(+
!"#$%-1.?(/02-'+&-@+A(1+/.-!"#H"-7+-!"#^"-:,)2-/,-HS<-≈-V-L7+-H\<-W-[-#c-W-)%&60"M
1.A+(&+/.- A%/+0.- 6(&0- )./.- a,7(1,0.- %F/+)R- /,- HS<- W- HS\60,- ./.- 6Q,(- .80+&6- )(
6(>1,@.*./.-a,7(1,0.-%1+?%&0,/"-b80+&'.1.,-.60.-&.(&+@%142R-4,+-/,1A2-6>1.-'1.&2R
@++&')2- ,)%/%- >%/,1+?,1.,- +&<.162- .60.- ).,- 4,+- 1+'+),02"- T).60- /()1(- 6.- 3&0K4>/2
>.&01(- )2- 3&- 1.A+(&.,- '1.&.+- >%0.&*+,/(/- .60.- 4,+- 1+'+),0- ',0%1+02- )2'.1++- '.- 0.&Q
6+(&.- '+&- +&0.1+%1R- )1.,02- '.- )(1.&0(/- '.- '1.&2R- /,- ),1.- 6.- ,',(A2- 7+- 0.&6+(&.,
,>/+),02- '+&- .80.1+%1- H\<"- P1+&- (14,1.R- ),&,/(/- '.<+&.- %F0(1,0- L>.&.01,0M- 3&- ,)./
>(&)0R-fR-(&'.-0.&6+(&.,-'.->%/,1+?,1.-+&<.162->.-@+.),1.-O%&)*+(&.-,0+&A.-<,/%,Q
1.,-H\<2[-HST60,R-,'+)2-0.&6+(&.,-'.->1,A-?f-)%&@%14-1./,*+.+-!"D"-?f-.60.-'.-%1'+&(/
(&+02*+/%1- '.- <%/*+- +,1- =S- 60,2 ,1.- <,/%1+/.- )(>1+&6.- 3&01.- (&+02*+- 7+- ?.)+- '.- 4T"
:.- >1.)+?,0- )2- &(- 6.- %F*+&.- %- 02+.1.- )%4>/.02- ,- )(1.&0(/(+- '.- '1.&2R- )+- %
L)<,6+M6,0(1,1.-,-6,R-+&0.&6+0,0.,-)(1.&0(/(+R-=S-124K&K&'R->1,)0+)R-)%&60,&02R-)..,
).- +&'+)2- @,>0(/- )2- &(- 6.- 1.,/+?.,?2- %- %F0(1,1.- )%4>/.02- ,- ),&,/(/(+R- >.&01(
HS<T≥\HS- 6,0- .8+60K&'R- '.- @,>0R- %- 6.)*+(&.- @%,10.- 4+)2R- ',1- @+&+02- ,- ,).60(+,R- (&
m),&,/- 1.?+'(,/nR- 3&- <.)+&20,0.,- '1.&.+"

#V#
 Z&- (&./.- /()121+- 6.- )%&6+'.12- 3&62- )2R- '(>2- )%&0%>+1.,- 1.A+(&+/%1- '.- 01.).1.R
>(1020%1++-4,O%1+0,1+-+&012-3&-1.A+(&.,-'.-6,1)+&2-6>,*+,/2-@++&'-)%/.)0,*+-'.-'1.&2R
/,- @./- )(4- 6.- 3&0K4>/2- [- 6.- <,- <.'.,- [- 3&- 1.A+(&.,- '.- 6,1)+&2- 6>,*+,/2- '.- /,
)%/.)0%1(/- (&(+- 01,&?+60%1- F+>%/,1"
"K13(-8-+P262-6.-<.1+@+).-&(4.1+)-@%14(/,-L!"DM->.&01(-li5-W-[-#-cR-@%/%6+&'
@+A(1,- !"#^"

!"B"9"- D1,&?+60%,1.- )(- .@.)0- '.- )K4>- L#$%M- )(- >%,102- +?%/,02N
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/,0%1Q6.4+)%&'()0%1-LUd5M"-b/.)01%'(/-4.0,/+)->%,102-LA1+/2M-\-,/-,).60%1-01,&?+6Q
0%1+- .60.- 6.>,1,0- '.- 6.4+)%&'()0%1- >1+&01Q(&- 601,0- +?%/,0%1- @%,10.- 6(F*+1.- L0+>+)R
6(F- 9RD- 44M"- Z&- ),?(/- 3&- ),1.- 601,0(/- +?%/,0%1- .60.- 1.,/+?,0- '+&- %8+'- L5+f9M- 01,&Q
?+60%1++- >%,102- &(4./.- '.- !"#$]a<- L]a<b"!R- 3&- .&A/.?2M"- :(>2- 4%'(/- '.
! @%14,1.-,-),&,/(/(+-'.-)%&'()*+.-,/-)(1.&0(/(+-./.)01+)R-01,&?+60%1++-!"#$]a<-6.
)/,6+@+)2- 3&- '%(2- ),0.A%1++S
,M- !"#- )(- ),&,/- +&'(6- 6,(- )(- 601,0- '.- +&<.16+(&.- 6,(- 34F%A2*+0Y
FM- !"#- )(- ),&,/- +&+*+,/- 6,(- )(- 601,0- 6212)+0"
$,&,/./.- >%0- @+- '.- 0+>- '- 6,(- '.- 0+>- &"
$+1)(+0./.- +&0.A1,0.- ,)0(,/.- ,(- 1+'+),0- 01,&?+60%1(/- !"#$]a<- /,- 1,&A(/- '.
'+6>%?+0+<-1.>1.?.&0,0+<-,/-./.)01%&+)++"-T).60.-01,&?+60%,1.-6(&0-@1.)<.&0-(0+/+?,0.
3&-1.,/+?,1.,-1.?+60%,1./%1-'.-6,1)+&2-)(-1.?+60.&*2-)%4,&',02->1+&-0.&6+(&.-7+-3&
1.,/+?,1.,- )+1)(+0./%1- /%A+)."
:+&- >(&)0- '.- <.'.1.- +60%1+)R- >1+4(/- 01,&?+60%1- >1%>(6- 6>1.- 1.,/+?,1.- ,- @%60
0%)4,+-)./-'.-0+>-!"#$]a<-L#^EVM"-s.).6+0K&'-%-0.a&%/%A+.->1.0.&*+%,62R-1.,/+Q
?,1.,- /(+- ,- 3&).>(0- ,F+,- 3&- ,&(/- #^EV"
Z&- ,).60- >,1,A1,@R- !"#$]a<- <,- @+- >1.?.&0,0- 3&- <,1+,&0,- ),&,/- '- +&'(6"

!"B"9"#"- #$%&()*- )(- ),&,/- +&'(6- 0+>- "+

"/171',12 ()'6,3+(,-;1- [- J1,&?+60%1(/- Uf5- .60.- %- )%4>%&.&02- ./.)01%&+)2
,)0+<2- )(- >,01(- 0.14+&,/.S- 6(16,- L<MR- >%,10,- L\MR- '1.&,- LSM- 7+- 6(F601,0(/- L`M"- T/
>,01(/.,-0.14+&,/-L`M-)%&.)0,0-/,-6(F601,0(/-&-6.-&(4.70.-F,?2-7+-6.-/.,A2-./.)01+)R
'.-%F+).+R-/,-6(162-L<MR-,).60,-@++&'
7+- 1.@.1+&*2- '.- >%0.&*+,/- L?<TW\VM"
Z&-@+A(1,-!"9V-6.->1.?+&02-%-601()Q
0(12- '.- 01,&?+60%1- Uf5- )(- ),&,/
'R-,/.-)21(+-',0.-A.%4.01+).-6(&0S
Z- [- /(&A+4.,- ),&,/(/(+R- W- [
/2*+4.,- ),&,/(/(+R- ,)K- [- A1%6+4.,
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6+4.,- ),&,/(/(+"
:1.&,- 6.- '.@+&.70.- ),- @++&'
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#V9
(&->%0.&*+,/-L?SM-4,+-4,1.-'.)K0-,/-)./(+/,/0-),>20-L?<MR-),1.-'.<+&.R-,60@./R-6(162
L?S- ≥- ?<R- )(- ?<\W\V- >%0.&*+,/- '.- 1.@.1+&*2M"
P1+&-,>/+),1.,-(&.+-0.&6+(&+->%?+0+<.-LH\<-j-VMR-./.)01%&++-/+F.1+-'+&-+&0.1+%1(/
6.4+)%&'()0%1(/(+- <%1- @+- ,01,7+- 3&- &(421- 0%0- 4,+- 4,1.Y- 3&- 426(1,- 3&- ),1.- H\
)1.70.-6>1.-+&0.1@,*,-%8+'Q6.4+)%&'()0%1R-6.-<%1-,)(4(/,-3&-&(421-4,1.-3&-1.A+(Q
&.,- 6(>.1@+)+,/2- ,- 601,0(/(+- &- [- 6.4+)%&'()0%1- 3&01.- 6(162- 7+- '1.&2"- $,- (14,1.R
>.&01(-%-,&(4+02-<,/%,1.-?f-,-0.&6+(&++-'.-A1+/2-LH\<-W-?fMR-&(4+02-0.&6+(&.-'.
>1,AR- 3&01.- 6(162- 7+- '1.&2- <,- /(,- &,70.1.- (&- 601,0- '.- +&<.16+(&.- &(4+0- ),&,/- '.
)%&'()*+.-'.-0+>-'R-'.-/(&A+4.-Z"- :+60,&*,-Z-'+&01.-6(162-7+-'1.&2-.60.-'.-,>1%Q
8+4,0+<- LVRD÷!M- 44- >.&01(- 01,&?+60%,1./.- ,4>/+@+),0.- 7+- '.- )),"- L9V÷!VM- 44
>.&01(- !"#]a<- @%/%6+*+- ),- 1.?+60%,1.- '.- 6,1)+&2"
J.&6+(&.,- '.- >1,AR- ?fD- /,- ),1.- ,>,1.- ),&,/(/- 6.- )%&6+'.12- ),- @++&'- 0.&6+(&.,
H\<->.&01(-),1.-)%&).&01,*+,-./.)01%&+/%1-'+&-),&,/-'.<+&.-.A,/2-)(-)%&).&01,*+,
A%/(1+/%1- '+&- 1.60(/- 6.4+)%&'()0%1(/(+- L&$<-M"
f',02-)(-@%14,1.,-601,0(/(+-'.-+&<.16+(&.R-3&-,>1%>+.1.,-,).60(+,-<,-,<.,-/%)
%-6212)+1.-'.-./.)01%&+R-+,1-A%/(1+/.-/%1-<%1-@+-3&'.>210,0.-6>1.-+&0.1+%1(/-6.4+)%&Q
!
'()0%1(/(+R-/26K&'-3&-/%)-+%&+-&.A,0+<+-L,+-,0%4+/%1-'.-+4>(1+@+),1.M-),1.-@%14.,Q
?2- %- 6,1)+&2- &.A,0+<2R- @+82"
T).,602-6,1)+&2-6>,*+,/2-.8+602-,0K0-3&-1.A+(&.,-),&,/(/(+-'.-A1%6+4.-4+)2R-JR
)K0- [- 3&- )%&0+&(,1.- [- 7+- 3&- ,@,1,- /(+- 6(F- 6(162- 7+- '1.&2- >1+&- 1.A+(&+/.- A%/+0.- ,/.
O%&)*+(&+/%1-6(162Q6(F601,0-7+-'1.&2Q6(F601,0-3&-<%/(4(/-6.4+)%&'()0%1(/(+R-3&0+&Q
?K&'(Q6.R-)(-,0K0-4,+-4(/0R-)(-)K0-H\<LjT?fM-.60.-4,+-4,1."-T>/+)K&'-%-0.&6+(&.
3&01.- '1.&2- 7+- 6(162- HS<- j- V- >.&01(
%- 0.&6+(&.- H\<- j- ?f- >1+&- ),&,/- <,
)(1A.- )(1.&0(/- ./.)01%&+)- '.- +&0.&Q
6+0,0.-=S-≠-V"-:.>.&'.&*,-)(1.&0Q0.&Q
6+(&.- =S2 W- :LHS<MR- )(- 0.&6+(&.,- H\<
>,1,4.01(R-<,-@+-/,-@./-),-/,-01,&?+6Q
0%1++- !"#$%D- '(>2- )(4- 6.- %F6.1<2
>.- @+A(1,- !"9#"
P.&01(-0.&6+(&+-HS<-4+)+R-),&,/(/
.60.- >1,)0+)- .)a+>%0.&*+,/- 7+- ),1,)Q
0.1+60+),- )(1.&0Q0.&6+(&.- =S- [- HS<
>%,0.- @+- )%&6+'.1,02- /+&+,12"- T).60
1.A+4- /+&+,1- .60.- ),1,)0.1+?,0- '.- %
1.?+60.&*2- ,- ),&,/(/(+- LG#M- )%&01%Q !"#$% &$('$
/,02- >1+&- 0.&6+(&.,- '.- >%,102- H\<"
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)1.70.1.,-6,1)+&++-'.-+&<.16+(&.-xT@=Tx-7+R-)%1.6>(&?20%1R-6)2'.1.,-1.?+60.&*.+-),&,Q
/(/(+"-;.A+(&.,-/+&+,12-.801,>%/,02-.60.-',02-'.-0,&A.&0./.-/,-)(1F./.-=SLHS<MxH
\<A()'6,L
3&- >(&)0(/- HS<- W- V- L@+A"- !"99M"
P,&0./.-,).60%1-0,&A.&0.-LG([#M-6(&0-)(-,0K0-4,+-4,1+-)(-)K0-)1.70.-0.&6+(&.,\H\<"

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,)..,- )2- >%0.&*+,/(/- ),&,/(/(+-?(- <,1+,?2- )1.6)20%1- '.- /,- 6(162- /,- '1.&2R- 3&01()K0
)1.70.-)2'.1.,-'.-0.&6+(&.-=SG(->.-),&,/R-),1.-'.<+&.-6.4&+@+),0+<2-L=S-,-)1.6)(0M"
T0(&)+R-0.&6+(&.,->.-%8+'-H)K-W-H\<2E2?<-6),'.->.-,)..,7+-'+1.)*+.-LagMR-'()K&'
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)1.70.1.,-1.?+60.&*.+-),&,/(/(+-7+R-+4>/+)+0R-/+4+0,1.,-)1.70.1++-+&0.&6+02*++-)(1.&0(Q
/(+-'.-'1.&2R-=S"-U21+&'-0.&6+(&.,-HS6-/,-%-,&(4+02-<,/%,1.-HS<26,0->.&01(-(&-H\<
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@%14,- (&.+- >.&."
P.&01(- 0.&6+(&+- '.- '1.&2- HS<- j- HS<- 60,- ,1.- /%)- .@.)0(/- '.- 6)(10,1.- ,- ),&,/(/(+
L@+A"- !"99R- *M- +,1- +&0.&6+0,0.,- )(1.&0(/(+- '.- '1.&2- 124K&.- ,>1%8+4,0+<- )%&60,&02
7+- .A,/2- )(- =S- 60,"
e(&A+4.,- .@.)0+<2- ,- >%1*+(&++- '.6)a+6.- ,- ),&,/(/(+- '.<+&.- Z1:- W- Z- [- /R- +,1
)2'.1.,- '.- 0.&6+(&.- >.- ,).,602- >%1*+(&.- .60.- .A,/2- )(- HS<2 60,L- ;.60(/- 0.&6+(&++R
H/\W\HS<-[-HS<260,D-),'.->.->%1*+(&.,-A%/+02-'.->(1020%1++-),&,/(/(+"-$K4>(/-./.)Q
01+)-+&0.&6-,6%)+,0-0.&6+(&++-H/-,&01.&.,?2-6>1.-'1.&2-./.)01%&++-.8+60.&*+-/,-),>20(/
601,0(/(+-'.-+&<.16+.R-)(1.&0(/-'.-'1.&2-01.)K&'-,60@./-3&-)%&0+&(,1.->1+&-'+6>%?+Q
0+<R- )(- +&0.&6+0,0.,- )%&60,&02R- =S- W- )%&60"
e,-0.&6+(&+-'.-'1.&2-HS<-7+-4,+-4,1+->%,0.-,<.,-/%)-6,34&+'F1310-01,&?+60%1(Q
/(+-!"#]a<-L?%&,-ddd-'+&-@+A"-!"9#M-(&'.-,1.-/%)-%-)1.70.1.-,F1(>02-,-+&0.&6+02*++

#V!
)(1.&0(/(+- '.- '1.&2- =S"- 5012>(&A.1.,- .60.- '.0.14+&,02- '.- 6012>(&A.1.,- ,0K0- ,
O%&)*+(&++- &'- '1.&2Q6(F601,0R- )K0- 7+- ,- +?%/,0%1(/(+- '.- 6(F- >%,102"
Z&- ),?(/- 01,&?+60%,1./%1- !"#$]a<R- 4,O%1+0,0.,- @,F1+),0.- '+&- 6+/+)+(R- 6012>(&Q
A.1.,-O%&)*+(&++-'1.&2Q6(F601,0-.60.-'.0.14+&,02-'.-@.&%4.&(/-'.-4(/0+>/+),1.-3&
,<,/,&72- ,- >(1020%1+/%1- '.- 6,1)+&2- L<"\>,A"\H^MR- '.0.14+&K&'- )1.70.1.,- ,F1(>02
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501,0(/- %8+'(/(+- +?%/,0%1- 6.- 6012>(&A.- /,- 0.&6+(&+- '.- >%,102- 1./,0+<- 4+)+
LH\<\≈\DV\cM-',0%1+02-A1%6+4++-4+)+-,-%8+'(/(+-L,)K2u-VR#-44M"-5012>(&A.1.,->%,0.
,<.,- /%)- )a+,1- >1+&- 6+4>/,- ,0+&A.1.- ,- ./.)01%'(/(+- >%,102R- '.%,1.).- '+./.)01+)(/
)%&6.1<2- ),>,)+0+<- 6,1)+&+/.- 7+- /.- ,)(4(/.,?2R- '.0.14+&K&'- )1.70.1.,- 1,>+'2- ,
0.&6+(&++- >K&2- /,- <,/%,1.,- '.- 6012>(&A.1."- P.&01(- .<+0,1.,- 6012>(&A.1++R- (&./.
01,&?+60%,1.-6(&0->1.<2?(0.R->1+&-)%&601()*+.R-)(-%-'+%'2-I.&.1-'.->1%0.)*+.-3&)%1Q
>%1,02- 3&- '+6>%?+0+<- 7+- )%&.)0,02- 3&01.- \- 7+- <"
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 Tabelul 4.1.
Jb$- $l- PfT;J| $TsTe- JdP- & $TsTe- JdP- '
H 2 V2 V H 2 V2 V
=fs$_dlsb
S< S<
H 2 V2 V- - = - j- V H 2 Y2 V- - = - j- V
\< S \< S

H 2 Y2 V H 2 V2 V
S< S<
$TsTe-dsd_dTe

H 2 VY2 V- - = - u- V H 2 VY2 V- - = - j- V
\< S \< S

!
Jb$- $l- PfT;J|- dIfeTJ|

H 2 Y2 V H 2 V2 V
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$TsTe-ds:l5

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0%1- L./.)01%&+M- .60.- 1.'(6R- ,).70+,- ',(- >1+&- O%&)*+(&.,- )%/.)0%1- (&- )(1.&0- '.- +&Q
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! .4+0%1(/(+-,).60,-@++&'-'.0.14+&,0-'.-0.&6+(&.,-,>/+),02-3&01.-.4+0%1-7+-F,?2-H"`"
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Pe baz0-%)10,()(-6(/*%)-E0<+-G(-)/)%.()Y-60*+-6)-5(/<*)(/Y-∆E = c2∆mY-E0<0-<)
'&0*)- )T'%(E0- G(- B/- 2/(*+,(- )3U(>01)/*)- 6)- )/)%.()"
e*((/6- 3+- +- b- 4Y``I`4AHf#W8- Ec<- G(- #- )g- b- #YHW4#IIf#W–19 J,
1 u·c2 = 14,92383 J = 931,5 MeV.
_8,(/)EY- 6)3(] mp = 938,3 MeV/c2 G(- #n = 939,5 MeV/c2.
7)- >)6)- 3+]- #p = mn ≈ 1u iar mp = 1836 me.
9'-)'%/'& ./!0*($:**& !"+-/'%/& este foarte mare.
#6 2
#6 2 #6
ρ= =
=
A : = 10 kg/m .
17 3
A :
9 π8W 2 π8W
: :
5T')%(E)/*01-<)-3&/<*0*+-3+Y-10-<2'%0F0,0-/231)212(Y-6)/<(*0*)0-<306)-*%)'*0*-G(
/2- <)- 0/21)0@+- 8%2<3"

##`
 !"5" 6/)%.(0- 7)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212("
4*08(1(*0*)0- /231)212(

!"5"#" 9&%,)- /231)0%)"- 6/)%.(0- 7)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212(

R&*-6(/-)T')%(E)/*21-12(-=2*U)%F&%6-<V0-*%0<-3&/312@(0-3+-10-6(<*0/,)-E0(-E(3(
6)- #W–14- E- 03,(&/)0@+- F&%,)- E21*- E0(- (/*)/<)- 6)3S*- 3)1)- 3&21&E8()/)"
7)-'&0*)-0/01(@0-)T')%(E)/*01-32E-<)-E0/(F)<*+-(/*)%03,(2/)0-6(/*%)-2/-'%&*&/
G(- 2/- /)2*%&/- B/- F2/3,()- 6)- 6(<*0/,0- 6(/*%)- 3)1)- 6&2+- '0%*(321)"
6< 6
e*(E- 3+]- dL = – dEp; ;6%- b- X- 6<6- ⇒- ;- b- X
6%
JG0- 32E- <)- >)6)- B/- F(.2%0- !"4Y- ',- ')/*%2- 6(<*0/,)- %& h- 8- /2- 03,(&/)0@+- /(3(&
F&%,+"- $)/*%2- %- i- 8Y- 3)1)- 6&2+- '0%*(321)- <)- 0*%0.- '2*)%/(3- G(- 30- 2%E0%)- )/)%.(0
'&*)/,(01+- <306)- 8%2<3"- Z/- %).(2/)0- %j≤j8- )T(<*+- &- k.%&0'+- 6)- '&*)/,(01l"
Z/- 30@21- (/*)%03,(2/((- 6(/*%)- 6&(- '%&*&/(- LF(."- !"4Y& =OY- 10- 6(<*0/,)- E0(- E0%(- 6)
! 8Y- '%&*&/((- <)- %)<'(/.- 60*&%(*+- F&%,)(- )1)3*%&<*0*(3)- 3&21&E8()/)"
?0-6(<*0/,0-%-≤-8Y-'&*)/,(0121-<306)-8%2<3Y-60*&%(*+-F0'*212(-3+-F&%,)1)-0*%03*(>)
<2/*- E21*- E0(- (/*)/<)"
N2%80- )/)%.()(- '&*)/,(01)- 0%)- 2/- E0T(E- /2E(*- k80%()%+- 6)- '&*)/,(01l"- $)/*%2
&- '0%*(321+- 0>S/6- <0%3(/0- 5#/Y- kB/+1,(E)0l- 80%()%)(- 6)- '&*)/,(01- )<*)- 60*+- 6)
%)10,(0]
5 5/ 4
<6 = # Y L!":O
Aπε W 8
în care +Ze este sarcina nucleului.

0 8

!"#$% &$($- '& X- >0%(0,(0- F&%,)(- /231)0%)- /)2*%&/V'%&*&/- 32- 6(<*0/,0- %& 6(/*%)- 3)1)- 6&2+- '0%*(321)m
=- X- >0%(0,(0- F&%,)(- /231)0%)- '%&*&/V'%&*&/- 32- 6(<*0/,0- %& 6(/*%)- 3)(- 6&(- '%&*&/("

#4W
 9&%,)1)-30%)-E)/,(/-'%&*&/((-G(-/)2*%&/((-B/-/231)2-<2/*->)%:/&!"+-/'%/?&J3)<*)
F&%,)- 02- 2%E+*&0%)1)- '%&'%()*+,(]
X- <2/*- E21*- E0(- (/*)/<)- 6)3S*- F&%,)1)- )1)3*%&<*0*(3)- 3&21&E8()/)- L6)- #WW- &%(
E0(- E0%(Om
X- 02- %0@+- E(3+- 6)- 03,(2/)- (≈ 10–15 m);
X- /2- 6)'(/6- 6)- <0%3(/0- '0%*(321)1&%m
X-02-03))0G(->01&0%)-')/*%2-6&(-'%&*&/(Y-6&(-/)2*%&/(-<02-')/*%2-2/-'%&*&/-G(
2/- /)2*%&/m
X- 2/- /231)&/- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- /2E0(- 32- /231)&/((- 0F10,(- B/- (E)6(0*0- 0'%&'()%)"
$%(/-E)*&6)1)-<')3*%&E)*%()(-6)-E0<+Y-'&*-F(-E+<2%0*)-32-'%)3(@()-E0%)-E0<)1)
0*&E(1&%"-9&%,)1)-/231)0%)-<2/*-0*S*-6)-E0%(Y-B/3S*-E0<0-2/2(-<(<*)E-/231)0%-1).0*
)<*)- E0(- E(3+- 6)3S*- <2E0- E0<)1&%- /231)&/(1&%- 3&E'&/)/,("
Z/- 03)<*- F)1Y- <)- '&0*)- &8,(/)- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- 2/)(- 3&/F(.2%0,((- /231)0%)
6(%)3*-6(/-3&E'0%0%)0-E0<)1&%"-7V0-&8<)%>0*-3+-E0<0-2/2(-(@&*&'-)<*)-E0(-E(3+
6)3S*-<2E0-E0<)1&%-'0%*(321)1&%-3&/<*(*2)/*)-B/-<*0%)-1(8)%+-L/231)&/(-G(-)1)3*%&/(O"
$)/*%2- 2/- /231)2- F&%E0*- 6(/- 5- '%&*&/(- G(- L2& 4& 5O- /)2*%&/(Y- 6(F)%)/,0- 6(/*%)
<2E0- E0<)1&%- /231)&/(1&%- 1(8)%(- 0F10,(- B/- %)'02<- G(- E0<0- /231)212(- 1).0*- 0F10*- B/
%)'02<- L#NO- )<*)- ).01+- 32]- Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN = ∆m.
N&/F&%E- F&%E21)(- 12(- 5(/<*)(/Y- 30%)- <*08(1)G*)- %)10,(0- B/*%)- E0<+- G(- )/)%.()] !
<& @& +4∆#, L!"AO
/!/%A*'&+'%/&0/&/-*=/%/'B$&-'&>)%#'%/'&!"+-/"-"*&.*!&!"+-/)!*&0'"&/!/%A*'&!/+/0'%$
./0>'+/%**& !"+-/"-"*& C!& !"+-/)!**& +)#6)!/!:*& 0/& !"#/D(/& /!/%A*'& ./& -/A$("%$& '
!"+-/"-"*& E<leg).
$)- 80@0- %)10,()(- !"AY- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212(- 0%)- )T'%)<(0]
Eleg = c2[Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN]. (5.5)
Întrucât în tabele sunt date masele atomilor (mAO-G(-/2-E0<)1)-/231))1&%Y->&E
)T'%(E0- %)10,(0- !"!- 0<*F)1- B/3S*- <+- 0'0%+- E0<0- 0*&E212("
Eleg = c2[Zmp + (A – Z)mn + Zme – Zme – mN].
unde me este masa electronului.
;0<0- 0*&E212(- 6(F)%+- 6)- E0<0- /231)212(]
)1
<1).
#2& @& #3& F& 5#/- X- .
+4
5/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- )1)3*%&/(1&%- B/- 0*&E- <leleg- L#W- )gO- '&0*)- F(- /).1([0*+Y- )0
F((/6- E21*- E0(- E(3+- 6)3S*- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212(Y- 6)3(]
Eleg = c2[ZmH + (A – Z)mn – mA], (5.6)
unde:
mH = m p + m e
este masa atomului de hidrogen 11H.
Definim /!/%A*'&./&-/A$("%$&6/&!"+-/)!&ca fiind /!/%A*'&./&-/A$("%$&'&!"+-/"-"*
<1).
C#6$%:*($& -'& !"#$%"-& !"+-/)!*-)%& .*!& !"+-/"G .
2
#4#
 7+-301321+EY-6)-)T)E'12Y-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-0-/231)212(-6)-U)1(2-24n)"-M2E+%21
6)- '%&*&/(- )<*)- 5- b- 4- G(- /2E+%21- 6)- /)2*%&/(- 2& 4& 5- b- 4"
Masa atomului de 42He este: m2He = 4,00260 u = 3728 MeV,
4
iar masa atomului de hidrogen 11H:
m1H = 1,00815u = 938,7 MeV.
1

Eleg = 2·938,7 + 2·939,5 – 3728 = 28,4 MeV.

$2*)E- 3013210- B/- 3&/*(/20%)- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)2]
<1). 4QYA
= = 7,1 MeV.
2 A

!"5"5" 4*08(1(*0*)0- /231)212(

7*08(1(*0*)0- /231))1&%- )<*)- 30%03*)%(@0*+- 6)]
3
X- %0'&%*21- 6(/*%)- /2E+%21- 6)- /)2*%&/(- 3- G(- /2E+%21- 6)- '%&*&/(- 5]- ;
! 5
X- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)&/]
<1).
.
2
o%E+%(/6- )T')%(E)/*01- '%&'%()*+,(1)- /231))1&%- )1)E)/*)1&%Y- <V0- 3&/<*0*0*- 3+
0/2E(*)- '%&'%()*+,(- <2F)%+- E&6(F(3+%(- B/- <01*2%(- 10- 2/- /2E+%- 6)- '%&*&/(- <02- 6)
/)2*%&/(- ).01- 32]- 4Y- QY- 4WY- 4QY- !WY- Q4Y- #4HY- 0G0V/2E(*)1)- k/2E)%)- E0.(3)l"
51)E)/*)1)-01)-3+%&%-/231))-3&/,(/-2/-/2E+%-E0.(3-G(-6)-'%&*&/(-G(-6)-/)2*%&/(Y
<)- /2E)<3- k62812- E0.(3)l- L42He, 168O, 40 20
Ca, 48
20
N0- G(- 208
82
Pb).
O valoare- E0%)- 0- )/)%.()(- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)&/- (/6(3+- F0'*21- 3+- /231)&/((
<2/*- '2*)%/(3- 1).0,(- B/*%)- )(Y- 3))0- 3)- B/<)0E/+- 3+- /231)21- )<*)- <*08(1"
Z/-.%0F(321-6(/-F(.2%0-!":-)<*)-%)'%)@)/*0*+-6)')/6)/,0-)/)%.()(-6)-1).+*2%+-')
<1).
/231)&/- - B/- F2/3,()- 6)- /2E+%21- 6)- E0<+- 2"
2
D(/-.%0F(3-<)-&8<)%>+-3+-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-')-/231)&/-3%)G*)-%0'(6-32-/2E+%21
6)- E0<+- ')/*%2- >01&%(- E(3(- 01)- 12(- 2Y- '%)@)/*S/6- G(- E0T(E)- '%&/2/,0*)- ')/*%2
4
2
He, 126Ca, 168_"-$)/*%2-2-32'%(/<-B/*%)-AW-G(-#AWY-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-')-/231)&/
)<*)- E0T(E+- (≈- QY!- ;)gO- G(- 0'%&0')- 3&/<*0/*+"- $)/*%2- 2- h- #AW- L/231))- .%)1)O
)/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)&/- <306)- 1)/*- 0[2/.S/6- 10- 0'%&T(E0*(>- IY!j;)g"
;0T(E)1)-E+%(E((-<legc2-')/*%2-/231))1)-2G&0%)-32-2-i-4Q-G(-5&@&3-<2.)%)0@+
F&%E0%)0-2/&%-.%2'+%(-<*08(1)-6)-A-/231)&/("-5T(<*+Y-6)3(Y-*)/6(/,0-30-6&2+-')%)3U(
'%&*&/V/)2*%&/- <+- <)- 1).)- 0<*F)1- B/3S*- <+- F&%E)@)- 2/- /231)2- 6)- 42n)- X- &- '0%*(321+
αY- 30%)- )<*)- F&0%*)- <*08(1+"

#44
 !"#$% &$)$- g0%(0,(0- )/)%.()(- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)&/- B/- F2/3,()- 6)- /2E+%21- 6)- E0<+- 2"
!
!"5":"- ;&7)10%)0- <*%23*2%((- /231)212(
Z/-)108&%0%)0-E&6)1)1&%-/231)0%)-'%(/3('010-'()6(3+-3&/<*+-B/-F0'*21-3+-/2-<)
32/&0G*)- /0*2%0- F&%,)1&%- /231)0%)"
$)- 80@0- E&6)1)1&%- /231)0%)- <)- B/3)0%3+- )T'1(30%)0- <*08(1(*+,((- /231))1&%Y- 0
'%&'%()*+,(1&%- 1&%- %06(&03*(>)Y- '%)32E- G(- '%&808(1(*+,(1)- 6)- *%0/@(,()"
H)./-"-& 6*+$("%**
J3)<*- E&6)1- '%&'2<- 6)- P&U%- B/- 0/21- #`:#- <)- 80@)0@+- ')- 0/01&.(0- 6(/*%)
(/*)%03,(2/)0-30%)-0%)-1&3-B/*%)-/231)&/(-G(-3)0-6(/*%)-E&1)321)1)-6(/*%V&-'(3+*2%+
6)- 1(3U(6]
X- /231)&/21- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- /2E0(- 32- /231)&/((- >)3(/(m
X- E(G30%)0- /231)&/(1&%- )<*)- 3&E'0%0*+- 32- E(G30%)0- 6)- 0.(*0,()- *)%E(3+- 0
E&1)321)1&%- 1(3U(6212(Y- /231)&/((- 6(/- k'(3+*2%0- /231)0%+l- <)- E(G3+- 3&/*(/22Y
<3U(E8S/6- )/)%.()- B/*%)- )(- B/- 2%E0- 3(&3/(%(1&%m
X-'(3+*2%0-6)-<28<*0/,+-/231)0%+-)<*)-B/3+%30*+-)1)3*%(3-G(-)<*)-(/3&E'%)<(8(1+m
X- /231)&/((- 6)- 10- <2'%0F0,+- <2/*- 0*%0G(- <'%)- (/*)%(&%21- '(3+*2%((- )T)%3(*S/6- &
F&%,+- 6)- k*)/<(2/)- <2')%F(3(01+l- 30%)- 6)*)%E(/+- F&%E0- <F)%(3+- 0- '(3+*2%(("
N2- 0[2*&%21- 03)<*2(- E&6)1- <)- '&*- )T'1(30]
X- )>0120%)0- %0@)(- /231)212(- ')- 80@0- F0'*212(- 3+- >&12E21- /231)212(- )<*)- 0'%&V
T(E0*-32->&12E21-2/)(-<F)%)-6)-%0@+-8Y-'%&'&%,(&/01-32-/2E+%21-6)-/231)&/(-2]
4 :
π8 - b- I2m
9- b-
3
X-'%&3)<21-6)-F(<(2/)-/231)0%+Y-0<)E2(*-32->(8%0,(0-2/)(-E&1)321)-B/-[2%21-2/)(
'&@(,((- E&E)/*0/)- 6)- )3U(1(8%2m
#4:
 X-)E(<(0-6)-/231)&/(-B/-30@21-%)03,((1&%-/231)0%)-'&0*)-F(-6)<3%(<+-30-2/-'%&3)<
6)- k)>0'&%0%)l"
;&6)121- /2- )T'1(3+]
X- F&%,)1)- /231)0%)m
X- &- '0%*)- 6(/*%)- '%&'%()*+,(1)- /231)212(m
X- <*08(1(*0*)0- /231))1&%- F&%E0*)- 6(/- .%2'+%(- 6)- 4- /)2*%&/(- G(- 4- '%&*&/(m
X- <*+%(1)- )T3(*0*)- 01)- /231))1&%m
X- %)03,((1)- /231)0%)- 30%)- 02- 1&3- 32- '0%*(321)- '%&()3*(1- 6)- E0%)- )/)%.()m
H)./-"-& 6$("%*-)%& !"+-/'%/
J3)<*- E&6)1- 0- F&<*- '%&'2<- 6)- n)(<)/8)%.- B/- 0/21- #`:!"
J<)E+/+*&%- 6(<*%(82,()(- )1)3*%&/(1&%- 6(/*%V2/- 0*&E- ')- 0/2E(*)- '+*2%(- )/)%.)V
*(3)- <)- 6(<*%(82()- G(- /231)&/((- ')- 0/2E(*)- /(>)1)- 6)- )/)%.()"- 9()30%)- /231)&/- <)
E(G3+- (/6)')/6)/*- B/- 3SE'21- 3%)0*- 6)- 3)(101,(- /231)&/("
N0- G(- &%8(*)1)- )1)3*%&/(3)Y- &%8(*)1)- /231)0%)- <2/*- 30%03*)%(@0*)- 6)- 3)1)- '0*%2
/2E)%)-320/*(3)-')/*%2-30%)-)<*)->0108(1-'%(/3('(21-6)-)T312@(2/)-0-12(-$021(m-')
&-'+*2%+-6)-)/)%.()-/2-'&*-<*0-6)3S*-3)1-E21*-6&(-/231)&/(-(6)/*(3(-32-E&E)/*)1)
6)- <'(/- &%()/*0*)- 0/*('0%01)1"
M231)21- )<*)- 3)1- E0(- <*08(1- 3S/6- '+*2%(1)- <2/*- &32'0*)"
! D03+-<)-(/*%&623)-B/3+-2/-/231)&/Y-03)<*0-&32'+-2/-01*-/(>)1-6)-)/)%.()Y-F((/6
E0(-<108-1).0*-L&-)/)%.()-6)-1).+*2%+-E0(-E(3+O"-Z/<)0E/+-3+-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+
')-/231)&/-0-2/2(-/231)2-32-'+*2%(-(/3&E'1)*)-)<*)-E0(-E(3+-6)3S*-0-2/2(-/231)2
32- '+*2%(- 3&E'1)*)"
;&6)121-)T'1(3+-)T(<*)/,0-k/2E)%)1&%-E0.(3)lY-6)<3%()-3&E'&%*0%)0-/231))1&%
2G&0%)Y-310%(F(3+-*B)#/%*'&L03)10G(-2Y-03)10G(-5-G(-6(F)%+-'%(/-B/<2G(%(1)-1&%-%06(&V
03*(>)OY- )E(<(0- %06(0,()(- γ- '%(/- *%0/@(,((1)- B/*%)- 0/2E(*)- /(>)1)- )/)%.)*(3)- /231)V
0%)Y- <*08(1(*0*)0- /231))1&%- F&%E0*)- 6(/- .%2'2%(- 6)- 4- /)2*%&/(- G(- 4- '%&*&/("
;&6)121- 2/(F(30*- 6(/*%)- E&6)121- '(3+*2%((- G(- E&6)121- B/- '+*2%(- )<*)- 32/&<32*
30- #)./-"-& A/!/%'-*B'("

!"#$%&'&( )"#)*+&
'$-$)-80@0-%)10,()(-!"HY-<+-<)-301321)@)-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-0-/231)212(-6)-6)2*)%(2- 21H.
Se cunosc: mH = 1,007299 u; mn- b- #YWWQH`W- 2- G(- m2H = 2,014102u.
1
R: 1,76 MeV.
($- 7+- <)- 301321)@)- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- ')- /231)&/Y- ')/*%2- /231)21- 6)- 235
92
U.
Se dau: m235 U = 235,04393u; mH- b- #YWWI4``- 2- G(- #n = 1,008690 u.
92
R: 7,4 MeV.
3$-7+-<)-301321)@)-)/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-0-2/2(-/231)2-30%)-0%)-2/-/2E+%-).01-6)-'%&*&/(-G(
6)-/)2*%&/(-32-01-/231)212(-6)-27J1-G(-%0@0-6)-#Y!-&%(-E0(-E(3+"-5/)%.(0-6)-1).+*2%+-0-/231)212(
6)- 012E(/(2- )<*)- ).01+- 32- 4#H- ;)g"
R: 64 MeV.
*$-N013210,(-E0<0-/231)212(-(@&*&'212(-168OY-32/&<3S/6-3+]-masa atomului m16O = 15,9949
8
u- G( masa electronului me = 5,6067·10–4 u.
R: 15,9904 u.

#4A
!":" =07(&03*(>(*0*)0#"-?).(1)-7)@(/*).%+%((-%07(&03*(>)
M231))1)- E21*&%- )1)E)/*)- 3U(E(3)- <2/*- <*08(1)Y- 06(3+- BG(- E)/,(/- <*%23*2%0- 2/
*(E'- (/F(/(*- 6)- 12/.- LE(1(0%6)- 6)- 0/(O"
M231))1)- (/<*08(1)- 02- &- )T(<*)/,+- 1(E(*0*+- B/- *(E'"
Nucleele instabile se numesc radioactive, deoarece dezintegrarea nucleului stabil
se face cu emiterea din nucleu a unor %'.*':**& 3&%'2<3210%)- G(- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3)"
C/<*08(1(*0*)0- /231)0%+- <)- 6)&<)8)G*)- 6)- (/<*08(1(*0*)0- 0*&E212(- '%(/]
X- 62%0*0- E)6()- 0- (/<*08(1(*+,((m- 10- 2/- <(<*)E- 0*&E(3- 62%0*0- 2/)(- <*+%(- )T3(*0*)
)<*)-30E-6)-#W–8 s, pe când la un nucleu ins*08(1-)<*)-32'%(/<+-B/*%)-#W–14-<-G(-#W11
ani.
X- 6)@)T3(*0%)0- <(<*)E)1&%- 0*&E(3)- <)- F03)- '%(/- )E(<()- 6)- F&*&/(m- /231))1)
0*&E(3)- <)- 6)@)T3(*+- 0*S*- '%(/- )E(<()- 6)- F&*&/(- 3S*- G(- 6)- '0%*(321)- β sau α.
R%0/<F&%E+%(1)- /231)0%)- '&*- F(]
• spontane: – dezintegrare radioacti>+- Lα, β);
X- 6)@)T3(*0%)- /231)0%+- Lγ);
p- *!."0/G X- %)03,((- /231)0%)m
X- )T3(*+%(- /231)0%)"
Z/- *&0*)- *%0/<F&%E+%(1)- /231)0%)- <)- %)<')3*+- legile de conservare 0- )/)%.()(Y !
(E'21<212(Y- E&E)/*212(- 3(/)*(3Y- <0%3(/((- G(- /2E+%212(- 6)- /231)&/("

!":"#" =07(&03*(>(*0*)0-/0*2%01+
$%&3)<21-6)-)E(<()-<'&/*0/+-0-%06(0,((1&%
B1- /2E(E- %'.*)'+(*J*('(/& !'("%'-$?
;&6)121- '%&*&/&V/)2*%&/(3- 01- /231)212(
)T'1(3+- G(- %06(&03*(>(*0*)0- /231))1&%"
$)/*%2- 0- <*08(1(- /0*2%0- %06(0,((1&%- )E(<)
6)-/231)21-2/2(-)1)E)/*-%06(&03*(>Y-'%)'0%0*21
%06(&03*(>- <)- (/*%&623)- B/*%V&- E(3+- 30>(*0*)
3(1(/6%(3+- '%03*(30*+- B/*%V2/- 81&3- 6)- '12E8"
$)%')/6(3210%- ')- 6(%)3,(0- F0<3(321212(- 6)
%06(0,((Y-<)-0'1(3+-2/-3SE'-E0./)*(3-2/(F&%E"
7)-6)3)1)0@+-*%)(-*('2%(-6)-%06(0,((-LF(."j!"AO" !"#$% &$*$% 7)'0%0%)0- %06(0,((1&%- %06(&03V
51)- 02- F&<*- /2E(*)- %06(0,((- α, β- G(- γ. *(>)- B/- 3SE'- E0./)*(3"
D2'+- E&621- B/- 30%)- <2/*- 6)>(0*)Y- <V0- <*08(1(*- 3+]
– 8'.*':**-/& α- <2/*- F&%E0*)- 6(/- '0%*(321)- 32- <0%3(/+- '&@(*(>+- G(- E0<+- E0%)
L<2/*-E0(-'2,(/-6)>(0*)O"-$0%*(321)1)-α-<2/*-/231))-6)-U)1(2-G(-02-)/)%.((-32'%(/<)
B/*%)- :- G(- H- ;)g"- Z/- 0)%Y- 02- 2/- '0%32%<4- 6)- :- 'S/+- 10- #W- 3E- G(- '&*- F(- &'%(*)- 6)
2/-<*%0*-6)-<28<*0/,+-6)-&-F%03,(2/)-6)-E(1(E)*%2"-C&/(@)0@+-'2*)%/(3-.0@)1)-'%(/
30%)- *%)3"

#
-g)@(-G(-U**']ccqqq"0/6%06"%&c%&cr(6b#WW:`s10/.b%&"
4
- $0%32%<- X- 6%2E21- E)6(2- <*%+8+*2*- 6)- '0%*(321)- B/*%V&- <28<*0/,+- 'S/+- 10- &'%(%)"

#4!
 – 8'.*':**-/&β–-<2/*-F0<3(321)-6)-)1)3*%&/(Y-32-<0%3(/0-).01+-32-<0%3(/0-)1)3*%(3+
)1)E)/*0%+Y-#YHf#W–19N"-?0-03))0G(-)/)%.()Y-02-'2*)%)-6)-(&/(@0%)-0'%&T(E0*(>-6)
#WW- 6)- &%(- E0(- E(3+- 6)3S*- '0%*(321)1)- α- G(- 2/- '0%32%<- 6)- 3S,(>0- E)*%(- B/- 0)%- G(
4X:- EE- B/- 012E(/(2"
5T(<*+-G(-%06(0,((-β+Y-F0<3(321)-6)-'0%*(321)-/2E(*)-6)B*(%)!*,-0>S/6-'%&'%()*+,(
0<)E+/+*&0%)- 32- %06(0,((1)- β–Y- 60%- )1)- <)- 0/(U(1)0@+- %0'(6"- Z/*%V2/- '%&3)<- 6)
0/(U(10%)- '&@(*%&/V)1)3*%&/- (02- /0G*)%)- 6&2+- 320/*)- γ.
– 8'.*':**-/& γ- /2- <2/*- 6)>(0*)- 6)- 3SE'21- E0./)*(3- G(- )1)3*%(3"- 51)- <2/*- 2/6)
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)-32-12/.(E(-6)-2/6+-F&0%*)-E(3(Y-6)-&%6(/21-#c#WW-6(/-12/.(E)0
6)-2/6+-')/*%2-%0@)1)-\"-72/*-E21*-E0(-')/)*%0/*)-6)3S*-%06(0,((1)-α-G(-βY-'0%32%<21
1&%Y- 10- 03))0G(- )/)%.()Y- F((/6- 6)- 3S*)>0- @)3(- 6)- E)*%("
72/*-%06(0,((-6)-/0*2%+-)1)3*%&E0./)*(3+-0>S/6-)/)%.((-E0(-E0%(-6)3S*-%06(0,((1)
\"- N0- 2%E0%)Y- B//).%)<3- '1030- F&*&.%0F(3+Y- (&/(@)0@+- .0@)1)- G(- <28<*0/,)1)- '%(/
30%)- *%)3Y- 60%- E21*- E0(- <108- 6)3S*- %06(0,((1)- \"
o/-03)10G(-/231)2-/2-)E(*)-3&/3&E(*)/*-*&0*)-3)1)-*%)(-*('2%(-6)-%06(0,((m-6&0%
2/- 0E)<*)3- 6)- )1)E)/*)- %06(&03*(>)- 1)- '&0*)- 60"
În urma emisiei radioac*(>)Y-/231)21-)E(*)/*-<)-*%0/<F&%E+-B/*%V2/-01*-/231)2"
! Dezintegrarea α . În urma emisiei unei particule α, nucleul elementului
radioactiv ZA\- <)- *%0/<F&%E+- 62'+- )320,(0]
A
Z
X → 42α + AZ –– 42Y, (5.7)
06(3+Y- !"#$%"-& ./& #'0$& '-& '()#"-"*& 0/& #*+D)%/'B$& +"& K& "!*($:*& D*& !"#$%"-
'()#*+& 5& +"& L& "!*($:*?& M6/+*'& '()#*+$& \& 0/& (%'!0>)%#$& C!& tY& ./6-'0'(& +"& .)"$
+$0":/& -'& 0(N!A'& C!& ('=/-"-& 6/%*).*+& '-& /-/#/!(/-)%?
Particulele α-)E(<)-6)-/231)2Y-<)-F&%E)0@+-B/-(/*)%iorul nucleului prin unirea
a 2 protoni cu 2 neutroni.
Din punctul de vedere al fizicii clasice, pentru ca particula α-<+-'&0*+-'+%+<(
/231)21Y-0%-*%)82(-<+-'%(E)0<3+-&-)/)%.()-')/*%2-0-()G(-6(/-k.%&0'0-6)-'&*)/,(01l
G(- 0- *%)3)- ')<*)- k80%()%0- 6)- '&*)/,(01l"- D0%- /231))1)- <)- 6)@(/*).%)0@+- <'&/*0/Y
F+%+- *%0/<F)%- 6)- )/)%.()- 6(/- 0F0%+"
Z/-E)30/(30-320/*(3+Y-6)@(/*).%0%)0-α-)<*)-*%0*0*+-30-&-*%)3)%)-0-03)<*&%-'0%*(321)
prin 80%()%0- 6)- '&*)/,(01Y- '%&3)<- /2E(*- efect tunel.
Dezintegrarea β. Prin emisia unui electron, noul /-/#/!(& '%/& '+/-'D*& !"#$%
./& #'0$& 2,& *'%& !"#$%"-& '()#*+& 5& /0(/& #$%*(& +"& )& "!*('(/G
2
5
\- →- X#Wβ- d- 5- d-2#t" L!"QO
O)+"-&/-/#/!("-"*&0/&./6-'0/'B$&+"&)&+$0":$&-'&.%/'6('&C!&('=/-"-&6/%*).*+&'-
/-/#/!(/-)%?
Z/- 30@21- )E(<()(- 2/2(- '&@(*%&/]
2
5
\- →- d#Wβ- d- 5- X-2#t" L!"`O
51)E)/*21-%06(&03*(>-<)-*%0/<F&%E+-B/*%V2/-)1)E)/*-/&2Y-<(*20*-32-2/-1&3-E0(
10- <*S/.0- B/- *08)121- ')%(&6(3- 01- )1)E)/*)1&%"

#4H
 D)&0%)3)-B/-/231)2-/2-)T(<*+-)1)3*%&/(-<02-'&@(*%&/(Y-<)-06E(*)-3+-)E(<(0-β–-0%)
1&3-30-2%E0%)-0-*%0/<F&%E+%((-2/2(-/)2*%&/-B/*%V2/-'%&*&/-G(-2/-)1)3*%&/Y-(0%-)E(<(0
β+Y- '%(/- *%0/<F&%E0%)0- 2/2(- '%&*&/- B/*%V2/- /)2*%&/- G(- 2/- '&@(*%&/"- $)/*%2- 0- <)
%)<')3*0- 1).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- )/)%.()(Y- <)- )E(*)- ('&*)@0- 3+- B/- 6)@(/*).%0%)0- β–- G(- β+Y
')-1S/.+-/)2*%&/-G(-'%&*&/Y-0'0%)-&-'0%*(321+-/&2+Y-/)2*%+-)1)3*%(3Y-32-E0<+-F&0%*)
E(3+Y-30%)-<)-6)'10<)0@+-32->(*)@0-12E(/((Y-6)/2E(*+-!/"(%*!)-LνO-G(-'!(*!/"(%*!)-Lν u O.
Deci: 1p → 1n + 0e + ν- G(- 1n → 1p + 0e + u
1 0 +1 0 1 –1
ν.
Dezintegrarea γ$- =06(0,(0- γ- )<*)- )E(<+- 0*2/3(- 3S/6- 2/- /231)2- *%)3)- 6(/*%V&
<*0%)- 32- )/)%.()- E0(- E0%)- B/*%V&- <*0%)- 32- )/)%.()- E0(- E(3+"- M231)21- )E(*)/*- BG(
'+<*%)0@+- E0<0- G(- <0%3(/0"
=06(0,(0- γ î/<&,)G*)- )E(<(0- 6)- '0%*(321)- α sau β,- B/- 30@21- B/- 30%)- /231)21
)1)E)/*212(- %)@21*0*- /2- )<*)- <*08(1- 3(- )<*)- 10- %S/621- 12(- %06(&03*(>Y- 6)3(- )<*)- B/
<*0%)- )T3(*0*+- G(- <)- /&*)0@+- 32- tK"

!":"5" ?).(1)- 7)@(/*).%+%((- %07(&03*(>)

D)@(/*).%0%)0-)<*)-2/-'%&3)<-<'&/*0/-30%)-<)-'%&623)-B/*SE'1+*&%Y-6)3(-<*08(1(%)0
2/)(-1).(-6)-6)@(/*).%0%)-*%)82()-08&%60*+-6(/-'2/3*-6)->)6)%)-<*0*(<*(3"-M2-<)-'&0*)
'%)>)6)0-30%)-0/2E)-0*&E-<)->0-6)@(/*).%0-10-2/-E&E)/*-60*Y-60%-<)-'&0*)-32/&0G*)
!
/2E+%ul de atomi care se vor dezintegra într-un anumit interval de timp.
S-a constatat experime/*01- 3+Y- ')/*%2- 2/- /231)2- (/<*08(1Y- B/- 2/(*0*)0- 6)- *(E'Y
<)- 6)@(/*).%)0@+- *&*6)02/0- 03))0G(- F%03,(2/)- 6(/- /2E+%21- 6)- /231))- '%)zente la
un moment dat.
P)!0('!('& +'%/& %/6%/B*!($& >%'+:*"!/'& .*!& !"#$%"-& !"+-//-)%& 6%/B/!(/& +/& 0/
./B*!(/A%/'B$&C!&"!*('(/'&./&(*#6&0/&!"#/D(/&+)!0('!($&%'.*)'+(*J$&E0'"&+)!0('!($
./& ./B*!(/A%'%/Q& λ:
63 #
λ=X m- vλw7C- b- <X#" L!"#WO
3 6(
50- )<*)- (/6)')/6)/*+- 6)- '%)<(2/)Y- *)E')%0*2%+- G"0"Y- )<*)- 03))0G(- ')/*%2- *&0*)
/231))1)- 03)1)(0G(- <')3((Y- 06(3+- )<*)- &- 3&/<*0/*+- 6)- E0*)%(01"
7)E/21-E(/2<-0%0*+-3+-/2E+%21-6)-/231))-30%)-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-63-3%)G*)-G(
/2E+%21- 6)- /231))- %+E0<)- /)6)@(/*).%0*)Y- 3,& <306)"
7)'0%+E- >0%(08(1)1)- G(- (/*).%+E- %)10,(0- !"#WY- 6)- 10- 30- L/2E+%21- 6)- /231))
/)6)@(/*).%0*)- '%)@)/*)- 10- E&E)/*21- (jbjWO- 'S/+- 10- 3- L/2E+%ul de nuclee
3 (

∫ ∫
63
nedezintegrate la momentul t): = X λ 6( .
3W
3 W

3
S)- &8,(/)]- 1/3- – lnN0 = – λt ⇒ 1/ = X λ( .
3W
L/A/'& ./B*!(/A%$%**& %'.ioactive se poate scrie:
3- b- 3W)Xλ(? L!"##O

#4I
 D)3(Y-!"#$%"-&!"+-//-)%&!/./B*!(/A%'(/&3-<306)-)T'&/)/,(01-B/-*(E'-LF(."j!"!O"
$)/*%2-30%03*)%(@0%)0-%06(&03*(>(*+,((-2/2(-)1)Ee/*-<)-F&1&<)G*)-&-01*+-3&/<*0/*+Y
(*#6"-&./&C!R"#$($:ire T1/2. 5<*)-*(E'21-62'+-30%)-[2E+*0*)-6(/*%)-/231))1)-(/(,(01)
3W
<)- 6)@(/*).%)0@+Y- 06(3+- 3 = (fig. 5.5).
4

= N0e–λT1/2 ⇒ 1 = 2e–λT1/2.
3W
Z/1&32(/6- B/- %)10,(0- !"##Y- <)- &8,(/)]-
4
?&.0%(*ES/6- G(- G*((/6- 3+- 1/4jbjWYH`:Y- )T'%)<(0- *(E'212(- 6)- B/[2E+*+,(%)- )<*)
60*+- 6)- F&%E210]
1/ 4 WYH`: "
S#c 4 =
= L!"#4O
λ λ
=)10,(0-!"##-'&0*)-F(-)T'%(E0*+-G(-B/-F2/3,()-6)-*(E'21-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)-S1/2"-D)
01*F)1Y- B/- '%&81)E)Y- 03)0<*+- E+%(E)- )<*)- E0(- 6)<- F&1&<(*+- 6)3S*- 3&/<*0/*0
%06(&03*(>+- λ.
Z/*%23S*- 6(/- %)10,(0- !"#4]
WYH`: ,
! λ=
S#c 4
re@21*+- 3+]
(
X W Y H`:
3 = 3 W) S# c 4
.
Î/-*08)121-!"#-<2/*-60,(-*(E'((-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)-')/*%2-2/)1)-)1)E)/*)-%06(&03*(>)"
3"#$%"-& !"+-//-)%& ./B*!(/A%'(/& )<*)]
N0 – N = N0 – N0e–λt = N0(1 – e–λt). (5.13)
7)- 2*(1(@)0@+- 0'%&T(E0,(0]
/–x ≈ 1 – x pentru x << 1.
Z/- 03)<*- 30@Y- )320,(0- !"#:- 6)>(/)]
N0 – N ≈ N0λt. (5.14)

Tabelul 5.1

R(E'21- 6)- B/[2E+*+,(%)- ')/*%2- 2/)1)

elemente radioactive
Elementul radioactiv T1/2
238
92
U 4,55·109 ani
232
90
Th 1,39·1010 ani
226
88
Ra 1620 ani
!"#$% &$&$% 73+6)%)0- B/- *(E'- 0- /2E+%212(- 6)
/231))- (/<*08(1)- 3"- D2'+& (- b- S#c4Y- /2E+%21
222
86
Rn 3.825 zile
6)-/231))-(/<*08(1)-3WY-'%)@)/*)-10-(&b-WY-<) 212
84
Po 10–8 s
%)623)- 10- 3Wc4"

#4Q
 S*08(1(*0*)0- )1)E)/*)1&%- %06(&03*(>)- <)- 6)F(/)G*)- '%(/- J*':'& #/.*/ τ,- ).01+- 32
(/>)%<21- 12(- λ:
#
τ= .
λ
Z/1&32(/6- B/- !"##Y- <)- &8,(/)]
#
X λ 3W
3 = 3 W) λ ⇒ & 3- b- - b- WY:I- 3W" L!"#!O
)
06(3+Y- J*':'& #/.*/- τ- /0(/& /A'-$& +"& (*#6"-& ."6$& +'%/& !"#$%"-& ./& !"+-//- 30 s/
#*+D)%/'B$& ./& )& )%*- L)- F((/6- 80@0- 1&.0%(*E(1&%- /0*2%01(]- /- b- 4YIO"
_-<2%<+-%06(&03*(>+-<)-30%03*)%(@)0@+-'%(/*%V&-E+%(E)-/2E(*+-activitate, /&*0*+
32- Λ.
Λ re6%/B*!($&!"#$%"-&./&6'%(*+"-/&6/&+'%/&-/&/#*(/&0"%0'&C!&"!*('(/'&./&(*#6G
63 "
Λ= L!"#HO
6(
o/(*0*)0- 6)- E+<2%+- B/- 7"C"- ')/*%2- 03*(>(*0*)- )<*)- 8)3x2)%)1- LPxO]
#jPxjbj#j6)@c<"
Z/- E&6- 32%)/*Y- <)- F&1&<)G*)- 2/(*0*)0- 6)/2E(*+- curie (Ci): !
1 Ci = 3,7·1010 de@c<- b- :YI- f- #W#W- Px"
=)10,(0- 6(/*%)- 03*(>(*0*)- G(- 3&/<*0/*0- %06(&03*(>+- )<*)]
Λ- b- λ3, L!"#IO
iar:
Λ = Λ0e–λt. (5.18)
D03+- B/E21,(E- %)10,(0- !"##- 32- E0<0- 2/2(- 0*&EY- #]
mN = mN0e–λt,
%)@21*+] H& @& HW)Xλ(? L!"#`O
D03+-BE'+%,(E-%)10,(0-!"##-10->&12E21-&32'0*-6)-<28<*0/,0-%06(&03*(>+Y-&8,(/)E]
3 3 W Xλ(
= ) - ⇒- !- b- !W)Xλ(, L!"4WO
9 9
2/6)- !- )<*)- +)!+/!(%':*'& 0"=0('!:/*& %'.*)'+(*J/?
Z/- <*08(1(%)0- 1).((- 6)- 6)@(/*).%0%)- 0E- 3&/<(6)%0*- 3+- )1)E)/*21- %)@21*0*- )<*)
<*0bil. D)-3)1)-E0(-E21*)-&%(Y-B/<+Y-'%&62G((-6)-6)@(/*).%0%)-<2/*-G(-)(-%06(&03*(>("
J3)G*(0-10-%S/621-1&%-<)-'&*-6)@(/*).%0-'S/+-3S/6-<)-0[2/.)-10-2/-)1)E)/*-<*08(1"
Ansamblul element)1&%-%06(&03*(>)-30%)-6)%(>+-'%(/-6)@(/*).%0%)-2/21-6(/-01*21Y
'S/+- 10- )1)E)/*21- <*08(1Y- F&%E)0@+- &- 0/%*/& %'.*)'+(*J$?
Z/- /0*2%+- <)- 32/&<3- *%)(- <)%((- %06(&03*(>)]
– seria uraniului 238 92
U → 206
82
Pb;
– seria thoriului 90Th → 208
232
82
Pb;
– seria actiniului 92U → 82Pb.
235 207

#4`
 !"#$%&'&( "&,#%-./&
'$- 7+- <)- 6)*)%E(/)- „vârstal- 2/2(- &8()3*- 6)- 1)E/Y- G*((/6- 3+- 03*(>(*0*)0 izotopului 146C
p)/*%2-03)<*-&8()3*-)<*)-:c!-6(/-03*(>(*0*)0-2/2(- 3&'03- *+(0*- %)3)/*"- R(E'21- 6)- B/[2E+*+,(%)
01- (@&*&'212(- )<*)- R1/2 = 5730 ani.
Activit0*)0- 3&'03212(- *+(0*- %)3)/*- )<*)- Λ0.- N&/F&%E- )/2/,212(Y- Λ- b- :c!ΛW.
Z/1&32(/6- B/- %)10,(0- !"#QY- &8,(/)E]- Λ0 = Λ0e–λt ⇒ 3 = 5e–λt
!
!, 1/
?&.0%(*ES/6Y- %)@21*+]- - 1/:- b- ln5 – λt ⇒ λt = ln de unde ( = : .
: λ
! !
1/ 1/
Z/<+] λ =
WYH`:
, deci: ( = : S =
#c 4
: !I:W = A44: 0/(.
S#c 4 W Y H`: W Y H`:
2.% $%&62<21- <*08(1- F(/01- 01- 6)@(/*).%+%((- (@&*&'212(- 6)- 2%0/(2- 238
92
U,- 0>S/6- *(E'21- 6)
B/[2E+*+,(%)- S1/2 = 4,5·109 ani, este izotopul plumbului 206 82
Pb.- 7+- <)- 301321)@)- 3S*- )<*)
E0<0- '12E8212(- '%&62<- '%(/- 6)@(/*).%0%)- B/- *(E'21- (- b- 4Y4!·109 ani- 0- 2/)(- 30/*(*+,(
#jbj#jy.- 6)- 2%0/(2- '2%"
M2E+%21- 6)- /231))- 6)@(/*).%0*)- 6)- 2%0/(2- )<*)- ).01- 32- /2E+%21- 6)- /231))- 6)- '12E8
! 10- E&E)/*21& (]- Ndez = NPb = N0U(1 – e– λt); 3$8- b-
#$8 3 2 # 3
- G(- 3Wo- b- o 2 Y- 6)3(]
2$8 2o
#$8 #o
= L#- X- )Xλ(O- ⇒- # - b- # 2$8 L#- X- )Xλ(O"
2$8 2o $8 o
2o
1/ 4 S# c 4 1/ 4
S 2 2$8 X
D(/- )/2/,]- ( = #c 4 Y- 6)3(]- #$8- b- #o $8 L# X ) # c 4
S 4 4 O
O b- #o L# X ) "
4 2o 2o
4WH  #  4WH
Z/1&32(/6- /2E)%(3- <)- &8,(/)]- - #$8- b- #f # X WY:!  = L# X WYIWIO "
4:Q  )  4:Q
5F)3*2S/6- 301321)1)- %)@21*+- 3+]- mPb ≈ 0,253 kg.

!":":" =)03,((- /231)0%)

=)03,((1)-/231)0%)-<2/* 6%)+/0/-/&./&*!(/%'+:*"!/&6(/*%)-/231))-G(-6(F)%(*)-'0%*(321)
L'%&*&/(Y-/)2*%&/(Y-'0%*(321)-αY-(&/(-.%)(Y-)1)3*%&/(Y-%06(0,((-γOY-30%)-02-30-)F)3*-F()
*%0/<F&%E0%)0- /231))1&%- (/(,(01)Y- F()- E&6(F(30%)0- <*+%((- 1&%- )/)%.)*(3)"
Nucleele c0%)-%)@21*+-B/-2%E0-2/)(-%)03,((-/231)0%)-'&*-F(-<*08(1)-<02-(/<*08(1)"
D03+-/231))1)-30%)-%)@21*+-<2/*-(/<*08(1)Y-)1)-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-62'+-03)1)0G(-1).(
30- B/- 30@21- %06(&03*(>(*+,((- /0*2%01)"
5320,(0- 2/)(- %)03,((- /231)0%)- '&0*)- F(- <3%(<+- <28- F&%E0]
X + x → Y + y sau X(x, y)Y, (5.21)
B/- 30%)- \- %)'%)@(/*+- /231)21V,(/*+Y- T- '0%*(3210- '%&()3*(1Y- t- /231)21- %)@21*0*- G(- U
'0%*(3210- )E)%.)/*+"- $0%0/*)@0- LTYjUO- (/6(3+- *('21- %)03,()(- /231)0%)"
=)03,((1)- /231)0%)- 6)<3%(<)- 6)- )320,(0- !"4#- %)'%)@(/*+- 6(F)%(*)- '%&3)<)"

#:W
 #O- D03+- \- b- t- G(- T& @& U- 0%)- 1&3- &- BE'%+G*()%)"
V#6%$D(*/%/'&)<*)-'%&3)<21-B/-2%E0-3+%2(0-'0%*(3210-U-30%)-'1)03+-6(/-,(/*+-)<*)
(6)/*(3+-32-'0%*(3210-(/3(6)/*+-G(-/231)21-\-/2VG(-<3U(E8+-<*0%)0-(/*)%/+-L<')3(0O"
ZE'%+G*()%)0- '&0*)- F(- )10<*(3+- G(- /))10<*(3+"
– Un exemplu de C#6%$D(*/%/& /-'0(*+$& )<*)- )T')%(E)/*21- 12(- =2*U)%F&%6- 6)
BE'%+G*()%)- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- α- ')- &- F&(,+- 6)- 02%"- M231)21- \- /2VG(- <3U(E8+- <*0%)0
(/*)%/+"
– În C#6%$D(*/%/'& !//-'0(*+$& <)- <3U(E8+- <*0%)0- (/*)%/+- 0- /231))1&%- 30%)- <)
3(&3/)<3"- D03+- '0%*(321)1)- (/3(6)/*)- /2- <2/*- 3&E'1)T)Y- <)- <3U(E8+- 6&0%- <*0%)0
(/*)%/+-0-/231)212(-,(/*+-30%)-*%)3)-6(/-<*0%)0-F2/60E)/*01+-B/*%V&-<*0%)-)T3(*0*+"
4O- D03+- \- ≠- t- G(- T- ≠ y, are loc o (%'!0#"(':*/& !"+-/'%$?& M231)21- t- 30%)- (0
/0G*)%)- '&0*)- F(- <*08(1- <02- (/<*08(1"
Prima t%0/<E2*0,()- /231)0%+- 0- F&<*- %)01(@0*+- 6)- =2*U)%F&%6"
51- 0- 8&E80%60*- &- ,(/*+- 6)- 0@&*- 32- '0%*(321)- α- )E(<)- 6)- &- <2%<+- /0*2%01+- 6)
'&1&/(2"- Z/- 2%E0- %)03,()(- (02- /0G*)%)- /231))- 6)- &T(.)/- G(- <2/*- )E(G(- '%&*&/("
=)03,(0- )<*)- 6)<3%(<+- 6)- %)10,(0]
#A
I
M- d- A4α →- #IQ_- d- ##6? L!"44O
_-01*+-%)03,()-32/&<32*+Y-30%)-0-'2<-B/-)>(6)/,+-/)2*%&/21-L'%(/-)T')%(E)/*21
!
%)01(@0*-6)-z"-NU06q(3yOY-0%)-1&3-10-8&E80%60%)0-2/)(-,(/*)-6)-8)%(1(2-32-'0%*(321)
α- '%&62<)- 6)- &- <2%<+- %06(&03*(>+"- 50- <)- <3%()]
9
4
Be + 42α → 12
6
C + 10n. (5.23)
=)03,((1)- /231)0%)- '&*- F(- 6)310/G0*)- G(- 6)- '0%*(321)- 033)1)%0*)"- $%(E0- %)03,()
%)01(@0*+-B/-03)<*-E&6-<V0-&8,(/2*-32-'%&*&/(-(/3(6)/,(-')-&-,(/*+-6)-/231))-6)-1(*(2"
=)03,(0- <)- <3%()]
7
3
Li + 11p → 42He + 42He.
7)- &8,(/Y- 6)3(Y- 6&2+- '0%*(321)- α.
D2'+- *('21- '0%*(321)1&%- (/3(6)/*)Y- %)03,((1)- /231)0%)- '&*- F(- 310<(F(30*)- B/]
1) 8/'+:**& 6%)."0/& ./& 6'%(*+"-/& C!+$%+'(/G
(α, p); (d, p); (p, n); (α, n); (d, n); (p, α).
Z/- 03)<*- 30@Y- )/)%.(0- '0%*(321)1&%- *%)82()- <+- F()- E0(- E0%)- ')/*%2- 0- B/>(/.)
F&%,)1)- 6)- %)<'(/.)%)- 3&21&E8()/)"
D+E- 3Steva exemple: pentru 168_Y- 80%()%0- 6)- '&*)/,(01- 0- /231)212(- B/- 30@21
8&E80%6+%((- 32- '%&*&/(- )<*)- 6)- 0'%&T(E0*(>- :;)gY- (0%- B/- 3SE'21- /231)212(- 6)
238
92
U are valoarea de 14,3 MeV.
$)/*%2-03)1)0G(-/231))Y-B/-30@21-8&E80%6+%((-32-'0%*(321)-αY-B/+1,(E)0-80%()%)(
)<*)- 6281+Y- 0>S/6- >01&%(1)- 6)- ≈- H;)gY- %)<')3*(>- ≈ 28,6 MeV.
=)03,((1)Y-B/<+Y-<)-'&*-'%&623)-G(-10-)/)%.((-E0(-E(3(Y-30-2%E0%)-0-'+*%2/6)%((
'0%*(321)1&%- B/- /231)2- '%(/- )F)3*- *2/)1"
2) 8/'+:**-/& +"& !/"(%)!*G (n, p); (n, α); (n, γOY- 02- 1&3- G(- 10- )/)%.((- F&0%*)- E(3(Y
6)&0%)3)- /)2*%&/21- /)0>S/6- <0%3(/+Y- '&0*)- '+*%2/6)- 32- 2G2%(/,+- B/- /231)2"

#:#
 J3)<*)- %)03,((- '%&623Y- B/<+Y- G(- '0%*(321)- )E)%.)/*)- 30%)- 02- <0%3(/+- G(- 30%)
*%)82()- <+- B/>(/.+- 80%()%0- 6)- '&*)/,(01- ')/*%2- 0- ()G(- 6(/- /231)2"
:O- D03+& T- b- γ- '%(/ (γ, p)- G( (γ, n) se produce o %/'+:*/& >)()!"+-/'%$?
$)/*%2-30-%)03,(0-<+-0(8+-1&3Y-*%)82()-30-%06(0,(0-γ-<+-0(8+-&-)/)%.()-E0(-E0%)
30- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)&/212(- L6- <02- !O- B/- /231)2"
N0- %)03,()- 6)- 03)<*- *('Y- )<*)- F&0%*)- 32/&<32*+- F&*&6)@(/*).%0%)0- 6)2*)%(212(]
2
1
D(γ, n)11H.

!":"A" ?).(- 7)- 3&/<)%>0%)- B/- %)03,((1)- /231)0%)

#C- ?).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- <0%3(/((- )1)3*%(3)
72E0-<0%3(/(1&%-)1)3*%(3)-01)-'0%*(321)1&%-(/*%0*)-B/-%)03,()-)<*)-).01+-32-<2E0
<0%3(/(1&%- )1)3*%(3)- 01)- '0%*(321)1&%- %)@21*0*)- 6(/- %)03,()]
5\- d- 5T- b- 5t- d- 5U" L!"4AO

5C- ?).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- /2D+%212(- 7)- /231)&/(

! M2E+%21-*&*01-01-/231)&/(1&%-L).01-32-/2E+%21-6)-E0<+-2O-30%)-(/*%+-B/-%)03,()
)<*)- ).01- 32- /2E+%21- 6)- /231)&/(- %)@21*0,(- 6(/- %)03,()]
2\- d- 2T- b- 2t- d- 2U? L!"4!O
D)- )T)E'12Y- ')/*%2- %)03,(0- Li ( p, α) n)Y- 3)1)- 6&2+- legi se scriu:
7
3
1
1
4
2
4
2
ZX + Zx- b- :- d- #- b- Am- 2X + Ax = 7 + 1 = 8;
G( ZY + Zy = 2 + 2 = 4; AY + Ay = 4 + 4 = 8.

:C- ?).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- )/)%.()(

Z/- &%(3)- %)03,()- /231)0%+- /!/%A*'& ()('-$& %/-'(*J*0($& <)- 3&/<)%>+"
e*(E- 3+- 03)0<*+- )/)%.()- )<*)- ).01+- 32]
E = m 0 c 2 + E c.
În studiu1-)/)%.()(-6)-1).+*2%+-0-/231)212(-0E-3&/<(6)%0*-/231)21-B/-%)'02<-G(
/231)&/((-(@&10,(-B/-%)'02<"-Z/-%)03,((1)-/231)0%)Y-'0%*(321)1)-02-G(-)/)%.((-3(/)*(3)"
Z/- 3&/<)3(/,+Y- 1).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- )/)%.()(- *&*01)- %)10*(>(<*)- <)- <3%()]
<\- d- <T& b- 5t- d- <U , L!"4HO
06(3+]
#Xc2 + EcX + mxc2 + Ecx = #t+4- d- <+t- d- #U+4- d- <+U , L!"4IO
unde mX, mx, mY- G(- #y sunt masele de repaus ale particulelor.
5320,(0- !"4I- E0(- '&0*)- F(- <3%(<+- <28- F&%E0]
EcY + Ecy – EcX – Ecx = L#\- d- #T- X- #t- X- #UO+4" L!"4QO
=)10,(0- !"4Q- 0%0*+- 3+- >0%(0,(0- )/)%.()(- 3(/)*(3)- )<*)- )3U(>01)/*+- 32- >0%(0,(0
)/)%.()(- 6)- %)'02<"

#:4
 M2E(E- /!/%A*/& ./& %/'+:*/& 6(F)%)/,0- 6(/*%)- <2E0- )/)%.((1&%- 3(/)*(3)- 01)
'0%*(321)1&%-%)@21*0*)-6(/-%)03,()-G(-<2E0-)/)%.((1&%-'0%*(321)1&%-(/*%0*)-B/-%)03,()
<02- 6(F)%)/,0- 6(/*%)- )/)%.(0- 6)- %)'02<- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- B/0(/*)- 6)- %)03,()- G(- 30- 6)
62'+- %)03,()"- 5/)%.(0- 6)- %)03,()- <)- /&*)0@+- 32- W- G(- )<*)- ).01+- 32]
Q = (EcY + Ecy) – (EcX + Ecx), (5.29)
sau:
Q = [(mX + mx) – (mY + my)]c2. (5.29')
$)/*%2- W- h- W- %)03,(0- <)- /2E)G*)- /T)/!/%A/(*+$,& (0%- ')/*%2- W- i- W- %)03,(0- <)
/2E)G*)- /!.)/!/%A/(*+$?
Z/- %)03,((1)- )T&)/)%.)*(3)- <)- )1(8)%)0@+- )/)%.()Y- B/*%23S*- )/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+- 0
'0%*(321)1&%-%)@21*0*)-6(/-%)03,()-)<*)-E0(-E0%)-6)3S*-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-0-'0%*(321)1&%
(/*%0*)- B/- %)03,()"
e(-B/-30@21-%)03,((1&%-/231)0%)Y-<)-F&1&<)<3-E0<)1)-0*&E(1&%-G(-/2-0-/231))1&%Y
6)&0%)3)- )%&0%)0- 30%)- <)- F03)- /).1([S/6- E0<)1)- )1)3*%&/(1&%- G(- 0- )/)%.()(- 6)
1).+*2%+- 0- )1)3*%&/(1&%- B/- 0*&E- )<*)- E(3+"

AC- ?).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- (D'21<212(

Ca în orice sistem mecanic izolat, impulsul total al sistemului înainte de
!
ciocnire este egal cu imp21<21- *&*01- 01- <(<*)E212(- 62'+- 3(&3/(%)"
Z/- <(<*)E21- 6)- %)F)%(/,+- 1).0*- 6)- 108&%0*&%Y-<(<*)E21-108&%0*&%212(Y-/231)21- ,(/*+
)<*)- B/- %)'02<Y- 6)3(- <cXjbjW- G(- 6X = 0.
?).)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- (E'21<212(- <)- <3%()]
6 T = 6t + 6 U"
! ! !
L!":WO
C/*)%03,(2/)0- 30%)- 0%)- 1&3- )<*)- (12<*%0*+- B/
F(.2%0j!"H"
D(/- F(.2%0- !"H- <)- >)6)- 3+]
p2Y = p2x + p2y – 2pxpycosθ" (5.31)
Z/-%)03,((1)-/231)0%)Y-)/)%.((1)-3(/)*(3)-<2/*-E(3(
B/- 3&E'0%0,()- 32- )/)%.((1)- 6)- %)'02<Y- '2*S/6- F(
)T'%(E0*)- /)%)10*(>(<*- <28- F&%E0]

!"#$% &$+$% N&/<)%>0%)0 6t4 6 T4 6 4U

(E'21<212(- B/- %)03,(0- /231)0%+" <+t- b- m- <+T- b- - G(- <+U- b- " L!":4O
4#t 4# T 4# U
Z/1&32(/6- B/- %)10,(0- !":#Y- %)@21*+]
4#t<+t- b- 4#T<+T- d- 4#U<+U- X- A # T # U <+T <+U 3&<θ" L!"::O
=)10,(0- !"4`- 30%)- 6)F(/)G*)- )/)%.(0- 6)- %)03,()- WY- ,(/S/6- <)0E0- 3+- )/)%.(0
3(/)*(3+- 0- /231)212(- ,(/*+- )<*)- <cX = 0, devine:
W- b- L<+t- d- <+UO- X- <+T" L!":AO
D0%Y- 6(/- %)10,(0- !"::Y- %)@21*+- 3+]

#::
 #T #U 4 # T # U <+T <+U
<+t- b- <+T + <+U X 3&< θ Y
#t #t #t
#T #U 4 # T # U <+T <+U
6)3(]- W- b- <+T + <+U X - 3&< θ - d- <+U& 4& <+T"
#t #t #t
Z/- F(/01]
 #U   #  4 # T # U <+T <+U
W- b- <+U # +  X <+T # X T  X X 3&< θ Y L!":!O
 #t   #t  #t
%)10,()- 30%)- 6+- &- 01*+- E)*&6+- 6)- E+<2%0%)- 0- )/)%.()(- 6)- %)03,()"

!"#$%&'&( "&,#%-./&
'$% _- ,(/*+- 6)- 73?(- )<*)- 8&E80%60*+- 32- '%&*&/(- 0>S/6- )/)%.(0- 6)- 4;)g"- 7)- 6)3)1)0@+
'0%*(321)-α-<28-2/-2/.U(-6)-`W{-F0,+-6)-6(%)3,(0-'%&*&/(1&%-(/3(6)/,("-7+-<)-<3%()-%)03,(0
/231)0%+-30%)-0%)-1&3"-7+-<)-301321)@)-)/)%.(0-6)-%)03,()-G(-)/)%.(0-'0%*(321)1&%-α emise
sub unghiul de π/2"-N0%)-)<*)-2/.U(21-G(-)/)%.(0-3)1)(101*)-'0%*(321)-%)@21*0*)-6(/-%)03,()r
! Se cunosc masele de repaus: mLi = 7,01545 u; mp = 1,007299 u; mHe = 4,0026 u;
uc2 = 931,5 MeV.
=)03,(0- <)- <3%()]- 73Li + 11p → 42α + 42He, 3&/F&%E- 1).((- 6)- 3&/<)%>0%)- 0- <0%3(/((- G(- 0
/2E+%212(-6)-/231)&/("
Z/- 3&/3&%60/,+- 32- 6)F(/(,(0- )/)%.()(- 6)- %)03,()- L!"4`OY- '2*)E- <3%()]
Q = (mLi + mp – mHe – mα)c2 = 931,5(mLi + mp – mHe – mα).
Înlocuind numer(3- 32- >01&%(1)- 32/&<32*)- <)- &8,(/)]
Q = 931,5(7,01545 + 1,007299 – 4,0026 – 4,0026) = 16,35 MeV.
|(/S/6- 3&/*- 6)- %)10,(0- !":!Y- B/- 30%)- 3&<θjbjWY- %)@21*+]
 #6 
W + < 6 # X 
   #   # n) 
W- b- # +  <α X # X 6  < 6 Y- 6)- 2/6)]- <α- b-
#α -b
 
 #n)   #n)  # + α 
#
 #n) 
 1,007299 
16,35 + 1 −
 4,0026  16,35 + 2(1 − 0, 252) 16,35 + 1, 496
4,0026 - b- - b- - b- QY`4- ;)g"
1+ 2 2
4,0026
D(/- F(.2%0- !"I- <)- >)6)- 3+]
6α 4#α <α #α <α 4,0026 ⋅ 8,92 .
tg θ = = = =
66 4# 6 < 6 #6 <6 1,007299 ⋅ 2
θ = 76°43'.
!"#$% &$,$

2. Masa nucleului de 212

84
Po este 211,9888 u, cea a nucleului de 208
82
$8-)<*)-4WIY`IHH!Wj2"
e*((/6-3+-E0<0-'0%*(321)(-2α-)<*)-AYWW4Hj2Y-<+-<)-301321)@)-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-0-2/)(-'0%*(321)
4

α emise de poloniu.

#:A
 =)03,(0- <)- '&0*)- <3%()- <28- F&%E0]- 21284Po → 42α + 20882
Pb.
5/)%.(0- )1(8)%0*+- B/- %)03,()- <)- '&0*)- 3013210- 6(/- %)10,(0]- Q = (mPo – mPb – mα)c2.
Z/1&32(/6- /2E)%(3Y- <)- &8,(/)]
Q = (211,9888 –207,976650 – 4,0026) · 931,5 = 8,89 MeV.
J3)0<*+-)/)%.()-)<*)-BE'+%,(*+-B/*%)-'0%*(3210-α-)E(<+-G(-/231)21-6)-$8-30%)-<2F)%+-2/
%)321"- Deci: Q = EcPb + Ecα"
Înainte de dezintegrare nucleul de Po era în repaus. Legea de conservare a impulsului
se scrie: 6α + 6$8 = W ; mα!α – mPb!Pb = 0 ⇒ mα!α = mPb!Pb; (mα!α)2 = (mPb!Pb)2.
! !
4
L# ! O 4 # !4 # #
= α α = - α α ⋅ α = <+α α "
6$8
<+$8- b-
4#$8 4#$8 4 #$8 #$8
=)@21*+- 3+]
#  W #$8
=
#α
- d- <+α- b- <+α  α + # ,- 6)- 2/6)]- <+α- b- W"
+
W& @& <+α
 #$8 
#α
#$8 #+ #$8 #α
#$8
207,976650
Z/1&32(/6- /2E)%(3Y- <)- &8,(/)]- <+α- b- - QYQ`- b- QYI4- ;)g"
207,976650 + 4,0026

3. Care este dista/,0-E(/(E+-10-30%)-&-'0%*(321+-α-32-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-6)-!Y:-;)g-<)

0'%&'()- 6)- 2/- /231)2- 6)- 32'%2- L5- b- 4`Or !
?0-6(<*0/,0-E(/(E+Y-*&0*+-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-0-'0%*(321)(-<)-*%0/<F&%E+-B/-)/)%.()-'&*)/,(01+]
#α! α4 # 5 α 5 N2 / 4 4
= Y- 6)3(]- % - b- # 5 α 5 N2 / "
4 AπεW %E(/ E(/
AπεW <+α
4 ⋅ 4` ⋅ L#YH ⋅ #W X#` O 4
Z/1&32(/6- /2E)%(3Y- <)- &8,(/)]- %E(/- b- `f#W` - b- #!If#WX#H- E"
!Y: ⋅#YH ⋅#W X#:

!"#$%&'&( )"#)*+&
'$%7)%(0-%06(&03*(>+-2%0/(2V%06(2-B/3)')-32- 238 92
o-G(-<)-*)%E(/+-32-(@&*&'21-<*08(1- 20682$8"
D)*)%E(/0,(- /2E+%21- 6)- 6)@(/*).%+%(- α- G(- β- 6(/- 03)0<*+- <)%()"
R: 8α- G(- Hβ.
($-NS*)-/231))-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-B/-4-&%)-6(/-A-E.-6)-222
86
=/-01-3+%2(-*(E'-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)
)<*)- 6)- :YQ4!- @(1)r
R: 1,6·1017.
3. Izotopul radioactiv de 60 27
Co,- F&1&<(*- ')- <30%+- 10%.+- B/- E)6(3(/+Y- 0%)- *(E'21- 6)
B/[2E+*+,(%)- 6)- 0'%&T(E0*(>- !Y:- 0/("- N)- 30/*(*0*)- )<*)- /)3)<0%+- ')/*%2- &- 03*(>(*0*)- 6)
#jECi?
R: 8,9·10–10 kg.
*$% o/- '%)'0%0*- 6)- '&1&/(2- 32- 03*(>(*0*)0- 6)- WY!- N(- )<*)- '2<- B/*%V2/- 301&%(E)*%2- 32
30'03(*0*)0-301&%(3+-6)-AY#Q-zc}"-$&1&/(21-)E(*)-'0%*(321)-α cu-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-6)-!Y:j;)g"
N2-3S*-3%)G*)-*)E')%0*2%0-301&%(E)*%212(-B/*%V&-&%+r-R(E'21-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)-01-'&1&/(212i
este de 3·10–7 s.
R: 13,5°C.

#:!
 5. Izotopul de 238 92
U a%)-*(E'21-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)-6)-AY!·109 ani-G(-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-'%(/
)E(<()- 6)- '0%*(321)- α. Ce valoare are constanta de dezintegrare?
R: 4,88·10–18 s–1.
6. O sare de radiu 22688
=0-32-E0<0-6)-#j.-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-α-0<*F)1-B/3S*-%)@21*+-#W10j6)@c
@("- 7+- <)- 301321)@)- 3&/<*0/*0- %06(&03*(>+"
R: 4,3·10–17 s–1
,$- Z/- '%)3('(*0,((1)- 30%)- 306- ')- <&1- )T(<*+- &- 30/*(*0*)- &0%)30%)- 6(/- (@&*&'21- %06(&03*(>
6)- 210
82
$8"-D03+-B/-E&E)/*21-3+6)%((-@+')@((-10-$&121-726Y-03)0<*0-0%)-&-0/2E(*+-03*(>(*0*)Y
)0->0-<3+6)0-B/-6)32%<21-0/(1&%-3&/F&%E-1).((-6)-6)@(/*).%0%)-%06(&03*(>+"-J<*F)1Y-%)3&1*S/6
@+'060- 6)- 10- 6(F)%(*)- 06S/3(E(Y- <)- '&0*)- 6)*)%E(/0- 0/21- B/- 30%)- 0- 3+@2*- )0"
Presupunem-3+-E+<2%+*&%(1)-)F)3*20*)-10-&-<*0,(2/)-6)-10-$&121-726Y-B/-0/21-#`I`Y-02
60*-2%E+*&0%)1)->01&%(-')/*%2-03*(>(*0*)0-<')3(F(3+-0-@+')@((]-Λ0/m = AQ-(E'cE(/fy.-')/*%2
@+'060- 6)- 10- <2'%0F0,+- G(- Λ/m = :j(E'cE(/fy.Y- ')/*%2- @+'060- %)3&1*0*+- 6)- 10- 06S/3(E)0
X- b- QAW- 3E"
-7+-<)-6)*)%E(/)-0/21-B/-30%)-0-3+@2*-@+'060-0F10*+-10-06S/3(E)0-X-G(->(*)@0-E)6()-6)
032E210%)- 0/201+- 0- @+')@(("- R(E'21- 6)- B/[2E+*+,(%)- 0- 210 82
Pb este T1/2 = 21 ani.
R: 1895; 10 cm/an.

! 8. Considerând dezintegrarea α a nucleului de poloniu:

212
84
Po → 42α + 208
82
Pb,
<+- <)- 301321)@)- >(*)@0- /231)212(- 6)- $8Y- G*((/6- 3+- /231)21- 6)- '&1&/(2- )%0- B/- %)'02<"- 7)
32/&<3- E0<)1)- 6)- %)'02<- 01)- /231))1&%- 6)- $8- G(- 6)- $&- G(- 0- '0%*(321)(- α:
mPo = 211,9888 u; mPb = 207,97665 u; mα = 4,002603 u.
=)0E(/*(E- 3+]- #- 2- b- #YHHf#W–27 kg. 1 eV = 1,6·10–19- z- G(- "c2 = 931,5 MeV.
R: 3,96·105 m/s.
-$- D)*)%E(/0,(- /2E+%21- 0*&E(3- G(- /2E+%21- 6)- E0<+- ')/*%2- '0%*(321)1)- /&*0*)- 32- T- B/
2%E+*&0%)1)-%)03,((-/231)0%)]
55
25
Mn(x, n)55
26
Fe, 147N(n, x)146M- G(- 126C(α, x)158O.
10. Prin bombardarea nucleului de 24
12
Mg- 32- /231))- T- 0%)- 1&3- %)03,(0- /231)0%+]
24
12
Mg + x → p +
1
1
27
13
Al.
D)*)%E(/0,(-/2E+%21-0*&E(3-G(-/2E+%21-6)-E0<+-')/*%2-/231)21-TY-3013210,(-)/)%.(0-6)
%)03,()-G(-'%)3(@0,(-603+-%)03,(0-)<*)-)T&)/)%.)*(3+-<02-)/6&)/)%.)*(3+"-7)-32/&<3-E0<)1)
6)- %)'02<]
mMg = 23,985044 u, mx = 4,002604 u, mp = 1,007299 u, mAl = 26,981535 u; de
asemenea, uc2 = 1,5·10–10 J.
R: – 1,779 · 10–13- z- L%)03,()- )/6&)/)%.)*(3+O"
''$%7+-<)-6)*)%E(/)-)/)%.(0-6).0[0*+-B/*%V&-8&E8+-32-U(6%&.)/-'%(/-F&%E0%)0-L<(/*)@0O
2/2(- y(1&.%0E- 6)- U)1(2"
Se- 32/&0G*)- %)03,(0]
2
1
D + 31T → 42He + 10!,
(0%- )/)%.(0- )1(8)%0*+- B/*%V2/- <(/.2%- 03*- )<*)- ).01+- 32- 4QY:·10–13 J.
mD = 2,01410222 u; mT = 3,01604971 u; mHe = 4,0026 u; mn = 1,00869 u.
R: 4,245 · 1014 J.

#:H
!"A" E/*)%03,(0- %07(0,()(- /231)0%)- 32- <28<*0/,0"
F)*)3,(0- %07(0,((1&%- /231)0%)"- F&@(D)*%()
./0"1"2"/$%$%(/-%06(0,((-/231)0%)-<)-B/,)1).-*&0*)-%06(0,((1)-6)-/0*2%+-3&%'2<3210%+
<02- 6)- /0*2%+- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3+- LF&*&/(3+O- )E(<)- <'&/*0/- 6)- /231))1)- %06(&03*(>)Y
%)@21*0*)- B/- 2%E0- (/*)%03,(2/(1&%- /231)0%)- <02- '%&>)/(*)- 6(/- %06(0,(0- 3&<E(3+"
N2/&0G*)%)0-2/)(-<)%((-6)-F)/&E)/)-30%)-B/<&,)<3-*%)3)%)0-03)<*&%-%06(0,((-'%(/
<28<*0/,+-)<*)-(E'&%*0/*+-')/*%2-.+<(%)0-'%&'%()*+,(1&%-30%03*)%(<*(3)-01)-%06(0,((1&%
%)<')3*(>)Y- '%)32E- G(- ')/*%2- <*08(1(%)0- E([1&03)1&%- 6)- 6)*)3*0%)- G(- 6)- '%&*)3,()
BE'&*%(>0- 1&%"- ;&621- 6)- (/*)%03,(2/)- 6)'(/6)- 0*S*- 6)- '%&'%()*+,(1)- %06(0,()(- %)<V
')3*(>)- L)/)%.()Y- E0<+Y- <0%3(/+- )1)3*%(3+OY- 3S*- G(- 6)- '%&'%()*+,(1)- <28<*0/,)(
*%0>)%<0*)-L6)/<(*0*)Y-/2E+%-0*&E(3Y-)/)%.()-6)-(&/(@0%)O"-=06(0,(0-(/*)%03,(&/)0@+
32-)1)3*%&/((-0*&E(1&%-E)6(212(Y-'%&623S/6-)T3(*0%)0-<02-(&/(@0%)0-0*&E(1&%Y-<02
32-/231))1)-%)<')3*(>)-L6(F2@()-)10<*(3+Y-%)03,()-/231)0%+Y-F&%E0%)0-6)-F&*&/(-<02
6)- ')%)3U(O"
=06(0,((1)- /231)0%)- <)- BE'0%*- B/- 30*).&%((- 62'+- 32E- '0%*(321)1)- ')- 30%)- 1)
F&%E)0@+- <2/*- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3- <02- <2/*- /)2*%)" !
!"A"#" =07(0,((- G&%D0*)- 7(/- '0%*(321)- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3
J3)<*)-'0%*(321)-'&*-0>)0-E0<+-6)-%)'02<-E0%)-G(-'&*-F(-/231))-<02-F%0.E)/*)
/231)0%)-L'%&*&/(Y-'0%*(321)-α, fragmente de fisiune) (cazul A) sau-'&*-0>)0-E0<+
6)- %)'02<- E(3+- L)1)3*%&/(Y- '&@(*%&/(O- L30@21- PO"

H"- E/*)%03,(0- '0%*(321)1&%- .%)1)- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3- 32- <28<*0/,0

$0%*(321)1)- .%)1)- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- 32- )1)3*%&/((- 0*&E(1&%- 6(/
<28<*0/,+- '%&>&3S/6- F()- )T3(*0%)0Y- F()- (&/(@0%)0- 03)<*&%0"- N(&3/(/62V<)- 32
)1)3*%&/((Y- '0%*(321)1)- .%)1)- '()%6- 6(/- )/)%.()Y- 60%- *%0()3*&%(0- %+ES/)- 1(/(0%+- 60*
F((/6- E0<0- E(3+- 0- )1)3*%&/212(- 3(&3/(*"
R%)3)%)0- %06(0,()(- /231)0%)- F&%E0*+- 6(/- '0%*(321)- .%)1)- '%(/- <28<*0/,+- <)
30%03*)%(@)0@+- '%(/- 6&2+- E+%(E(- F(@(3)]- L#O- '()%6)%)0- 6)- )/)%.()- ')- 2/(*0*)0- 6)
6%2E- G(- L4O- '0%32%<21- *&*01- '%(/- <28<*0/,+"

 6<+ 
Y?& Z*/%./%/'& ./& /!/%A*/& +*!/(*+$& 6/& "!*('(/'& ./& .%"#-  X  )<*)- '2*)%/(3
 6T 
6)')/6)/*+- 6)- >(*)@+Y- )0- F((/6- 32- 0*S*- E0(- E0%)- 32- 3S*- '0%*(3210- 0%)- >(*)@0- E0(
E(3+-G(-<0%3(/0-)1)3*%(3+-E0(-E0%)"-D2'+-3)-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-0-<3+@2*-<28->01&0%)0
)/)%.()(-6)-(&/(@0%)Y-'0%*(3210-30'*)0@+-)1)3*%&/(-G(-<)-&'%)G*)-B/-<28<*0/,+-F&%ES/6
2/- 0*&E- /)2*%2Y- 603+- )<*)- 2/- '%&*&/- <02- &- '0%*(321+- α.
2. Parcursul total 01-'0%*(321)(-'%(/-<28<*0/,+Y-8Y-<)-6)F(/)G*)-30-03)0-.%&<(E)
0- <*%0*212(- 6)- <28<*0/,+- <*%+8+*2*- 6)- '0%*(321+- 'S/+- 3S/6- >01&0%)0- )/)%.()(- <01)

#:I

' =
!"#$% &$3$% ',& =?& D)')/6)/,0- (/*)/<(*+,((
F0<3(321212(- 6)- '0%32%<21- *&*01- 01
'0%*(321)("
3(/)*(3)-6)>(/)-).01+-32-3)0-3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)
0.(*0,()(- *)%E(3)Y- <a. Este dependent de
natura subs*0/,)(Y- 6)- <0%3(/0- G(- 6)- )/)%.(0
'0%*(321)("
$%(/-'()%6)%)0-*%)'*0*+-0-)/)%.()(Y-'0%*(32V
1)1)- %+ES/- B/- /2E+%- 3&/<*0/*- ')- &- 6(<*0/,+
&0%)30%)Y-'S/+-3S/6-)/)%.(0-<)-%)623)-10-3)0
6)- 0.(*0,()- *)%E(3+Y- ')/*%2- 30%)- (/*)/<(*0*)0
F0<3(321212(- L/2E+%21- 6)- '0%*(321)- 30%)- *%)3
B/- 2/(*0*)0- 6)- *(E'- '%(/*%V&- <2'%0F0,+- 60*+O
<306)- 8%2<3- LF(."j!"QYj'O"

I"- E/*)%03,(2/)0- '0%*(321)1&%- 2J&0%)- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3- 32- <28<*0/,0

Pierderea 6)- )/)%.()- 0- )1)3*%&/(1&%- B/- (/*)%03,(2/)- 32- <28<*0/,0- <)- '%&623)
'%(/- 6&2+- E)30/(<E)]- (&/(@0%)- L)T3(*0%)O- G(- %06(0,()- 6)- F%S/0%)"
51)3*%&/21Y- 0>S/6- E0<0- F&0%*)- E(3+Y- >0- F(- '2*)%/(3- 6)>(0*- 10- 3(&3/(%)0- 32
)1)3*%&/((- 0*&E(3("- $0%32%<21- )1)3*%&/(1&%- >0- F(- &- 1(/()- F%S/*+"- o/- F0<3(321- (/(,(01
! 6)- )1)3*%&/(- E&/&3(/)*(3Y- >0- '%)@)/*0- 2/- <')3*%2- 10%.- 6)- )/)%.((- 62'+- *%)3)%)0
'%(/- <28<*0/,+"- $()%6)%)0- 6)- )/)%.()- ')- 2/(*0*)0- 6)- 12/.(E)- <)- )T'%(E+- '%(/*%V&
F&%E21+- 0<)E+/+*&0%)- 32- F&%E210- 12(- P&U%"
Capacitatea de ionizar)-0-)1)3*%&/212(-6(<'0%)-3S/6-)/)%.(0-12(-3(/)*(3+-6)>(/)
).01+- 32- )/)%.(0- 6)- (&/(@0%)- 0- E&1)321)1&%- <28<*0/,)(- *%0>)%<0*)"
?0- )/)%.((- E0%(- (/*)%>(/)- 3&E'&%*0%)0- %)10*(>(<*+- 0- )1)3*%&/212(- G(- )1- '()%6)
)/)%.()- '%(/- E)30/(<E21- %06(0,()(- 6)- F%S/0%)"- Electron21- 1(8)%- 6(/- F0<3(32121- (/V
3(6)/*-')-'%&8+-)<*)-0*%0<-6)-/231)21-'%(/-0'%&'()%)0-3+%2(0-*%)3)Y-<2F)%(/6-0<*F)1
&- 6)>()%)Y- '%&3)<- 3)- 3&%)<'2/6)- 2/)(- 033)1)%+%("- Z/- )1)3*%&6(/0E(3+- <)- 0%0*+- 3+
&%(3)- '0%*(321+- )1)3*%(@0*+- B/- E(G30%)- 033)1)%0*+- <02- 6)3)1)%a*+- )E(*)- &- %06(0,()
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3+"- 7)- )E(*)- 0<*F)1- 2/- F&*&/- 30%)- BG(- (0- )/)%.(0- 6)- 10- )1)3*%&/21
1(8)%"-$()%6)%)0-6)-)/)%.()-'%(/-%06(0,()-3%)G*)-32-/2E+%21-0*&E(3-5-01-0*&E212(
3&/<*(*2)/*- 01- <28<*0/,)(- *%0>)%<0*)- 6)- F0<3(32121- )1)3*%&/(3- G(- 3%)G*)- *&*&60*+- 32
)/)%.(0- )1)3*%&/212(Y- <Y- 3&/F&%E- %)10,()(]
 6< 
 = ,
<
X
 6T  %06 - %

unde lr- )<*)- &- 3&/<*0/*+- /2E(*+- -"!A*#/& ./& %'.*':*/?- Z/3)'S/6- 6)- 10- &- )/)%.()
E > 800/Z [MeV]- '()%6)%(1)- 6)- )/)%.()- '%(/- %06(0,()- B/*%)3- '()%6)%(1)- 6)- )/)%.()
'%(/- (&/(@0%)"
Z/- '%(>(/,0- 6%2E212(- '0%32%<- 6)- )1)3*%&/(Y- *%0()3*&%(0- 1&%- /)F((/6- %)3*(1(/()Y
/&,(2/)0-6)-'0%32%<-8-6)>(/)-/)6)F(/(*+"-D)&<)8(%)0-6(/*%)-F0<3(32121-6)-'0%*(321)
.%)1)-G(-F0<3(32121-6)-)1)3*%&/(-6)>(/)-)>(6)/*+-603+-<)-%)'%)@(/*+-.%0F(3->0%(0,(0
/2E+%212(-6)-'0%*(321)-3-30%)-<*%+80*-2/-<*%0*-6)-<28<*0/,+-B/-F2/3,()-6)-.%&<(E)0
03)<*2(- <*%0*- LF(."- !"Q- =O"

#:Q
 p-$%&3)<)1)-6)-(&/(@0%)-G(-6)-F%S/0%)-E(3G&%)0@+-)/)%.(0-F0<3(321212(-6)-)1)3*%&/(
B/-*(E'-3)-3(&3/(%(1)-623-10-BE'%+G*()%)"-J3)<*)-)F)3*)-F03-30-0*)/20%)0-/2E+%212(
6)- )1)3*%&/(- 32- 6(<*0/,0- '0%32%<+- B/- <*%0*21- 6)- <28<*0/,+Y- TY- <+- <)- '%&623+- 62'+
&- 1).)- )T'&/)/,(01+- L~e–µx, unde µ- )<*)- 2/- 3&)F(3()/*- 6)- 0*)/20%)O- G(Y- ')/*%2- 3+
)T(<*+- G(- '%&3)<)- 6)- B/3)*(/(%)Y- <)- '&0*)- >&%8(- G(- 6)- 2/- '0%32%<- E0T(E- 8max.

!"A"5" E/*)%03,(0- %07(0,((1&%- G&%D0*)- 7(/- '0%*(321)- /)2*%)- 32

<28<*0/,0
H"- E/*)%03,(0- %07(0,()(- .0DD0- KγγC- 32- <28<*0/,0
=06(0,((1)-γ- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- 32- <28<*0/,0- <*%+8+*2*+- '%(/- 2%E+*&0%)1)- '%&3)<)]
L#O- )F)3*- F&*&)1)3*%(3- LF&*&/(- γ- 6)- )/)%.()- E0(- E(3+Y- <*%+8+*S/6- <28<*0/,)- 32
/2E+%- 0*&E(3- 5- E0%)OY- L4O- )F)3*- N&E'*&/- L)/)%.()- E)6()- 0- %06(0,()(- γY- 5- E(3O
G(-L:O-F&%E0%)0-6)-')%)3U(-LF&*&/(-γ-32-)/)%.()-F&0%*)-E0%)-')/*%2-3+-B/-03)<*-30@
%06(0,(0-(/*)%03,(&/)0@+-32-/231)21-0*&E(3-'%(/-F&%E0%)0-2/)(-')%)3U(-)1)3*%&/-L/–) –
pozitron (e+OO"-$%)@)/,0-03)<*&%-*%)(-'%&3)<)-F03)-30-E)30/(<E21-08<&%8,()(-%06(0,()(
γ-<+-F()-*&*01-6(F)%(*-6)-E)30/(<E21-08<&%8,()(-01*&%-*('2%(-6)-%06(0,()-B/-<28<*0/,+" !
D)&0%)3)- F&*&/((- /2- 02- /(3(- <0%3(/+- )1)3*%(3+- L/2- <2/*- <2'2G(- 03,(2/((- F&%,)1&%
)1)3*%&<*0*(3)OY-/(3(-E0<+-6)-%)'02<Y-E(G3S/62V<)-32->(*)@0-12E(/((Y-%06(0,(0-γ-/2
)<*)-B/3)*(/(*+-6)-<28<*0/,+Y-3(-6&0%-08<&%8(*+-<02-6(F2@0*+"-?0-*%)3)%)0-'%(/*%V2/
<*%0*-6)-.%&<(E)-6TY-(/*)/<(*0*)0-F0<3(321212(-[Y-<306)-32-6[Y-<3+6)%)-'%&'&%,(&/01+
32- .%&<(E)0- 6T- 0- <*%0*212(- G(- 32- (/*)/<(*0*)0- [LTO- 10- (/*%0%)0- B/- <*%0*21- %)<')3*(>Y
06(3+]
dI = – µIdx.
7)E/21- E(/2<- 0%0*+- 3+- (/*)/<(*0*)0- <306)- ')- E+<2%+- 3)- .%&<(E)0- <*%0*212(
3%)G*)"- C/*).%S/6Y- <)- &8,(/)- 1).)0- )T'&/)/,(01+- 6)- 08<&%8,()]
I = I0e–µx, (5.36)
unde I0-)<*)-(/*)/<(*0*)0-(/(,(01+-0-F0<3(321212(Y-[-X-(/*)/<(*0*)0-F0<3(321212(-62'+
3)-0-<*%+8+*2*-B/-<28<*0/,+-6(<*0/,0-TY-(0%-µ-X-3&)F(3()/*21-1(/(0%-6)-0*)/20%)-30%)
6)'(/6)- 6)- '%&'%()*+,(1)- E)6(212(- G(- 6)- )/)%.(0- F&*&/(1&%- γ, mãsurat- B/- EX#"
$)- 80@0- %)10,()(- !":H- <)- '&0*)- 6)623)- )T'%)<(0- ')/*%2- 6(<*0/,0- 62'+- 30%)- (/V
*)/<(*0*)0- %06(0,()(- <)- %)623)- 10- [2E+*0*)Y- /2E(*+- A%)0*#/& ./& C!R"#$($:*%/- .#c4]
I0
- - b- [W/Xµ.#c4 - →- /Xµ. #c4
2
?&.0%(*ES/6- <)- &8,(/)]
ln 2 0,693
µ µ
.#c4- b-
- b- " L!":IO
7)-E0(-6)F(/)<3]-A%)0*#/'&#'0*+$,&T#,&+'&6%)."0"-&.*!(%/&A%)0*#/'&-*!*'%$&D*
./!0*('(/'& '=0)%='!("-"*
T#- b- ρT
#:`
 G(- +)/>*+*/!("-& ./& '(/!"'%/& #'0*+& µ#- 30- %0'&%*21- 6(/*%)- 3&)F(3()/*21- 1(/(0%- 6)
0*)/20%)- G(- 6)/<(*0*)0- 08<&%80/*212(
µ#- b- µcρ"
D)&0%)3)- 10- 0*)/20%)0- L08<&%8,(0O- F0<3(321212(- 6)- %06(0,((- γ contribuie toate
cele trei )F)3*)-E)/,(&/0*)-0/*)%(&%-LF&*&)1)3*%(3Y-N&E'*&/-G(-F&%E0%)-6)-')%)3U(OY
3&)F(3()/*21-*&*01-6)-08<&%8,()-µ->0-F(-60*-6)-&-<2E+-6)-3&)F(3()/,(-30%03*)%(<*(3(
F()3+%2(- )F)3*]
µ = µ f + µ c + µ p.
g0%(0,(0- 3&)F(3()/*212(- 6)- 0*)/20%)- µ cu energia hν- 0- %06(0,()(- γ- )<*)- %)60*+
3&E'0%0*(>- B/- F(.2%0- !"`Y- B/- 30@21- )1)E)/*)1&%- 012E(/(2Y- 32'%2- G(- '12E8"
?0- )/)%.((- E0(- E(3(Y- 3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)
6&E)/(212(- U)%*@(0/- G(- (/F%0%&G2
Lν = 105–1014n@O- 0'0%)- &- (/*)%03,(2/)- 0
F&*&/(1&%-/2E(*+-C#6%$D(*/%/'&>$%$&#).*>*\
+'%/'& >%/+J/!:/*?& J3)<*- '%&3)<- 3&/<*+- B/
F0'*21- 3+- %06(0,(0- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3+- (/*)%V
03,(&/)0@+- 32- 2/- )1)3*%&/- 01- 2/2(- 0*&E- G(
! B1-0623)-B/-<*0%)-6)-&<3(10,()-32-&-F%)3>)/,+
).01+- 32- 03))0- 0- 2/6)(- (/3(6)/*)"- J3)<*
123%2-)<*)-'&<(8(1-603+-)1)3*%&/21-F&%E)0@+
2/- &<3(10*&%- ')/*%2- 30%)- F%)3>)/,0- 2/6)(
(/3(6)/*)-%)'%)@(/*+-&-F%)3>)/,+-'%&'%() ν0"
!"#$%&$-$-g0%(0,(0-3&)F(3()/*212(-6)-0*)/20%)
51)3*%&/21- &<3(10/*- %))E(*)- F&*&/21- 6)
32- )/)%.(0- %06(0,()(- γ- ')/*%2- 6(F)%(*)
)1)E)/*)" 03))0G(- F%)3>)/,+- B/*%V&- 6(%)3,()- &0%)30%)
6(/-<'0,(2"-J3)<*-'%&3)<-6)-(/*)%03,(2/)-)<*)
2/-6%)+/0&./-C#6%$D(*/%/,&')/*%2-3+-F&*&/21-)<*)-<3&<-6(/-F0<3(32121-(/(,(01Y-30%)
0%)-&-0/2E(*+-6(%)3,()Y-G(-)<*)-%))E(<-B/*%V&-01*+-6(%)3,()"-$%&3)<21-<)-E0(-/2E)G*)
C#6%$D(*/%/& SX)#0)!]- 03)<*0- <)- 6)<F+G&0%+Y& 6)3(Y- F+%+- E&6(F(30%)0- F%)3>)/,)("
?0- %06(0,((1)- (/F%0%&G((- <)- B/*S1/)G*)- 06)<)0- 2/- '%&3)<- 6)- (/*)%03,(2/)- 30%)
(E'1(3+- 08<&%8,(0- 03)<*&%0"- 7(<*)E)1)- E&1)3210%)- G(- 0*&E(3)- <2/*- &<3(10*&%(- 01)
3+%&%- F%)3>)/,)- '%&'%((- <2/*- ).01)- 32- 3)1)- 01)- F&*&/(1&%"- _- 0<*F)1- 6)- %06(0,()Y
(/3(6)/*+- ')- 2/- 3&%'Y- )<*)- 08<&%8(*+- F+%+- 0- E0(- F(- 2%E0*+- 6)- %))E(<(0- 2/)(- 01*)
%06(0,((m- )/)%.(0- 03)<*)(0- <)- *%0/<F&%E+- B/- )/)%.()- (/*)%/+Y- 3)ea ce are ca efect
ridicarea temperaturii corpului respectiv.

I"- E/*)%03,(0- %07(0,()(- /)2*%&/(3)- 32- <28<*0/,0

M)2*%&/((Y-'0%*(321)-/)2*%)-32-E0<+-6)-%)'02<-E0%)Y-(/*)%03,(&/)0@+-E0(-01)<-32
/231))1)- 0*&E(3)- '%(/- L#O- 6(F2@()Y- L4OjBE'%+G*()%)- G(- L:O- 30'*2%+"
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#AW
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'%&623)-B/*&*6)02/0-&-%06(0,()-<)32/60%+-L'%&*&/Y- γ), ca de exemplu: 11H(n, γ) 21H; !
14
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Efectele specifice mai importante care ap0%- 10- *%)3)%)0- %06(0,((1&%- /231)0%)
'%(/- <28<*0/,+- <2/*]
X- )F)3*)- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3)- L(&/(@0%)0Y- E&6(F(30%)0- '%&'%()*+,(1&%- )1)3*%(3)- G(
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X- &'*(3)- L'%&623)%)0- 6)- <3(/*(10,((Y- 06(3+- <3S/*)()%(- B/- 3%(<*01)Om
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3))0- 3)- <)- /2E)G*)- &- 6)<3+%30%)- )1)3*%(3+"- N2%)/*21- )1)3*%(3- (&/&V)1)3*%&/(3- 01
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#A#
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'&%,(2/((- ^P- 0- .%0F(3212(- 32%)/*V*)/<(2/)- 0
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lor din interiorul gazului aflat la o presiune
de aproximativ 100 Torr.
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! %06(0,((-α-G(-β, de exemplu, la tensiuni relativ mici vor fi înregistrate particulele
α-6)-)/)%.((-E0%(-30%)-'%&623-3)(-E0(-E21,(-(&/(-'%(E0%("-N2-3%)G*)%)0-*)/<(2/((
3%)G*)-F03*&%21-6)-0E'1(F(30%)Y-6)')/6)/*-6)-_-G(-6)-/0*2%0-.0@212(-6(/-6)*)3*&%Y
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')/*%2- 6)*)%E(/0%)0- )/)%.()(- 03)<*&%0"
c) Contorul Geiger-Müler LF(."-!"#4O-F2/3,(&/)0@+-3&%)<'2/@+*&%-(/*)%>01212(
7<- 0- 32%8)(- 32%)/*V*)/<(2/)- %)'%)@)/*0*+- B/- F(.2%0- !"##"
5<*)-3&/<*(*2(*-6(/*%V2/-0/&6-L2O-<28-F&%E0
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3&/623*&%- 6)'2<- ')- <2'%0F0,0- (/*)%(&0%+- 0
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#A4
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/2E+%21- 6)- (E'21<2%(- '%(E(*)- B/- 2/(*0*)0- 6)- *(E'- G(- /2E+%21- *&*01- 6)- (E'21<2%(
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(E'21<212(- 6)- *)/<(2/)"- 9((/6- 2/- 6)*)3*&%- %&82<*Y- %)10*(>- <(.2%- B/- F2/3,(&/0%)Y
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G(- B/- 3)%3)*+%(- .)&1&.(3)- 6)- *eren.
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6(/*%V2/- 01(0[- 0%.(/*VE0./)@(2Y- <)- &8,(/- 10- ()G(%)- 32%)/,(- 6)- 60 µA/lumen.
Contoarele de acest tip permit înregistrarea particulelor ce se succed la intervale
de 10–9- <"- JE'1(*26(/)0- <)E/01212(- F((/6- '%&'&%,(&/01+- 32- )/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+- 0
'0%*(321)(- (/3(6)/*)Y- ')%E(*)- 30132121- 03)<*)(- )/)%.(("
e) Detectorul Cerenkov are ca princ('(2- 6)- F2/3,(&/0%)- )F)3*21- 32- 03)10G(
/2E)"
NS/6-&-'0%*(321+-32-<0%3(/+-)1)3*%(3+-6)-)/)%.()-E0%)-'+*%2/6)-B/*%V2/-E)6(2
6)-(/6(3)-6)-%)F%03,()-!-32-&->(*)@+-!p-E0(-E0%)-6)3S*->(*)@0-12E(/((-!-B/-E)6(21
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#  
 β X 6  Y-0T0-3&/212(-F((/6-*0/.)/*+-10-*%0()3*&%(0
!
6)-2/.U(21-12(-;03UY-ϕ =
β!  + 
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#A:
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123%)0@+- B/- 3SE'- 6)- %06(0,((- /231)0%)"
g) Detectorii cu cristale semiconductoare. 92/3,(&/0%)0-6)*)3*&%(1&%-32-3%(<*01)
<)E(3&/623*&0%)- <)- 80@)0@+- ')- F)/&E)/21- 6)- F&%E0%)- 6)- ')%)3U(- )1)3*%&/V.&1- B/
3%(<*01)1)-<)E(3&/623*&0%)-0*2/3(-3S/6-03)<*)0-<2/*-')/)*%0*)-6)-%06(0,((-/231)0%)"
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6)- F(@(3+- /231)0%+"
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'&%/(/6- 6)- 10- %)10,(0- #!- b- `8^"
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În tabelul 5.2 sunt date valorile lui Tabelul 5.2
fR- ')/*%2- 3S*)>0- *('2%(- 6)- %06(0,(("
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2/->'+()%&./&6)!./%'%/&'-&:/0"("-"*,&fT"-N2-3S*-03)<*-F03*&%-)<*)-E0(-E0%)Y-32-0*S*
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Def = fT Dechiv.
Tabelul 5.3
o/(*0*)0-6)-E+<2%+-')/*%2-6&@0-)F)3*(>+
! )<*)- *&*- zcy.- G(- <)- /2E)G*)- *&*- <()>)%*" ,)<2*21- <02- &%.0/21 >T
Z/-*08)121-!":"-<2/*-60*)->01&%(1)-')/*%2j>T. testicole sau ovare 0,20
NS/6-3&%'21-2E0/-)<*)-(%06(0*-B/-B/*%).21 E+62>0- &<&0<+Y- '1+ES/Y
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)<*)- <2E0- 6&@)1&%- )F)3*(>)- 08<&%8(*)- 6)- 10 *(%&(6+Y- )<&F0.Y- <S/Y- F(30*- >)@(30
3SE'21-6)-%06(0,((-/231)0%)"-P&010-'%&>&30*+ 2%(/0%+ WYW!
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(0%- %/#- )<*)- 2/(*0*)- ')/*%2- 6&@0- 08<&%8(*+- 6)- :/0"("%*-/& J**"
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%06(0,((Y- &- 6&@+- )F)3*(>+- 6)- 4Y:- E7>c0/- 30%)- <)- 3&E'2ne din:
X- %06(0,(0- 3&<E(3+ WY4Q- E7>c0/m
X- %06(0,(0- .0EE0- *)%)<*%+ WYAH- E7>c0/m
X- %06(&/231(@((- 6(/- &%.0/(<E] WY4:- E7>c0/- LF+%+- %06&/Om
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TOTAL (rotunjit) 2,3 mSv/an.

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D&@0-6)-%06(0,((-B/30<0*+-6)'(/6)-6) Tabelul 5.4
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G(- *(E'21- 6)- )T'2/)%)"
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'&'210,()-L/2-')/*%2-3)(-)T'2G(-'%&F)<(&V %06(0,((- )T(<*)/*)- B/- E0*)%(01)
/01OY- 0%- *%)82(- <+- <)- 06E(*+- &- (%06()%) 6)- 3&/<*%23,() WYA- E7>c0/
3+1+*&%()- 32- 0>(&/21] WYWA- E7>cU
0%*(F(3(01+- E)6()Y- B/- 6&@)- )F)3*(>)Y- 6)
/2E0(- #- E7>c0/- ')<*)- *%'.*/%/'& !'("\ =06(0,()- 0%*(F(3(01+
%'-$& #/.*/& ./& L,b& E7>c0/"
În reactoarele nucleare se '%&623-3)1) %06(&.%0F()- \] WYA- E7>
0/01(@)- E)6(301)- 32- 80%(2] QYI!- E7>
E0(-B/<)E/0*)-30/*(*+,(-6)-E0*)%(01)-%0V *)1)>(@&%] WYW4- E7>cU !
6(&03*(>)"- Z/- F2/3,(&/0%)- /&%E01+Y
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6(/- 6&@0- *&*01+"
Z/- 3&/F&%E(*0*)- 32- /&%E)1)- /0,(&/01)- G(- (/*)%/0,(&/01)Y- ')/*%2- '&'210,()- <)
06E(*)- C!+'0'%/'& '!"'-$& 0- 2/)(- 6&@)- )F)3*(>)- 1(E(*+- 6)- !- E7>- LWY!- %)EOY- (0%
')/*%2- ')%<&/0121- 6)- )T'1&0*0%)- 6(/- 3)/*%01)1e nucleare de 50 mSv (5 rem).
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chirurgicale) etc.
$)- 6)- 01*+- '0%*)Y- B/<+Y- %06(0,((1)- '&*- '%&623)- (E'&%*0/*)- 6(<*%2.)%(- 3)1210%)"
<>/+(/-/& =*)-)A*+/- 01)- %06(0,((1&%- '&*- F(- .%2'0*)- B/]
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<')%0/,)(- 6)- >(0,+m
X-)F)3*)-.)/)*(3)Y-30%)-0'0%-B/-3)121)1)-.)%E(/01)Y-3&/623S/6-0<*F)1Y-10-E2*0,((
.)/)*(3)- 10- 6)<3)/6)/,(.
p-_-8&01+-03*(/(3+-.%0>+-L(%06()%)-B/-6&@)-E0%(O-<)-E0/(F)<*+-'%(/-2%E+*&0%)0
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0- /2E+%212(- 6)- .1&821)- 018)- 6(/- <S/.)OY- 3+6)%)0- '+%212(Y- <*)%(1(*0*)- 3&E'1)*+Y
U)E&%0.((- (/*)%/)- G(- 6)3)<"
Z/-033(6)/*)-/231)0%)Y-10-&-6&@+-)F)3*(>+-B/30<0*+-6)-#WWW-7>]-E&0%*)-B/-E(/2*)1)
2%E+*&0%)m-10-I-7>]-`Wa-E&0%*)-B/-12/(1)-2%E+*&0%)"-$)/*%2-6&@)-)F)3*(>)-32'%(/<)
! B/*%)- 4Y!XA- 7>]- 0/T()*0*)Y- <)/@0,()- 6)- >&E+Y- E&6(F(30%)0- 3&E'&@(,()(- <0/.>(/)Y
(/F)3,((- 32- %(<3- 1)*01Y- ')<*)- #Wa- E&%*01(*0*)- B/- 12/(1)- 2%E+*&0%)"

=07(&'%&*)3,(0
În locur(1)-B/-30%)-0'0%-6&@)-6)-%06(0,((-E0(-E0%(-6)3S*-3)1)-E0T(E)-06E(<)Y
<)- (E'2/)- 120%)0- 2/&%- E+<2%(- 6)- '%&*)3,()- '%(/- )3%0/0%)0- <2%<)1&%- %06(&03tiveY
6(F)%)/,(0*Y- B/- F2/3,()- 6)- /0*2%0- %06(0,()(Y- 62'+- 32E- 2%E)0@+]
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– împotriva fluxu%(1&%-6)-%06(0,((-γ se folosesc ecrane din materiale cu Z mare
(plumb) care absorb puternic- %06(0,(0- γ;
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6)%0*&%- L0'0- .%)0- <02- .%0F(*21O- G(- 2/- 08<&%bant (cadmiu sau bor);
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grosimea de 1 cm este suficient pentru 0- 08<&%8(- 3&E'1)*- %06(0,(0- β;
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2/(*+,(- 6)- 6&@+- 6)- %06(0,(("

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6)- WY!:`- 3E"- 7+- <)- 301321)@)]
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!
– Caracteristicile reactorului:
0O-F)121-%)03,()(-/231)0%)-6(/-%)03*&%]-NM5-32-%)03*&0%)-6)-F(<(2/)-G(-NM5-32
%)03*&0%)- 6)- F2@(2/)- L0F10*)- B/ studiu);
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G(- 0 altor materiale.

#
-$%(E21-%)03*&%-/231)0%-)T')%(E)/*01-0-F&<*-3&/<*%2(*-6)-5/%(3&-9)%E(-L$%)E(21-M&8)1Y
#`:QO- B/- 0/21- #`A4Y- <28- *%(82/)1)- <*06(&/212(- o/(>)%<(*+,((- 6(/- NU(30.&"
#!:
 =)03*&%21-)<*)-(/%#*+,-3S/6-/)2*%&/((-%0'(@(-'%&62G(-10-F(<(2/)0-/231))1&%-<2/*
B/3)*(/(,(-6)-3+*%)-E&6)%0*&%21-F&%E0*-6(/-)1)E)/*)1)-2G&0%)Y-<02-%'6*.,-3S/6Y-B/
08<)/,0- E&6)%0*&%212(Y- /)2*%&/((- /2- E0(- <2/*- B/3)*(/(,("
$)/*%2-%)623)%)0-<3+'+%((-6)-/)2*%&/(-B/-0F0%0-%)03*&%212(-03)<*0-)<*)-'%)>+@2*
32- 2/- <*%0*- ')%(F)%(3- '%&*)3*&%V%)Flector.
M)2*%&/((-'%&>)/(,(-6(/-F(<(2/(-<)-E&6)%)0@+-6)-10-)/)%.(0-6)-4-;)g-10-)/)%.((
*)%E(3)-F+%+-0-<)-'%&623)-B/-03)<*-'%&3)<-6)-*)%E01(@0%)-F(<(2/(-06(,(&/01)-0'%)3(08(1)"
N+162%0- '%&62<+- B/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%- )<*)- )>0320*+- 32- 0[2*&%21- 0.)/*212(- 6)
%+3(%)-G(-*%0/<F)%0*+-3(31212(-)/)%.)*(3-F()-6(%)3*Y-F()-'%(/-(/*)%E)6(21-.)/)%0*&%212(
6)- 082%"

$%&723)%)0- 3+172%((- B/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%

N+162%0- <)- '%&623)- B/- '%(/3('01- B/- 3&E82<*(8(121- /231)0%Y- (0%- &- '0%*)- E0(
%)62<+- B/- )1)E)/*)1)- 6)- <*%23*2%+- 01)- @&/)(- 03*(>)Y- B/- E&6)%0*&%Y- B/- %)F1)3*&%Y- B/
)1)E)/*)1)- 6)- '%&*)3,()- X- 60*&%(*+- /)2*%&/(1&%- G(- F&*&/(1&%- γY- 21*(E((- '%&623S/6
3+162%+- G(- B/- )1)E)/*)1)- 6(/- 0F0%0- >0<212(- %)03*&%212("- 7)- 0'%)3(0@+- 3+- )/)%.(0
'%&62<+- 10- F(<(2/)0- 2/2(- /231)2- 6)- 2%0/(2- <)- 1&301(@)0@+- 0<*F)1]- `Wa- B/
! 3&E82<*(8(121- /231)0%Y- Aa- B/- E&6)%0*&%Y- !a- 0F)%)/*+- '0%*(321)1&%- /)2*%(/&Y- #a
B/- 3)1)101*)- E0*)%(01)- 01)- %)03*&%212("

L&D82<*(8(121- /231)0%
Sub denumirea de combustibil nuclear <)-B/,)1).-E0*)%(01)1)-30%)-3&/,(/-(@&*&'(
F(<(&/08(1(-X-32E-<2/*- 23392
U, 239
94
$2-G(- 235
92
oY-F&1&<(*)-B/-%)03*&0%)1)-/231)0%)-')/*%2
'%&623)%)0- %)03,((1&%- 6)- F(<(2/)- B/- 10/,Y- 6)3(- 0- 3+162%(("
Izotopii fisionabili 23392
o- G(- 239
94
$2- <)- '&*- &8,(/)- B/- '%&3)<21- 6)- (%06()%)- 6(/
%)03*&%21-/231)0%Y-6(/-(@&*&'(-30- 90Th respectiv 238
232
92
U, denumite materiale fertile.
Z/*%23S*-)1)E)/*)1)-30%)-3&/,(/-(@&*&'(-F(<(&/08(1(-<02-F)%*(1(-/2-02Y-B/-<*0%)-6)
E)*01- '2%Y- '%&'%()*+,(- 3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)- 3&/6(,((1&%- 6(/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%Y- 03)<*)
)1)E)/*)- <)- F&1&<)<3- B/- 3&E8(/0,()- 32- 01*)- )1)E)/*)- L@(%3&/Y- *(*0/Y- E&1(86)/Y
012E(/(2OY- 30%)- ')%E(*- <+- <)- 0<(.2%)- BE82/+*+,(%)0- 30%03*)%(<*(3(1&%- E)30/(3)Y
*)%E(3)- G(- 6)- %)@(<*)/,+- 10- 3&%&@(2/)- G(- 10- (%06()%("
$)/*%2- &- B/,)1).)%)- E0(- 82/+- G(- 3&E'1)*+- 0- 3)1&%- '%)@)/*0*)- E0(- <2<- <)
0/01(@)0@+Y- <'%)- )T)E'1(F(30%)Y- 3&/3)'*21- NJMDo- HWWX$n€=- '%)@)/*- B/- ,0%0
/&0<*%+- '%(/- NM5- N)%/0>&6+"

L&/3)'*21-LHMFN
$%(E0- 3)/*%01+- /231)0%+- )1)3*%(3+- 6(/- =&ES/(0Y- B/- F2/3,(2/)- 10- N)%/0>&6+Y
)<*)- %)01(@0*+- 62'+- 3&/3)'*21- CANDU 600–PHWR (CANadian Deutrium
Uranium 600 – Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor), 0%)- '2*)%)- )1)3*%(3+- 6)
IWWj;€- G(- 0<(.2%+- #Wa- 6(/- /)3)<0%21- 6)- )/)%.()- 10- /(>)1- /0,(&/01"
R%+<+*2%(1)-6)F(/(*&%((-01)-03)<*2(-3&/3)'*-<2/*-60*)-6)-%)03*&%21-32-*282%(-<28
'%)<(2/)- 0>S/6- 6%)'*- 3&E82<*(8(1- 2%0/(2- /0*2%01- G(- E&6)%0*&%- 0'0- .%)0- LD2_OY
#!A
B/3+%30%)0- 3&E82<*(8(1212(- F+3S/62V<)- <)E(3&/*(/22Y- B/- <0%3(/+Y- F+%+- &'%(%)0
%)03*&%212(- /231)0%"
90,+- 6)- 01*)- *('2%(- 6)- NM5Y- 3&/3)'*21- NJMDo- '%)@(/*+- &- <)%()- 6)- 0>0/*0[)Y
'%(/*%)- 3)1)- E0(- (E'&%*0/*)- F((/6- F&1&<(%)0- 2%0/(212(- /0*2%01- L01- 3+%2(- '%),- )<*)
<3+@2*OY- B/3+%30%)0- B/- <0%3(/+- G(- 0<(.2%0%)0- 2/)(- <)32%(*+,(- /231)0%)- <'&%(*)"
$%(/- 0/+"%*('(/'& !"+-/'%$- <)- B/,)1).)- 0/<0E8121- 6)- E+<2%(- *)U/(3)- G(- &%.0/(V
@0*&%(3)- 6)<*(/0*)- <+- 0<(.2%)- F2/3,(&/0%)0- (/<*010,((1&%- /231)0%)- B/- 3&/6(,((- 6)
<(.2%0/,+Y-<+-'%)>(/+-G(-<+-1(E(*)@)-6)*)%(&%0%)0-)3U('0E)/*)1&%-G(-<+-&F)%)-'%&*)3,()
')%<&/01212(- &32'0*- '%&F)<(&/01Y- '&'210,()(Y- E)6(212(- B/3&/[2%+*&%- G(- 82/2%(1&%
E0*)%(01)- BE'&*%(>0- (%06()%((- <02- 3&/*0E(/+%((- %06(&03*(>)"
N&/3)'*21- NJMDo- 0%)- 10- 80@+- <*%0*).(0- 6)- c'6$%'%/& C!& '.N!+*#/d,- 30%)
3&/<*+- 6(/- 3&/3)')%)0- 2/2(- <(<*)E- 6)- 80%()%)- F(@(3)- B/- 301)0- )E(<(2/(1&%- %06(&V
03*(>)"-$)/*%2-F()30%)-6(/*%)-03)<*)0-)T(<*+-E0(-E21*)-/(>)12%(-6)-0'+%0%)-BE'&*%(>0
)>)/(E)/*)1&%- 30%)- 0%- '2*)0- 0F)3*0- (/*).%(*0*)0- F()3+%)(- 80%()%)- F(@(3)- G(- 0/2E)]
#O- '0<*(10- 6)- 6(&T(6- 6)- 2%0/(2- X- %),(/)- 3)0- E0(- E0%)- '0%*)- 0- '%&62G(1&%
%06(&03*(>(-6)-F(<(2/)-<&1(@(Y-3U(0%-10-*)E')%0*2%(-B/01*)-LF03*&%21-6)-%),(/)%)-)<*)
``aOm
4O- *)030- )1)E)/*212(- 3&E82<*(8(1- X- %),(/)- '%&62G(- 6)- F(<(2/)- >&10*(1(Y- .0@)1) !
/&8(1)- G(- (@&*&'((- (&6212(- 3)- 6(F2@)0@+- 6(/- '0<*(1)1)- 6)- 3&E82<*(8(1m
:O-<(<*)E21-'%(E0%-6)-*%0/<'&%*-01-3+162%((-X-%),(/)-'%&62G((-6)-F(<(2/)-30%)-0%
'2*)0- <3+'0- 30- 2%E0%)- 0- 6)F)3*+%((- *)3((m
AO- 0/>)1&'0- X- %),(/)- '%&62G((- %06(&03*(>(- B/- 30@21- 0>0%()%((- *)3((- G(- <(<*)E212(
'%(E0%m
!O-k@&/0-6)-)T3126)%)lY-@&/0-32-%0@+-6)-3(%30-#-yE-B/-[2%21-%)03*&%212(-2/6)
/2- <2/*- ')%E(<)- 03*(>(*+,(- 2E0/)- ')%E0/)/*)- /)1).0*)- 6)- )T'1&0*0%)0- NM5- X
0<(.2%+- &- 6(12,()- 0*E&<F)%(3+- 0- &%(3+%&%- )1(8)%+%(- 6)- %06(&03*(>(*0*)- )>(*S/62V<)Y
0<*F)1Y- )T'2/)%(- /)')%E(<)- 01)- '&'210,()("
Z/-3&E'&/)/,0-2/)(-NM5-*('-NJMDo-HWWV$n€=-(/*%+-2/-/2E+%-6)-3(%32(*)
E0[&%)Y-30%)Y-BE'%)2/+-32-3(%32(*)1)-02T(1(0%)-0F)%)/*)Y-%)01(@)0@+-*%0/<F&%E0%)0
)/)%.()(- /231)0%)- B/- )/)%.()- )1)3*%(3+"
Circuitele majore ale CNE CANDU 600-PHWR sunt:
X- 3(%32(*21- '%(E0%- 6)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+162%((m
X- 3(%32(*21- 6)- 082%- G(- 0'+- 6)- 01(Eentare;
X- 3(%32(*21- 6)- 0'+- 6)- %+3(%)- 10- 3&/6)/<0*&%m
– circuitul moderatorului;
– circuitul de combustibil.
$%(/- 3(%32(*21- '%(E0%- 6)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+162%((- 3(%321+- 0'+- .%)0- <28- '%)<(2/)
L0.)/*21- '%(E0%OY- 30%)- *%)3)- '%(/- 30/01)1)- 6)- 3&E82<*(8(1- 6(/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%
'%)12S/6- 3+162%0- 6).0[0*+- B/- 2%E0- F(<(2/((- /231)0%)- 6)- *('21]
1
0
n + 235
92
U → 236
92
U* → 144
56
Ba + 80
36
Kr + 301n
a uraniului natural 235o"-N+162%0-'%(E(*+-6)-0.)/*21-'%(E0%-)<*)-0'&(-3)60*+-B/-3)(
#!!
 A-.)/)%0*&%(-6)-082%-0')(-6)-01(E)/*0%)-L0.)/*21-<)32/60%O-30%)-<)-*%0/<F&%E+-B/
082%- <0*2%0*"- N(%3210,(0- 0.)/*212(- <)32/60%- <)- F03)- 32- 0[2*&%21- 3)1&%- A- '&E')
'%(E0%)"
J82%21- <0*2%0*- 6(/- .)/)%0*&%((- 6)- 082%- <)- 6)<*(/6)- B/- *2%8(/+Y- 30%)- '2/)- B/
F2/3,(2/)- .)/)%0*&%21- 6)- 32%)/*"
Condensarea aburului destins se- F03)- F&1&<(/6- 0'+- 6)- %+3(%)- 6(/- N0/0121
D2/+%)V;0%)0-M)0.%+Y-03)0<*0-3&/<*(*2(/6-0.)/*21-3)12(-6)V01-*%)(1)0-3(%32(*-E0[&%
01- 3)/*%01)("
$%(/-3(%32(*21-E&6)%0*&%212(-3(%321+-0'+-.%)0-32-'%)<(2/)-G(-*)E')%0*2%+-<3+@2*+Y
%&121- 03)<*)(0- F((/6- 6)- 0- 0<(.2%0- 0.)/*21- E&6)%0*&%Y- /)3)<0%- B/*%),(/)%((- %)03,()(
6)- F(<(2/)- 6(/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%Y- 10- '0%0E)*%((- 3&%)<'2/@+*&%("- 53U('0E)/*)1)
E0[&%)- 01)- 03)<*2(- 3(%32(*- <2/*- 6&2+- <3U(E8+*&0%)- 6)- 3+162%+- G(- 6&2+- '&E')- 6)
3(%3210,()"
JE'10<0%)0-03)<*&%-3(%32(*)-G(-0-3)1&%-02T(1(0%)-<)-'%)@(/*+-<3U)E0*(3-B/-F(.2%0
!"#QY- 30%)- 32'%(/6)- G(- *%0<)21- )/)%.)*(3- %)03*&%- /231)0%Y- <3U(E8+*&%- 6)- 3+162%+
L.)/)%0*&%-6)-082%OY-*2%8(/+-32-082%Y-01*)%/0*&%-L.)/)%0*&%-)1)3*%(3O-→ consumator.
$%(/3('01((-'0%0E)*%(-0(-%)03*&%212(-NM5-NJMDo-HWWV$n€=-6)-10-N)%/0>&6+
! <2/*]
– reactor orizontal cu 380 tuburi de presiune; combustibil:
– pastile sinterizate de UO2 fa8%(30*)- 10- $(*)G*(Y- .%2'0*)- B/- F0<3(321)- 6)
3&E82<*(8(1- 6)- 3S*)- :I- )1)E)/*)m
– cantitate combustibil: 93 t UO2;
– circuitul primar
X- *)E')%0*2%+- (/*%0%)c()G(%)- %)03*&%] 4HH{N- c- :#W{Nm
X- '%)<(2/)- (/*%0%)c()G(%)- %)03*&%]- ##Y#:- ;$0- c- `YQ`- ;$0m

# #I

4 :
A
#W ##
H

#A
! #! #4
#: #H
I Q

!"#$%&$'3$-NM5-X-N)%/0>&6+]-73U)E0-3)/*%01)(-/231)0%)-)1)3*%(3)]%#"-N&/623*)-6)-082%m-4"-$%)<2%(@&%m
:"- ^)/)%0*&%- 6)- 082%- L^JOm- A"- $&E')- 6)- 3(%32(*- '%(E0%m- !"- ;CD- LE0G(/0- B/3+%30*V6)<3+%30*
3&E82<*(8(1Om- H"- =)03*&%m- I"- N&E82<*(8(1m- Q"- $&E')- 3(%32(*- E&6)%0*&%m- `"- 73U(E8+*&%- 6)- 3+162%+m
#W"- R2%8&.)/)%0*&%m- ##"- ^)/)%0*&%- )1)3*%(3m- #4"j$&E')- %+3(%)- 3&/6)/<0*&%m- #:"- N&/6)/<0*&%m
#A"j$&E')- 0'+- 6)- 01(E)/*0%)m- #!"j$%)B/3+1@(*&%m- #H"- R%0/<F&%E0*&%m- #I"- J/>)1&'0- %)03*&%212("

#!H
 – circuit secundar
– fluid: abur;
X- '%)<(2/)c*)E')%0*2%+- 10- (/*%0%)0- B/- NC$]- AY!- ;$0c4HW{Nm
– debit: 3758,152 t/h;
X- 6)8(*- 0'+- 3(%3210,()- 10- 3&/6)/<0*&%]- AH- E3/s;
– vid la condensator: 4 kPa.
4(<*)D21- 7)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+172%((
7(<*)E21- '%(E0%- 6)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+162%((- %)01(@)0@+- 3(%3210,(0- <28- '%)<(2/)- 0
0')(- .%)1)- L0.)/*21- '%(E0%- 6)- %+3(%)O- '%(/- 30/01)1)- 6)- 3&E82<*(8(1Y- B/- <3&'21
)>032+%((- 3+162%((- %)@21*0*)- 6(/- F(<(2/)0- 0*&E(1&%- 6)- 2%0/(2- 235o"- N+162%0
*%0/<'&%*0*+- 6)- 0.)/*21- 6)- %+3(%)- )<*)- *%0/<F)%0*+- 0')(- L0.)/*21- <)32/60%O- B/
.)/)%0*&%((- 6)- 082%Y- 03)0<*0- *%0/<F&%ES/62V<)- B/- 082%21- <0*2%0*- 30%)- '2/)- B/
E(G30%)- *2%8(/0"
$)- 1S/.+- 03)<*- %&1- E0[&%Y- <(<*)E21- '%(E0%- 6)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+162%((- E0(- 0<(.2%+]
X-%+3(%)0-%)03*&%212(-/231)0%-B/-&%(3)-3&/6(,((Y-3U(0%-G(-B/-30@21-'()%6)%((-<2%<)1&%
6)- 01(E)/*0%)- 32- )/)%.()- )1)3*%(3+m
X- '%&*)3,(0- 10- <2'%0'%)<(2/)- 0- <(<*)E212(- G(- 0- 3&E'&/)/*)1&%- 03)<*2(0m
X- %)623)%)0- 10- E(/(E2E- 0- '()%6)%(1&%- 6)- 0'+- .%)0"
!
D(/- E&*(>)- 6)- <)32%(*0*)- X- ')/*%2- 0- /2- <)- '()%6)- B/*%).- (/>)/*0%21- 6)- 0.)/*
'%(E0%- 6)- %+3(%)- XY- <(<*)E21- '%(E0%- 6)- *%0/<'&%*- 01- 3+162%((- 0- F&<*- 3&/3)'2*- <28
F&%E0- 0- 6&2+- 8231)- (/6)')/6)/*)Y- F()30%)- 8231+- 0<(.2%S/6- %+3(%)0- 0- #`W- 30/01)
6)- 3&E82<*(8(1- 6(/- %)03*&%21- /231)0%- L6)3(- [2E+*0*)- 6(/- /2E+%21- *&*01- 6)- 30/01)
6)- 3&E82<*(8(1OY- %)01(@S/62V<)- 0<*F)1- G(- &- 32%.)%)- 8(6(%)3,(&/01+- B/- (/*)%(&%21
%)03*&%212(- /231)0%"

4(<*)D21- D&7)%0*&%
Pentru reactorul CANDU, moderatorul este apa grea (D2O).
7(<*)E21- E&6)%0*&%212(- 0%)- 2%E+*&0%)1)- F2/3,((]
X- E&6)%)0@+- LB/3)*(/)G*)O- /)2*%&/((- %0'(@(- 6)- F(<(2/)m
– evacueaz+- 3+162%0- 6).0[0*+- B/- 306%21- '%&3)<212(- 6)- E&6)%0%)m
X- <)%>)G*)- 30- E)6(2- 6)- 6(<')%<()- 0- <28<*0/,)1&%- 3U(E(3)- (/*%&62<)- ')/*%2
%).10%)0- %)03*(>(*+,((- B/- @&/0- 03*(>+m
X-)>032)0@+-3+162%0-6).0[0*+-6)-3&E82<*(8(1-B/-30@21-?_NJ-L?&<<-&F-N&&10/*
J33(6)/*- X- '()%6)%)0- 0.)/*212(- 6)- %+3(%)OY- 3&/3&E(*)/*- 32- (/6(<'&/(8(1(*0*)0
<(<*)E212(- 6)- %+3(%)- 10- 0>0%()- 0- @&/)(- 03*(>)m
X- E)/,(/)- &- *)E')%0*2%+- 3&/<*0/*+- 6)- HW÷QW{N- 0- E&6)%0*&%212(- %)03*&%"

E/<*%2D)/*)- 7)- D+<2%+

J3)<*)- (/<*%2E)/*)- ')%E(*- 3&/*%&121- 3&/*(/22- 01- E+%(E(1&%- F(@(3)- 30%)
30%03*)%(@)0@+- 3&E'&%*0E)/*21- 2/2(- %)03*&%- /231)0%- L*)E')%0*2%0Y- 3&/3)/*%0,(0
/)2*%&/(1&%Y- %06(&03*(>(*0*)0Y- '%)<(2/)0- G(- 6)8(*21- E&6)%0*&%212(- 1(3U(6- )*3"O
G(j0jNM5"

#!I
 !"O" 92@(2/)0- /231)0%+
!"O"#" 92@(2/)0
;"B*"!/'& !"+-/'%$& %/6%/B*!($& %/'+:*'& !"+-/'%$& ./& 0*!(/B$& '& "!"*& !"+-/"& #'*
A%/"& D*& #'*& 0('=*-,& .*!& .)"$& !"+-//& "D)'%/& E2& e& LfQ?- =)03,(0- )<*)- B/<&,(*+- 6)
)1(8)%0%)0- 6)- )/)%.()Y- ).01+- 32- 6(F)%)/,0- 6(/*%)- )/)%.(0- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212(
%)@21*0*-G(-3)0-0-/231))1&%-2G&0%)Y-6)-&%6(/21-;)gV(1&%"-J-F&<*-6)<3&')%(*+-B/*%)
0/((- #`4WX#`4!- 10- 8&E80%60%)0- .U),((- .%)1)- LD2O) cu un fascicul de deuteroni
(21DO- 033)1)%0,("- M231))1)- 2G&0%)- 30%)- '&*- F2@(&/0- <2/*- 3)1)- 01)- (@&*&'(1&%
U(6%&.)/212(- X- '%&*&/2l (11H), deuteronul (21DO- G(- *%(*(21- L31ROY- '%)32E- G(- 01)- 2/&%
(@&*&'(-(/<*08(1(-0(-U)1(212(-L32n)OY-30%8&/212(Y-0@&*212("-NS*)>0-)T)E'1)-6)-%)03,((
6)- F2@(2/)]
D- d- 21D- → 13T- d 11H- d- A- ;)gm
2
1
2
1
D- d- 21D- → 32He + 10n + 3,25 MeV;
2
1
D + 13T → 42He + 10n + 17,6 MeV;
! 2
1
D + 32He → 42He + 11H + 18,3 MeV.
Pentru producerea u/)(- %)03,((- 6)- F2@(2/)Y- /231))1)Y- F((/6- B/3+%30*)- '&@(*(>Y
*%)82()- <+- B/>(/.+- F&%,)1)- 6)- %)<'(/.)%)- )1)3*%&<*0*(3+- X- 30%)- <2/*- 32- 0*S*- E0(
E0%(-32-3S*-/2E+%21-1&%-0*&E(3-2-)<*)-E0(-E0%)-X-G(-<+-'+*%2/6+-B/-%0@0-6)-03,(2/)
L#W–15jEO-0-F&%,)1&%-/231)0%)-6)-0*%03,()-30%)-E)/,(/-/231)&/((-/231)212(-B/-306%21
03)<*2(0"-$)/*%2-03)0<*0Y-/231))1)-*%)82()-<+-0(8+-&-)/)%.()-3(/)*(3+-(/(,(01+-E0%)Y
30%)- '&0*)- F(- &8,(/2*+- '%(/- 3%)G*)%)0- *)E')%0*2%((- 10- >01&%(- E0%(Y- S- ≈ 5 · 109- }- X
10- 30%)- <28<*0/,0- <)- 0F1+- B/- <*0%)0- 6)- pl'0#$,& 06(3+- 6)- (&/(@0%)Y- 6)- 2/6)- G(
/2E)1)- 6)- %/'+:**& (/%#)!"+-/'%/?& R)E')%0*2%0- 6)- 0E&%<0%)- 0- %)03,()(- 21D – 21D
este 4 · 108j}Y- (0%- ')/*%2- %)03,(0- 21D – 13T este de 4,5 · 107 K.
=)03,((1)-6)-F2@(2/)-3&/<*(*2()-<2%<0-)/)%.)*(3+-0-<*)1)1&%-6)-*('21-7&0%)12("-Z/
30@21- 7&0%)12(Y- B/- 30%)- U(6%&.)/21- )<*)- B/- '%&'&%,()- 6)- IWaY- U)1(21- 4`a- G(- 01*)
)1)E)/*)-#aY-%)03,(0-.)/)%01+-6)-F2@(2/)-)<*)]-A11H → 42He + 2e+ + 2ν"-5T(<*+-E0(
E21*)-3(312%(-6)-%)03,()-30%)-'&*-623)-10-F&%E0%)0-2/2(-/231)2-6)- 42He din patru
protoni,- B/- F2/3,()- 6)- *)E')%0*2%0- '10<E)("- Z/- (/*)%(&%21- <*)1)1&%- E0(- %)3(- 32E
)<*)Y-6)-)T)E'12Y-7&0%)1)Y-<)-'%&623)-3(3121-'%&*&/V'%&*&/Y-'%&'2<-B/-0/21-#`:Q
6)- F(@(3(0/21- 0E)%(30/- 6)- &%(.(/)- .)%E0/+- n"- J"- P)*U)]
411H + 211H → 221D + 2e+ + 2ν,
221D + 211H → 232He + γ,
3
2
He + 32He → 211H + 42He.
Z/- 03)<*- 3(312Y- 10- F&%E0%)0- 2/2(- /231)2- 6)- U)1(2- 6(/- '0*%2- '%&*&/(- <)- 6).0[+
)/)%.(0- 6)- 4HYI!- ;)gY- 0<*F)1- 3+- 10- <(/*)@0- 3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)- 0- #- .- 6)- /231))- 6)
U(6%&.)/-<)-&8,(/-#I!-;€UY-B/-3&E'0%0,()-32-44YIQ-;€U-10-F(<(2/)0-2/2(-.%0E
6)-2raniu 235 92
om-6)-IYHQ-&%(-)<*)-E0(-E0%)-)/)%.(0-6)-F2@(2/)-6)3S*-3)0-)1(8)%0*+
10- F(<(2/)Y- 3&E82<*(8(1((- F((/6- 6(F)%(,("

#!Q
 D)G(-'%&3)<)1)-6)-F2@(2/)-62%)0@+-B/-7&0%)-6)-3)1-'2,(/-6&2+-E(1(0%6)-6)-0/(Y
B/-F()30%)-<)32/6+-3&/<2ES/62V<)-#W-E(1(&0/)-*&/)-6)-U(6%&.)/Y-'S/+-B/-'%)@)/*
<V0-*%0/<F&%E0*-B/-U)1(2-/2E0(-4a-6(E-E0<0-7&0%)12(Y-3))0-3)-0%0*+-3+-03)<*0->0
E0(- %06(0- 32- 03))0G(- (/*)/<(*0*)- B/3+- #WW- 6)- E(1(0%6)- 6)- 0/("
5T(<*)/,0- ')- $+ES/*- 0- 0/2E(*&%- (@&*&'(- 32E- 0%- F(- 21D, 32He, 53Li, 84P)- G"0"- )<*)
0*%(82(*+- 2/&%- '%&3)<)- *)%E&/231)0%)- ')*%)32*)Y- B/- 3&/6(,((- F(@(3)- 06)3>0*)Y- 32
E21*- *(E'- B/- 2%E+"
J<*F)1Y-6)2*)%(21-0%-F(-0'+%2*-B/-2%E0-%)03,()(]- 11H + 11H → 21D + e+ + ν; 53?(-30
2%E0%)- 0- %)03,()(]- 42He + 11H → 53Li + ν; 48P)- 6(/- %)03,(0- 42He + X → Y + γ
(3&E'1)*0,(- 30- )T)%3(,(2Y- /)32/&<32*)1)- %)03,()(O"

!"O"5" =)03*&%21- 32- G2@(2/)#

=)03*&%21-32-F2@(2/)Y-3&/<(6)%0*-3)1-E0(-%)01(@08(1Y-F&1&<)G*)-6%)'*-3&E82<*(8(1
*%(*(21- G(- 6)2*)%(21- 3&/F&%E- %)03,()(]
2
1
D + 31T → 42He + 10n + 17,6 MeV.
Probabilitatea de producere a r)03,((1&%- /231)0%)- B/- 2%E0- 3(&3/(%((- 0*&E(1&%
)<*)- '%)0- E(3+Y- 6)- 03))0- <)- F&1&<)G*)- &- '10<E+- F()%8(/*)- <*08(1(@0*+Y- 3&E'1)*
(&/(@0*+Y- F&%E0*+- 6(/- 0*&E(- 6)- 6)2*)%(2- G(- *%(*(2"- $)/*%2- '%&623)%)0- F2@(2/(( !
/231))1&%-DXD-G(-DXR-B/*%V2/-%)03*&%-32-F2/3,io/0%)-B/-%).(E-&'*(E-)<*)-/)3)<0%+
B/6)'1(/(%)0-0-*%)(-3&/6(,((-F2/60E)/*01)]-3&/F(/0%)0-'10<E)(Y-%0/60E)/*21-%)03,((1&%
6)- F2@(2/)- G(- 0- 3%(*)%(212(- ?0q<&/"- D)&0%)3)- 10- 2/- )>)/*201- 3&/*03*- 32- ')%),((
(/3(/*)(- '10<E0- *&')G*)- ')%),((Y- <)- (E'2%(F(3+- G(- <)- %+3)G*)- %0'(6Y- <)- (E'2/)
(@&10%)0- L3&/F(/0%)0O- 6)- ')%),((- (/<*010,()(- B/- 30%)- <)- F&%E)0@+"- Z/- 03)<*- <3&'Y
3)0-E0(-F&1&<(*+-)<*)-E)*&60-30'30/)1&%-E0./)*(3)-)T*)%/)"-NSE'21-E0./)*(3-01
3+%2(- <')3*%2- 6)- 1(/((- )<*)- F&%E0*- *0/.)/,(01- 32- '10<E0- 6)*)%E(/+- &- 3&E'%)<()- 0
^4
'10<E)(Y- )T)%3(*S/6- &- '%)si2/)- E0./)*(3+- 6 = m- ^- )<*)- (/623,(0- 3SE'212(
4µ W
E0./)*(3Y-6)-&%6(/21-#X4Rm-µ0-X]--)<*)-')%E)08(1(*0*)0->(6212("-Z/-%).(E-6)-)3U(1(8%2Y
%)03*&%21-*%)82()-<+-(/[)3*)@)-03)10G(-/2E+%-6)-'0%*(321)Y-(0%-)/)%.(0-6).0[0*+-B/
2/(*0*)0- 6)- *(E'- *%)82()- <+- F()- E0(- E0%)- 6)3S*- )/)%.(0- F12T212(- 6)- '0%*(321)
'()%62*)- B/- 2/(*0*)0- 6)- *(E'"- =0'&%*21]
Z% + Z6
η= , (5.41)
ZW + Z% + Z6
unde P0, Pr + Pp- <2/*- '2*)%)0- )/)%.()(- /231)0%)- )1(8)%0*)Y- 0- F12T212(- 6)- %06(0,()
G(Y-%)<')3*(>Y-0-F12T212(-6)-'0%*(321)-'()%62*)Y-6)F(/)G*)-%0/60E)/*21-η-01-%)03,((1&%
/231)0%)- 6)- F2@(2/)"- D03+- '%(/- !- 6)F(/(E- 3&/3)/*%0,(0- '0%*(321)1&%Y- (0%- '%(/- τ- X
*(E'21- E)6(2- 6)- E)/,(/)%)- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- 6)2*)%(2- G(- *%(*(2- B/- %)03*&%- G(- 603+
'%&62<21- !τ- )<*)- #'*& #'%/& ./+N(& J'-)'%/'& "!/*& >"!+:**& +%*(*+/& ./& (/#6/%'("%$
>LSO-')/*%2-30-%)03*&%21-<+-F()-2/-.)/)%0*&%-6)-)/)%.()-G(-3S/6-%0/60E)/*21-)<*)
η = 1/3Y- %)03*&%21- F2/3,(&/)0@+- B/- %).(E- &'*(E01- L+%*(/%*"-& -"*& O'g0)!O"

#
-g)@(-G(-U**']cc<3()/3)"U&q<*2FFq&%y<"3&EcF2<(&/V%)03*&%"U*E"

#!`
 J<*F)1Y- B/- 3&/6(,((1)- 6)- %)03*&%- 6)- 108&%0*&%]
X- ')/*%2- %)03,(0- DXD]- & !τ ≥ 1015 cm–3s, T ≈ 2·109 K;
– pentru reac,ia D–T: nτ ≥ 1014 cm–3s,
T ≈ 2 · 108 K.
JG060%Y-')/*%2-&8,(/)%)0-F2@(2/((-)<*)-/)3)<0%+-F&%E0%)0-2/)(-'10<E)Y-B/-<(<*)E
.0@-*&*01-(&/(@0*Y-3&/F(/0*+Y-3S*-E0(-6)/<+Y-<*08(1+-2/-*(E'-3S*-E0(-B/6)12/.0*-G(
10- &- *)E')%0*2%+- 3S*- E0(- B/01*+"
Z/-F(.2%0-!"#`-<)-'%)@(/*+-<3U)E0*(3-013+*2(%)0-2/2(-'&<(8(1-%)03*&%-6)-F2@(2/)
DdR"- ;0/*020- 6)- 1(*(2- 1(3U(6- 0%)- %&1- Gi de fabricare a tritiului, conforE- %)03,()(
1
0
n + 73Li → 42He + 31H- G(- 6)- E&6)%0*&%"- M)2*%&/((- %)03,()(- 32- 1(*(2- <2/*- /)2*%&/(
6)-E0%)-)/)%.()-'%&>)/(,(-6(/-%)03,(0- 21D + 31T → 42He + 01n + 17,6 MeV-30%)-0%)
1&3-B/-'10<E0-LDdRO-'%&>&30*+-'%(/-)>0'&%0%)0-LE(3%&)T'1&@(0O-'(3+*2%((-LDdRO
32- %0@0- 6)- !- EE- %)01(@0*+- '%(/- 03,(2/)0- F&301(@0*+- 0- %06(0,((1&%- 10<)%- 6)- F&0%*)
E0%)- '2*)%)"- ?(*(21- '%)(0- )/)%.(0- %)@21*0*+- 6(/- %)03,((1)- 6)- F2@(2/)Y- *%0/<'&%*S/6
3+16ura la sis*)E)1)-310<(3)-6)-3&/>)%<()-0-)/)%.()(-*)%E(3)-B/-)/)%.()-)1)3*%(3+"
N2%)/*21- 6(/- bobinajul exte%(&%- '0%*(3('+- 10- '%&623)%)0- 3SE'212(- 30'30/)(
E0./)*(3)-30%)Y-BE'%)2/+-32-%06(0,(0-10<)%Y-3&/*%(82()-10-3&/F(/0%)0-'10<E)(-6(/
! %)03*&%.
?(*(21- G(- *%(*(21- <)- .+<)<3- X- B/<+- – în cantit+,(- F&0%*)- E(3(- î/- /0*2%+"
D(/-'2/3*-6)->)6)%)-01-%)@)%>)1&%-6)-3&E82<*(8(1-*)%E&/231)0%Y-%)01(@0%)0-2/2(
%)03*&%-L.-d-.O-0%-F(-&-<&12,()-(6)01+"-Z/-03)<*-30@-2/-E)*%2-328-6)-0'+-0%-3&/<*(*2(
)3U(>01)/*21-B/-)/)%.()-0-:WW-*&/)-6)-3+%82/)-<02-4YWQ-f-#W5 l de petrol. Problema
energiei-0%-F(-%)@&1>0*+Y-60%Y-0G0-32E-<V0-0%+*0*-E0(-B/0(/*)Y-'0%0E)*%((-6)-%)01(@0%)
0-%)03,()(-*)%E&/231)0%)- 21D + 21D sunt prea mari: nτ ≥ 1015 cm–3s, T > 2 · 109 K1.

!"#$% &$'($% o/- *('- 6)- %)03*&%- 6)- F2@(2/)"

#
- o/0- 6(/*%)- >01&%(1)- 3)1)- E0(- %(6(30*)- 6)- *)E')%0*2%+- 3%)0*+- 6)- &E- )<*)- 3)0- 6)- !4W
E(1(&0/)-.%06)-N)1<(2<Y-06(3+-6)-:W-6)-&%(-E0(-E0%)-6)3S*-B/-3)/*%21-7&0%)12("-50-0-F&<*
%)01(@0*+-B/-0/21-#``A-B/-%)03*&%21-6)-*)<*0%)-')/*%2-F2@(2/)-/231)0%+Y-*('-R&y0E0yY-6)-10
108&%0*&%21- 6)- 9(@(3+- 0- $10<E)(- 0- o/(>)%<(*+,((- $%(/3)*&/- LM"t"- 7oJO"

#HW
 CE'&%*0/*+- )<*)- G(- (6))0- 6)- c%/'+()%& X*=%*.d,- 06(3+- 2/- %)03*&%- 6)- F2@(2/)
B/3&/[2%0*-32-&-E0/*0-6)-3&E82<*(8(1-30%)-<+-3&/<*(*2()-2/-%)03*&%-6)-F(<(2/)-(0%
)/)%.(0- %)@21*0*+- B/- E0/*020- %)03*&%212(- <+- '&0*+- F(- F&1&<(*+- ')/*%2- E)/,(/)%)0
%)03,((1&%- *)%E&/231)0re controlate. Elementul de control al acestui proces este
câmpul magnetic confinator. Se pare –- 0F(%E+- <')3(01(G*((- X- 3+- %)03*&%21- U(8%(6
0%)- 3)1)- E0(- E21*)- G0/<)- <+- 6)>(/+- 2/- %)03*&%- 6)- F2@(2/)- 3&E)%3(01Y- 3%(*)%(21
?0q<&/- F((/6- F0>&%08(1- 03)<*)(- >0%(0/*)"
=)03,((-6)-F2@(2/)-')-$+ES/*-02-F&<*-%)01(@0*)-G(-B/-306%21-)T'1&@()(-8&E8)1&%
*)%E&/231)0%).
o*(1(@S/6- &- 8&E8+- 0*&E(3+- &8(G/2(*+- 32- 235 92
oY- '%(/- F(<(2/)0- /231))1&%- 3&EV
82<*(8(1212(Y-10-1&321-)T'1&@()(-*)E')%0*2%0-<)-%(6(3+-B/-3S*)>0-@)3(-6)-<)32/6)-10
<2*)- 6)- E(1(0%6)- 6)- .%06)- G(- F03)- '&<(8(1+- %)03,(0- 6)- F2@(2/)- 32- )1(8)%0%)0- 2/)(
)/)%.((- G(- E0(- E0%("- Z/3+%3+*2%0- 2/)(- 8&E8)- 32- U(6%&.)/Y- 6)/2E(*+- G(- 8&E8+
*)%E&/231)0%+Y-)<*)-F&%E0*+-6(/-6)2*)%2%+-6)-1(*(2-LD?(O-<&1(6+Y-30%)-10-*)E')%0*2%0
)T'1&@()(- /231)0%)- 6)- F(<(2/)Y- '%&623)- %)03,((1)]
6
3
Li + 21D → 242He,
6
3
Li + 10n → 42He + 31T;
6
3
Li + 31T → 242He + 10!Y !
32- &- 6).0[0%)- 6)- )/)%.()- 32- *%)(- '0*%2- &%6(/)- 6)- E+%(E)- E0(- E0%)- 6)3S*- 03))0
0- 2/)(- 8&E8)- 3&/>)/,(&/01)- 32- F(<(2/)ƒ
*
7)- <')%+- 3+- B/- >((*&%21- 0'%&'(0*- &E21- >0- F(- 8)/)F(3(0%21- )/)%.()(- %)03,((1&%
*)%E&/231)0%)- 3&/*%&10*)- L21*(E21- *('- 6)- (/<*010,()- ')/*%2- '10<E0- *)%E&/231)0%+
0%)- '%&62<21- !τ ≈ 3 · 1013 cm–3s, T ≈ 107- }O"- $%(/*%)- 0'1(30,((1)- '&*)/,(01)- 01)
%)03,((1&%- 6)- F2@(2/)- '&*- F(- E)/,(&/0*)- &8,(/)%)0- 6)- )/)%.()- )1)3*%(3+Y- &8,(/)%)0
6)- 3&E82<*(8(1(- /231)0%(Y- 6)<01(/(@0%)0- 0')1&%- E+%(1&%- ')/*%2- ,(/2*2%(- 6)G)%*(3)Y
B/3+1@(%)0- (/62<*%(01+- G(- 2%80/+Y- '2%(F(30%)0- 0)%21ui etc.

!"P" H33)1)%0*&0%)- 7)- '0%*(321)Q

Prin acceleratoare de particule <)- B/,)1).- (/<*010,((1)- 3&E'1)T)- 6)<*(/0*)
033)1)%+%((-2/&%-'0%*(321)-32-<0%3(/+-)1)3*%(3+-L/Y-6Y-α, d … ioni-.%)(O-<28-03,(2/)0
2/&%- 3SE'2%(- )1)3*%(3)- G(- E0./)*(3)Y- 'S/+- 10- )/)%.((- 3(/)*(3)- F&0%*)- E0%("- 72/*
2*(1(@0*)- 10- <*26(21- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)E)/*0%)- G(- 01- <*%23*2%((- /231)212(- 0*&E(3Y- B/
01*)- 6&E)/((- 01)- F(@(3((- G(- *)U/&1&.((1&%- 03*201)Y- '%)32E- G(- B/- E)6(3(/+.
J33)1)%0*&0%)1)- <)- '&*- 310<(F(30- G(- 62'+- F&%E0- *%0()3*&%()(Y- %)3*(1(/()- <02
32%8(1(/()Y- 6)<3%(<)- 6)- '0%*(321)- B/- '%&3)<21- 6)- 033)1)%0%)"

!"P"#" H33)1)%0*&%21-1(/(0%-32-)1)3*%&/(-7)-033)1)%0%)-K?EMHLCQ
J3)<*-*('-6)-033)1)%0*&%-3&/<*+-6(/*%V2/-G(%-6)-)1)3*%&@(-E)*01(3(-6)-F&%E0-2/&%
3+E+G(-3(1(/6%(3)Y-3&0T(01(Y-<(*20,(-B/*%V2/-*28->(60*Y-3&/)3*0,(-10-2/-.)/)%0*&%-6)

#H#
 B/01*+- F%)3>)/,+Y- 30- B/- F(.2%0- !"4W"- Z/
(/*)%>0121- <'0,(01- .& 3)- <)'0%+- 6&(- 3(1(/6%(
3&/<)32*(>(- L(/*)%>01- 033)1)%0*&%O- 0'0%)
2/j3SE'- )1)3*%(3- 6)- B/01*+- F%)3>)/,+- 0
!"#$% &$(4$- 73U)E+- <(E'1(F(30*+- 0- 2/2(
_
033)1)%0*&%- 1(/(0%" 3+%2(j(/*)/<(*0*)- )<*)- < B = W 3&< ω( , unde
.
U0cosω(-%)'%)@(/*+-*)/<(2/)0-6(/*%)-3(1(/6%("-$0%*(321)1)-)E(<)-6)-<2%<0-M-(/*%+-B/
3(1(/6%21- #- 6)'10<S/62V<)- E0(- 6)'0%*)- G(- <2/*- 033)1)%0*)- B/*%)- 3(1(/6%((- #- G(- 4"
9%)3>)/,0-.)/)%0*&%212(Y->Y-)<*)-0<*F)1-01)0<+-0<*F)1-B/3S*Y-B/-*(E'-3)-(&/((-'0%32%.
3(1(/6%21- 4Y- *)/<(2/)0- B/*%)- 3(1(/6%(- <+VG(- <3U(E8)- <)E/21"- Z/- 03)<*- F)1Y- B/*%)
3(1(/6%((-4-G(-:-(&/((-<2/*-6(/-/&2-033)1)%0,("-R(E'21-∆(-B/-30%)-'0%*(321)1)-'0%32%.
S #
F()30%)-3(1(/6%2-*%)82()-<+-F()- ∆( = = -G(-<)-/2E)G*)-+)!.*:ia de sincronism.
4 4>
N%)<3S/6- >(*)@0- '0%*(321)(- '%(/- 033)1)%0%)Y- 3%)G*)- G(- 12/.(E)0- '0%32%<+- 6)
03)0<*0-B/-*(E'21-T/2"-?2/.(E)0-3(1(/6%(1&%-*%)82()-<+-F()-6(/-3)-B/-3)-E0(-E0%)"
m! 2n
e*((/6-3+- -b-!/_WY-12/.(E)0-3(1(/6%212(-O!-'0%32%<+-B/*%V&-[2E+*0*)-6)-')%(&06+
2
! )<*)- ).01+- 32]

T 1 # !/_ W
O!- b- !!
- b- !! - b- Y L!"A4O
2 2f > 4#
B/- ('&*)@0- 3+- <0%3(/0- '0%*(321)(- )<*)- ).01+- 32- <0%3(/0- )1)E)/*0%+- /"- D0%
# /_ W
O# = , de unde Ln = ! L1Y- %)10,()- 3)- 1(E(*)0@+- %)01(@0%)0- 2/2(- /2E+%-!
> 4#
E0%)-6)-(/*)%>01)-6)-033)1)%0%)-G(Y-30-0*0%)Y-G(-0-)/)%.()(-3(/)*(3)-F(/01)-/)%)10*(>(<*)
!∆Ec, ∆Ec-F((/6-3%)G*)%)0-6)-)/)%.()-')/*%2-F()30%)-(/*)%>01-6)-033)1)%0%)"-J3)<*
*('- 6)- 033)1)%0*&%- '&0*)- 033)1)%0- '%&*&/((- G(- (&/((- .%)(- 'S/+- 10- 3(%30- IW- ;)g- G(
<)- F&1&<)G*)- 30- (/[)3*&%- ')/*%2- 033)1)%0*&0%)1)- 6)- )/)%.()- F&0%*)- E0%)"
Pentru accelerarea electronilor, care ajung rapid la viteze comparabile cu
viteza- 12E(/((- B/- >(6Y- <2/*- /)3)<0%)- F%)3>)/,)- F&0%*)- E0%(- L:- ^n@O- 01)- *)/<(2/((
6)- 033)1)%0%)"- D)- 03))0Y- ')/*%2- 033)1)%0%)0- 1&%- <)- F&1&<)<3- '++/-/%'()'%/-/& +"
"!.$& 6%)A%/0*J$?& J33)1)%0%)0- )1)3*%&/(1&%- <)- %)01(@)0@+- 3&/*(/22Y-
! '%(/- 03,(2/)0
3&E'&/)/*)(-1&/.(*26(/01)-0->)3*&%212(-(/*)/<(*0*)-)1)3*%(3+- < -0-2/2(-3SE'-)1)3V
*%&E0./)*(3- 3)- <)- '%&'0.+- B/*%V2/- .U(6- 6)- 2/6+- 6)- 3&/<*%23,()- <')3(01+"- g(*)@0
'0%*(321)1&%- L/2- /2E0(- )1)3*%&/(O- )<*)- ).01+- 32- >(*)@0- 6)- F0@+- 0- 2/6)(Y- F&0%*)
0'%&'(0*+- 6)- >(*)@0- 12E(/((- B/- >(6"
A33)1)%0*&%21- 6)- 10- o/(>)%<(*0*)0- 6(/- 7*0/F&%6- L7?JN#O- 033)1)%)0@+- F0<3(V
321)1)-6)-)1)3*%&/(-'S/+-10-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-6)-AW-^)g"-J3)G*(0-/2-'&*-F(-033)1)%0,(
B/- 03))0G(- E+<2%+- B/- 033)1)%0*&0%)1)- 3(31(3)- L2/6)- 10- !WW- ;)g- '()%6)%)0- 6)
)/)%.()-'%(/-%06(0,()-6)>(/)-).01+-32-)/)%.(0-'%(E(*+-B/-'%&3)<21-6)-033)1)%0%)O"

#
- M*0/F&%6- O(/)0%- 233)1)%0*&%- P)/*)%"

#H4
!"P"5"- I)*0*%&/21Q
E<*)-2/-033)1)%0*&%-3(31(3-6)-(/623,()
L)1)3*%&E0./)*(3+O- ')/*%2- )1)3*%&/("
5<*)- 2*(1(@0*- ')/*%2- <*26(21- %)03,((1&% '
/231)0%)Y-01-&8,(/)%((-6)-%06(0,((-γ-G(-\Y
B/- %06(&*)%0'()- G(- 6)F)3*&<3&'()
/)6)<*%23*(>+"-J-F&<*-3&/<*%2(*-B/-0/21
#`AW- 6)- F(@(3(0/21- 0E)%(30/
D"j€"j})%<*"- P)*0*%&/21- '&0*)- F(
3&/<(6)%0*- 6%)'*- 2/- *%0/<F&%E0*&%- 01
3+%2(-32%)/*-01*)%/0*(>Y-')/*%2-t∈[0, T/
4] din circuitul primar, produce va%(0,(0 =

F12T212(- E0./)*(3Y- 6)3(- 0'0%(,(0- 2/2( '&1( +

(/[)3*&% ,(/*+ E0./)*(3(
32%)/*-)1)3*%&/(3-B/-3(%32(*21-<)32/60%Y
30%)- <)- 6)'10<)0@+- <28- 03,(2/)0
3SE'212(- )1)3*%(3- (/62<- B/- (/*)%(&%21
2/2(- *28- *&%&(601- L(/)10%O- >(60*
LF(."j!"4#j0Yj8Yj3O"
!
N0E)%0-*&%&(601+-)<*)-'%)>+@2*+-32
&- <2%<+- 6)- )1)3*%&/(- G(- &- F)%)0<*%+- 6)
30E)%0- 6) &%8(*0 8&8(/)
F0<3(321-6)
F&(,+- 6)- E(3+Y- ')/*%2- )T*%0.)%)0 033)1)%0%)
%06(0,((-γ )1)3*%&/212( '%(E0%)
)1)3*%&/(1&%- 033)1)%0,("- D(/- 1).)0
!"#$% &$('$- 0- X- 7)3,(2/)- '%(/*%V2/- 8)*0*%&/"
(/623,()(- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3)] 8-X->0%(0,(0-<(/2<&(601+-0-(/623,()(-3SE'212(-E0.V
6Φ
/* = X
/)*(3- B/*%V2/- 8)*0*%&/"- 3- X- 7)3,(2/)- '%(/- '()<)1)
Y '&10%)- 01)- )1)3*%&E0./)*212(- 2/2(- 8)*0*%&/"
.(
2/6)-*")"E"-(/62<+-)<*)Y-'%(/-6)F(/(,()Y

∫
/* = <* 6- = 4π%W <* , iar Φ = Bm · πr02"-D(/-%)10,((1)-6)-E0(-<2<Y-2/6)-0E-/&*0*-32
!

<i- (/*)/<(*0*)0- ')- &%8(*0- )1)3*%&/(3+- 0- 3SE'212( electric indus (Ei- )<*)- 0/01&.21
(/*)/<(*+,((-3SE'212(-(E'%(E0*-6(/-<2%<)1)-32-3SE'-(E'%(E0*-X-3)1)-.01>0/(3)Y-6)
)T)E'12OY- %0 – raza orbitei stabile, de echilibru –, iar ^# - (/623,(0- E)6()- 0
!
3SE'212(- E0./)*(3- /&%E01+- ')- <2'%0F0,0- 6)- 0%()- πr02 a fluxului magnetic ΦY- 32
6Φ
>(*)@+- 6)- >0%(0,()- - 3&/<*0/*+Y- <)- &8,(/)]
.(
# 6Φ π% 4 6^# % 6^#
<* = X =X W = X W .
4π%W .( 4π%W 6( 4 6(
?0- &- <(/.2%+- %&*0,()- ')- &%8(*0- 6)- 12/.(E)- 4πr0- )1)3*%&/21- BG(- E+%)G*)- )/)%.(0
3(/)*(3+- 32- ∆Ec = 2πr0eEi.
$)/*%2-033)1)%0%)0-)1)3*%&/212(-'S/+-10-)/)%.((-E0%(-)<*)-/)3)<0%-30-E(G30%)0
03)<*2(0- <+- F()- <*08(1+- ')- &%8(*0- 6)- %0@+- %0"- N&/6(,(0- 6)- <*08(1(*0*)- <)- &8,(/)- 32
2/- 301321- %)10*(>- <(E'12Y- 62'+- 32E- 2%E)0@+"

#H:
 5320,(0- 6)- E(G30%)- 0- )1)3*%&/212(- ')- &%8(*0- 6)- 033)1)%0%)- )<*)]
66 / 6Φ
= X /<* = .
6( 4π%W .(
$%(/-(/*).%0%)Y-3&/<(6)%S/6-3+-10-E&E)/*21-(/(,(01-(-b-W-0>)E-!-b-W-G(-^jbjWY
/
<)-&8,(/)]- 6 = Φ "-D(/-)T'%)<(0-(E'21<212(-'0%*(321)(-')-&%8(*0-.(%&E0./)*(3+Y
4π%W
6- b- /%0B, se poate scrie expresia pentru raza orbitei sub forma:
6 # Φ
%W = = ⋅ = const.
/^ 4π %W ^
Cum Φ = πr0BmY- <)- 0[2/.)- 10- %)10,(0- 6)- <*08(1(*0*)- L%0 = const.) a orbitei de
accelerare gir&E0./)*(3+-G(-'&0%*+-/2E)1)-6)-+)!.*:*'&-"*&h*./%i/-L<)-'%&/2/,+
0G0- 32E- <)- <3%()O]
#
^%W L( O = ^# L( O Y
4
! 06(3+]- (/623,(0- 3SE'212(- E0./)*(3- B/- '2/3*)1)- &%8(*)(- *%)82()- <+- F()Y- B/- F()30%)
E&E)/*Y- /2E0(- [2E+*0*)- 6(/- (/623,(0- E0./)*(3+- E)6()- ')- 0%(0- &%8(*)("
Aceasta impune o 0/2E(*+-6(<*%(82,()-0-<')3*%212(-1(/((1&%-6)-3SE'-G(Y-30-0*0%)Y
&- 3&/<*%23,()- LF&%E+O- <')3(01+- 0- '%&F(1212(- '&1(1&%- )1)3*%&E0./)*212(- 8)*0*%&/(3
L*)%E(/0,((1)-k*%&/(3lY-k&/lY-<)-%)F)%+Y-B/-.)/)%01Y-10-0'0%0*)1)-G(-6(<'&@(*(>)1)-B/
30%)- F)/&E)/21- <')3(F(3- 01- F2/3,(&/+%((- 03)<*&%0- )<*)- 6)- /0*2%+- )1)3*%&/(3+]- *2/
)1)3*%&/(3Y- &%*(3&/Y- >(6(3&/- L>(6)&30'*&0%)OY- <2')%*%(/(*%&/- X- *28- 3(/)<3&'- 7&/‚Y
)*3"O"
$%(/- %)<')3*0%)0- 3&/6(,()(- €(6)%)Y- B/- 8)*0*%&/Y- 2/- <(/.2%- 3SE'- E0./)*(3Y
>0%(08(1- B/- *(E'- %)01(@)0@+- 0*S*- 033)1)%0%)0- F0<3(321212(- 6)- )1)3*%&/(- 3S*- G(
E)/,(/)%)0- 12(- ')- &- &%8(*+- 3(%3210%+- <*08(1+"- g)3*&%21- (/623,()- 0- 3SE'212(- E0.V
/)*(3- )<*)- ')%')/6(3210%- ')- &%8(*0- 6)- 033)1)%0%)- G(- X- %)0E(/*(E- X- >0%(0@+- 6)- 10
>01&0%)0- @)%&- 10- &- >01&0%)- E0T(E+- 0*(/<+- 62'+- '%(E21- <F)%*- 6)- ')%(&06+- 6)- 10
32'10%)Y- ^∈(0, B0), unde B0 = 0,5 ÷ 0,6T.
$)/*%2- 0- 3013210- )/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+- E0T(E+- <)- F&1&<)G*)- )T'%)<(0- %)10*(>(<*+- 0
#
)/)%.()(- 3(/)*(3)- /&%E0*)- η- F2/3,()- 6)- (E'21<21- /&%E0*- ξY- η = L# + ξ 4 O 4 X # Y
06(3+
 
 /% ^ 
4

<+ = #W + 4  # +  W W  X # " L!"A:O

  #W +  
 
Întrucât impulsul electronului betatronic a33)1)%0*- )<*)- E21*- E0(- E0%)- 6)3S*
(E'21<21-6)-%)'02<-01-)1)3*%&/212(Y-%)@21*+-)T'%)<(0-)/)%.()(-3(/)*(3)-E0T(E)-<28
F&%E0]

#HA
 <+& b- /%W^W+" L!"AAO
Z/-<3&'21-&8,(/)%((-2/)(-%06(0,((-γ-F&0%*)-k62%)lY-06(3+-6)-E0%)-)/)%.()Y-F0<3(32121
'21<0*&%(2-6)-)1)3*%&/(-)<*)-B/6%)'*0*Y-62'+-033)1)%0%)Y-0<2'%0-2/)(-,(/*)-E)*01(3)Y
<(*20*+- B/- (/*)%(&%21- 2/)(- 30E)%)- >(60*)Y- B/- 30%)- )<*)- F%S/0*- 8%2<3"
JG060%Y-8)*0*%&/21-'&0*)-F(-3&E'0%0*-32-2/-*%0/<F&%E0*&%-&8(G/2(*Y-32-<)32/60%21
B/1&32(*-6)-)1)3*%&/((-6(/-*2821-*&%&(601->(60*"-51)3*%&/((-<2/*-033)1)%0,(-6)-3SE'21
)1)3*%(3-(/62<Y-'%&62<-6)-3SE'21-E0./)*(3->0%(08(1Y-G(-B/-03)10G(-*(E'-<2/*-&81(.0,(
<+- <)- E(G*)- ')- &- &%8(*+- 3(%3210%+Y- 60*&%(*+- )T(<*)/,)(- 3SE'212(- E0./)*(3"

!"#$%&'0( "&,#%-./0
Într-un betatron de 200 MeV, electronii sunt acce1)%0,(-')-&-&%8(*+-6)-)3U(1(8%2-6)-%0@+
%0- b- #Y!- E"- 5/)%.(0- 6)- (/[)3,()- )<*)- <ci = 1 MeV.
0O- N0%)- )<*)- >01&0%)0- (/623,()(- E0./)*(3)- 10- B/3)'2*21- G(- 10- <FS%G(*21- '%&3)<212(- 6)
033)1)%0%)?
8O- N&/<(6)%S/6- 3+- >0%(0,(0- (/623,()(- E0./)*(3)- <)- F03)- 1(/(0%- B/- WY#!- <Y- 3)- )/)%.()
'%(E)G*)- '0%*(3210- 10- F()30%)- %&*0,()r
3O- NS*)- %&*0,((- F03)- '0%*(3210- G(- 30%)- )<*)- 12/.(E)0- 6%2E212(- '0%32%<r
6O- 7+- <)- 301321)@)- (E'21<21- )1)3*%&/212(- 10- <FS%G(*21- 033)1)%+%((Y- )T'%(E0*- B/- 2/(*0*)0
*&1)%0*+- MeV/c.
!
Y-06(3+ p = eBr0. Din tabelul 1.1 impulsul normat ξ-B/-F2/3,()-6)-)/)%.(0
#! 6
a) %W = =
/^ /^

/^%W <+4 + 4 <W <+

3(/)*(3+- /&%E0*+-η este ξ = (η2 + 2η)1/2; = , unde E0 = m0c2.
#W + #W + 4

<+4 + 4 <W <+

^= , de unde Bi&b-bjWYWW:#R-L)T(<*+-&-E0./)*(@0%)-%)E0/)/*+-0-E()@212(
/%W +
F)%&E0./)*(3- 01- )1)3*%&E0./)*212(O- G(- ^f = 0,44T.
b) Z/-('&*)@0->0%(0,()(-1(/(0%)-0-(/623,()(-3SE'212(-E0./)*(3Y-10-F()30%)-%&*0,()-)1)3*%&/((
)T*%0.- 6(/- 3SE'21- )1)3*%(3- (/62<- )/)%.(0]
6^ ^ > X ^*
∆<*- %&*- b- 4π%W//*- b- π%W / - = π%W / = 20,8 eV/rot.
6( ∆(
Ecf − Eci
3O- M2E+%21- 6)- %&*0,((- )<*)]- n = ≈ 9,55 · 106 rot, iar lungimea drumului
∆Ei rot
parcurs L = 2πr0n ≈ 90.000 km.
d) 6-b-/^%W-b-#WX#`-Mf-<-b-#QHY`-;)gc3. În extrem relativist, impulsul unei particule
este p ≈ mc = E/cY- 3))0- 3)- ')%E(*)- (/*%&623)%)0- 2/)(- 2/(*+,(- 0%8(*%0%)- ')/*%2- (E'21<
1 eV/c = 5,35 · 10–28 N · s"- J3)0<*+- 2/(*0*)- G(- )1)3*%&/V>&1*21- <2/*- F&1&<(*)- B/- *)U/(30
033)1)%+%((-'0%*(321)1&%Y-2/(*+,(-30%)-/2-F03-'0%*)-6(/-7CY-60%-'%)@(/*+-0>0/*0[)-B/-calculele
directe.

#H!
 !"P":" L(31&*%&/21Q
N(31&*%&/21- 0- F&<*- (/>)/*0*- B/- 0/21
#`:4Y-6)-3+*%)-F(@(3(0/21-0E)%(30/-5%/)<*
_%10/6&-?0q%)/3)-L#`W#X#`!QOY-102%)0*
01- '%)E(212(- M&8)1- B/- 0/21- #`:`"- 7)
3&E'2/)- LF(."- !"44O- 6(/*%V2/- <(<*)E- 6)
6&(-)1)3*%&@(-30>(*0%(-B/-F&%E+-6)-[2E+V
*+,(- 6)- 3(1(/6%2- '10*)Y- /2E(*)- ."'!:*?
7(<*)E21-)<*)-01(E)/*0*-6)-2/-.)/)%0*&%
6)- *)/<(2/)- 01*)%/0*(>+Y- 30%)- ')%E(*)
01*)%/0%)0- '&10%(*+,((- *)/<(2/((- _0(104–
105 gO- 6(/*%)- 3)(- 6&(- )1)3*%&@(- 620/,("
C/3(/*0- >(60*+- B/- 30%)- <)- 0F1+- <(<*)E21
!"#$% &$(($- 73U)E0- <(E'1(F(30*+- 0- 3(31&*%&/212(" 620/*- <)- 0F1+- B/*%V2/- 3SE'- E0./)*(3
2/(F&%E- 32- (/623,(0- ^ (B = 1,5 ÷- 4SO
!
')%')/6(3210%+- ')- <2'%0F0,0- 620/,(1&%"- Z/- 3(31&*%&/- <)- 033)1)%)0@+- (&/(- '&@(*(>("
! 7)- '&*- &8,(/)- F0<3(321)- 32- &- (/*)/<(*0*)- 6)- 32%)/*- 6)- #- EJ"- o/- (&/- 6(/- F0<3(321
)E(<- 6)- <2%<0- 0F10*+- B/- 3)/*%2Y- B/*%)- 620/,(Y- )<*)- 033)1)%0*- B/- 3SE'21- )1)3*%(3
6(/*%)-620/,(Y-*%0()3*&%(0-<0-B/-(/*)%(&%21-620/,(1&%-F((/6-3(%3210%+-L60*&%(*+-3SE'212(
E0./)*(3O- G(- 6)- %0@+- 6(/- 3)- B/- 3)- E0(- E0%)"
9&%,0- ?&%)/*@Y- 30%)- 6)*)%E(/+- *%0()3*&%(0- 3(%3210%+Y- )<*)- &- F&%,+- 3)/*%(')*+Y
6)3(]
m! 2
- b- `!^, L!"A!O
R
6)- 2/6)- %)@21*+- 3+- %0@0- *%0()3*&%()(- )<*)]
m! p
8- b- qB - b- qB Y L!"AHO

g0%(0,(0-32->(*)@0-0-E0<)(-#-0-(&/212(-'2*S/6-F(-/).1([0*+Y-)/)%.(0-3(/)*(3+-<+
3+'+*0*+- 6)- 03)<*0- 10- <FS%G(*21- 2/2(- 3(312- 6)- 033)1)%0%)- )<*)- 60*+- 6)- %)10,(0]
p2
<+- b- " L!"AIO
2m
D(/- %)10,(0- !"AH- G(- !"AI- <)- &8,(/)- )T'1(3(*- )/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+- F(/01+]
q 2 B 2 R02
<+- b- Y L!"AQO
2m
2/6)- 8W- )<*)- %0@0- E0T(E+- 0- *%0()3*&%()("
T
D2'+-2/-(/*)%>01-6)-*(E'-∆(-).01-32-&-[2E+*0*)-6)-')%(&06+Y- Y-(&/21-6)-E0<+
2
#- G(- <0%3(/+- `- 0[2/.)- 6(/- /&2- B/- <'0,(21- 6)- 033)1)%0%)"

#HH
 T !m
∆(- b-
!R
- b- - b- " L!"A`O
2 ! qB
D)&0%)3)- ')%(&060- 6)- %&*0,()- S- 0- (&/212(- /2- 6)'(/6)- 6)- >(*)@0- 32- 30%)- <)
E(G3+Y-B/-F()30%)-620/*-(&/21-033)1)%0*-%+ES/)-03)10G(-(/*)%>01-6)-*(E'-∆("-D03+
'&10%(*0*)0- )1)3*%(3+- ')- 620/,(- <)- (/>)%<)0@+- *&*- B/- ∆(Y- 06(3+- ')%(&060- 6)- %&*0,()
S- 0- (&/212(- 3&(/3(6)- 32- ')%(&060- Sg a tensiunii U0- .)/)%0*)- 6)- .)/)%0*&%21- 6)
01(E)/*0%)Y- (&/21- >0- F(- 6(/- /&2- 033)1)%0*"- J<*F)1Y- 3&/6(,(0- 6)- %)@&/0/,+- 0
3(31&*%&/212(- )<*)]
4π# 1
S = SA = % H% " L!"!WO
`^ f
5T*%03,(0- '0%*(321)1&%- <)- %)01(@)0@+- '%(/- 6)F1)T()- )1)3*%&<*0*(3+Y- 32- 0[2*&%21
2/2(-3&/6)/<0*&%-'10<0*-10-30'+*21-21*(E)(-&%8(*)Y-30%)-'%&623)-2/-3SE'-%06(01-6)
6)>()%)"
5"-_"-?0q%)/3)Y-BE'%)2/+-32-F%0*)1)-<+2Y-z&U/-?0q%)/3)Y-0-6)@>&1*0*-0'1(30,((
01)-%06(&(@&*&'(1&%-L(@&*&'(-30%)-)E(*-%06(0,((-6)-*('-01F0-Lα), beta (β) sau gamma
(γO-'%&62<)-'%(/-8&E80%60%)0-2/&%-<28<*0/,)-32-'0%*(321)-033)1)%0*)-B/-3(31&*%&/O" !
J- F+32*- 0<*F)1- '&<(8(1+- %06(&*)%0'(0- 30/3)%212(- G(- U(')%*(%&(6(<E212("- J- 3&/<*%2(*
3(31&*%&0/)- 6(/- 3)- B/- 3)- E0(- '2*)%/(3)Y- 32- 0[2*&%21-3+%&%0Y-B/-0/21-#`A#Y-02-F&<*
.)/)%0*)- artificial particule cosmice (mezoni), iar, mai târziu, antiparticule.
Ciclotronul lui Lawrence este precursorul sincrotronului modern, car)- '&0*)
033)1)%0- '%&*&/(- 'S/+- 10- )/)%.((- 6)- E(1(&0/)- 6)- ;)g"- Z/- *(E'21- %+@8&(212(- 0
%)01(@0*- <)'0%0%)0- 2%0/(212(- 4:!Y- F&1&<(*- 10- 8&E80- 0*&E(3+"
5/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- 32- <0%3(/+- )1)3*%(3+- 033)1)%0*)- B/- 3(31&*%&/- /2
'&0*)- 0*(/.)- B/<+- &%(3)- >01&0%)Y- F((/6- 1(E(*0*+- 6)- )F)3*)1)- %)10*(>(<*)- 30%)- F03- 30
<(/3%&/(<E21- 6(/*%)- *%)3)%)0- '0%*(321)(- '%(/*%)- 620/,(- G(- <3U(E80%)0- '&10%(*+,((
03)<*&%0- <+- /2- E0(- F()- %)<')3*0*"- Z/*%V06)>+%Y- 10- >(*)@)1)- E0%(Y- 3&E'0%08(1)- 32
>(*)@0- 12E(/((Y- &8,(/2*)- B/- 2%E0- 033)1)%+%((Y- E0<0- '0%*(321)1&%- /2- E0(- %+ES/)
3&/<*0/*+- G(- 3&/6(,(0- 6)- <(/3%&/(<E- /2- E0(- )<*)- B/6)'1(/(*+"
N&/6(,(0- 6)- <(/3%&/(<E- '&0*)- F(- %)01(@0*+Y- *&*2G(Y- G(- ')/*%2- '0%*(321)- .%)1)- 3)
*%)82()-033)1)%0*)-'S/+-10->(*)@)-6)<*21-6)-E0%("-J2-F&<*-0<*F)1-3%)0*)-/&(-(/<*010,((
6)-033)1)%0%)-X-sincrociclotroanele sau fazotroanele X-B/-30%)Y-')/*%2-3&E')/<0%)0
)F)3*)1&%- 3%)G*)%((- %)10*(>(<*)- 0- E0<)(- '0%*(321)1&%Y- <)- '%&3)6)0@+- 10- >0%(0,(0
')%(&6(3+- 0- F%)3>)/,)(- *)/<(2/((- 6)- 01(E)/*0%)- 0- 620/,(1&%"- 7V02- %)01(@0*Y- 6)
0<)E)/ea, sincrotroanele, 30%)-F2/3,(&/)0@+-')-80@0->0%(0,()(-')%(&6(3)-0-3SE'212(
E0./)*(3- B/- <3&'21- 3&E')/<+%((- 3%)G*)%((- %)10*(>(<*)- 0- E0<)(Y- '%)32E- G(
sincrofazotroanele B/- 30%)- 3&/6(,(0- 6)- <(/3%&/(<E- )<*)- %)01(@0*+- '%(/- 0E8)1)
E)*&6)"

#HI
 !"#$%&'0( "&,#%-./0
În 30@21- 2/2(- 3(31&*%&/- 30%)- 033)1)%)0@+- 6)2*)%&/(- G(- 30%)- 0%)- (/623,(0- E0./)*(3+
^-b-#RY-%0@0-6)-)T*%03,()-80jbjWY!-E-G(-0E'1(*26(/)0-*)/<(2/((-01*)%/0*(>)-_0jbjAWjygY-<+-<)
301321)@)- 30%)- )<*)- L0O- F%)3>)/,0- >- 0- *)/<(2/((- 01*)%/0*(>)- 0'1(30*)Y- L8O- )/)%.(0- 3(/)*(3+
<c(R0O-0-6)2*)%&/(1&%-10-()G(%)0-6(/-3(31&*%&/Y-L+O-6%2E21&O&'0%32%<-6)-6)2*)%&/(-'S/+-10
0*(/.)%)0-)/)%.()(-3(/)*(3)-E0T(E)-L3&/<(6)%S/6-3+-)/)%.(0-1&%-10-(/[)3*0%)0-B/-3(31&*%&/
'&0*)- F(Y- )>(6)/*Y- /).1([0*+Or- L`- b- /- b- #YH- f- #W–19C, m = 3,3 · 10–27kg).
/^ / 4 ^ 4 8W4
a) f = = 7,7 MHz.; b) <+ L 8W O = b- HYWH- ;)g"
4π# 4#
<+ L% O /^ 4 % 4 eB 2 rdr
3O- ΛL%O- b- = m- 62L%O- b- m
4/_ W A#_ W 2mU 0

π/^ 4 % 4 π/^ 4 8W: 4π8W <+ L 8W O

8W

∫
O = 4π%.dN = ∫
W
#_ W
6% =
:#_ W
=
:/_ W
= 158,58 m.

!"#$%&'&( )"#)*+&
! '$-D03+-E0<0-3%(*(3+-#-')/*%2-2%0/(2-4:!-)<*)-0'%&T(E0*+-10-#-y.-G(Y-'%)<2'2/S/6-3+
B/*%)0.0-30/*(*0*)-6)- 235 o-F(<(&/)0@+-G(-32/&<3S/6-3+-)/)%.(0-6).0[0*+-<f la fisiunea unui
92
nucleu e<*)- B/- [2%- 6)- 4WW- ;)gY- <+- <)- 301321)@)- )/)%.(0- )1(8)%0*+- <"
#
R: 8,2 · 1013z- L(/6(30,()]- <& @& 32 < > ).
2
($% N0%)-)<*)-*)E')%0*2%0-3(/)*(3+-3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)-')/*%2-30-6&2+-/231))-6)-6)2*)%(2
<+-<)-'&0*+-0'%&'(0-'S/+-10-&-6(<*0/,+-%&b-:-f-#W–15 m pentru a forma un nucleu de heliu?
# : /4
LC/6(30,()]- < 6 = IS Y < 6 = O
4 4 AπεW % 4
?@% S& b- #YQ!- f- #W`- }"
)$% N0%)- )<*)- >(*)@0- '%&*&/(1&%- 10- ()G(%)0- 6(/- 033)1)%0*&%21- 1(/(0%Y- 603+- (/*)%>01)1)- 6)
033)1)%0%)- 02- F&<*- B/- /2E+%- 6)- :W- G(- *)/<(2/)0- 6)- 033)1)%0%)- 0- F&<*- 6)- #- yg
L#6- b- #YHI- f- #W–27 kg, e = 1,6 · 10–19 NOr- D0%- )/)%.(0- 1&%- 3(/)*(3+r
R: 4YA- f- #WH- Ec<; 30 keV.
*$-?0-8)*0*%&/Y->0%(0,(0-(/623,()(-E0./)*(3)-^-<)-01).)-B/-0G0-F)1-B/3S*-<+-0(8+->01&0%)0
E0T(E+-10-'2/3*21-6)-)T*%)E-0-<(/2<&(6)(-(/*)/<(*+,((-32%)/*212(-6)-01(E)/*0%)-0-8&8(/)1&%
'%(E0%)"-5<*)-E&E)/*21-3S/6-)1)3*%&/((-F0<3(321212(-02-0*(/<-)/)%.(0-E0T(E+-'%&()3*0*+
G(-*%)82()-)T*%0G("-$%&3)<21-6)-033)1)%0%)-62%)0@+-X-6)3(-X-E0T(E2E-2/-<F)%*-6)-')%(&06+"
N0%)-)<*)-(/*)%>0121-6)-<233)60%)-0-'21<2%(1&%-6)-033)1)%0%)Y-603+-01(E)/*0%)0-<)-F03)-6)
10- %),)020- 6)- !W- n@r
?@- 4W- E<"
&$- D03+- Dd- <)- 033)1)%)0@+- 10- 4W- ;)gY- 30%)- >0- F(- )/)%.(0- 3&%)<'2/@+*&0%)- M3+?
R: 160 MeV.
+$% N0%)- >0- F(- >(*)@0- F(/01+- 0- (&/212(- n)2+ accelerat la 40 MeV?
R: 4,38 · 107 m/s.

#HQ
 7. Un ciclotron care accelereaz+- 6)2*)%&/(- L/231))1)- 0*&E212(- 6)- 6)2*)%(2Y- (@&*&'- 01
U(6%&.)/212(O-0%)-(/623,(0-6)-#-RY-%0@0-620/,(1&%-6)-WY!-E-G(-*)/<(2/)0-6)-033)1)%0%)-6)-AWjyg"
7+- <)- 301321)@)] 0O- F%)3>)/,0- *)/<(2/((- 0'1(30*)m
8O- )/)%.(0- 6)2*)%&/(1&%- 10- ()G(%)0- 6(/- 3(31&/"
R: a) 7,7 MHz; b) 5,06 MeV.
8. Care este energia în MeV/nucleon pentru un fascicul de protoni accelerat la 10 MeV?
Dar în cazul unui fascicul de particule α accelerat la 40 MeV?
R: 10 MeV/nucleon.
9.% D&2+- '0%*(321)- /231)0%)Y- 2/- '%&*&/- G(- &- '0%*(321+- α, sunt- 033)1)%0*)- <28- 03))0G(
*)/<(2/)-_Y->(*)@0-1&%-(/(,(01+-F((/6-/).1([08(1+"-D2'+--'%&3)<21-6)-033)1)%0%)Y-'0%*(321)1)
'+*%2/6- ')%')/6(3210%- B/*%V2/- 3SE'- E0./)*(3- 2/(F&%E"- 7+- <)- 301321)@)- %0'&%*21- %0@)1&%
*%0()3*&%((1&%- 3(%3210%)- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- 8α/R p, (qp = e, q α = 2e, mp = 1,67·10–27 kg,
mα = 6,65·10–27 kg).
R: 1,41.

!"R" $0%*(321)- )1)D)/*0%)Q

9(@(30- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)E)/*0%)- <)- &32'+- 32- '0%*(321)1)- 6)- 80@+- 6(/- 30%)- <)
'%)<2'2/)-0-F(-F&%E0*+-B/*%)0.0-E0*)%()-6(/-o/(>)%<"-Z/-<)/<-E0(-10%.Y-B/-'%)@)/*Y !
'0%*(321)- )1)E)/*0%)- <2/*- 3&/<(6)%0*)- *&0*)- '0%*(321)1)- 30%)- /2- <2/*- 0*&E(- <02
/231))- L32- )T3)',(0- '%&*&/212(Y- 30%)- F&%E)0@+- /231)21- 6)- U(6%&.)/O"- D)- 03))0Y
03)<*)0- E0(- <2/*- /2E(*)- G(- '0%*(321)- <28/231)0%)"

!"R"#" E/*)%03,((1)- G2/70D)/*01)Q

$0%*(321)1)- )1)E)/*0%)- '&*- <+- (/*)%03,(&/)@)- 0*S*- B/*%)- )1)- 3S*- G(- 32- /231))1)
0*&E(3)- 01)- E)6(212(- B/- 30%)- <)- 0F1+Y- G(- 32- )1)3*%&/((- 3)- .%0>(*)0@+- B/- [2%21- 1&%"
$S/+- B/- '%)@)/*- <)- 32/&<3- '0*%2- *('2%(- 6)- (/*)%03,((- 30%)- (/*)%>(/- 6(%)3*- <02
(/6(%)3*-B/-F)/&E)/)1)-6(/-/0*2%+]-*0%(Y-)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)Y-<108)-G(-.%0>(*0,(&/01)"
j& !"#$%&'())*$+ #&%)+ ,&-+ nucleare 0<(.2%+- <*08(1(*0*)0- /231)212(- 0*&E(3"- J3)<*)
F&%,)- /231)0%)- 03,(&/)0@+- ')- 6(<*0/,)- F&0%*)- E(3(Y- 6)- &%6(/21- 0- #W–15- E"- 72/*- 3)1)
E0(-(/*)/<)-6(/-3S*)-<)-32/&<3-B/-/0*2%+Y-6)-2/6)-G(-6)/2E(%)0"-9()30%)-/231)&/
01- 2/2(- /231)2- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- /2E0(- 32- /231)&/((- 6(/- (E)6(0*0- <0- >)3(/+*0*)"
$0%*(321)1)-30%)-(/*)%03,(&/)0@+-*0%)Y->&E-%)>)/(-0<2'%0-1&%Y-<)-/2E)<3-hadroni,
sunt formate din quarcuri1 G(- <)- BE'0%*- B/- 6&2+- E0%(- <28310<)]- L#"O- mezonii
X
F&%E0,(-6(/-6&2+-x20%32%(-L`` OY-6)-)T)E'12-pionii, kaonii G(-L4"O-barionii F&%E0,(
6(/- :- x20%32%(- (protonul, neutronul, hiperonii) (qqq).
C/*)/<(*0*)0-F&%,)(-*0%(-6)-1).+*2%+-30%)-<)-)T)%3(*+-B/*%)-x20%32%(-*%)82()-<+-F()
)T*%0&%6(/0%- 6)- E0%)Y- 0<*F)1- 3+- B/*%)- '%&*&/((- G(- /)2*%&/((- <*%S/<- 2/(,(- B/- /231)2
0%-'2*)0-<+-03,(&/)@)-&-F&%,+-%)@(6201+Y-/2E(*+-F&%,+-*0%)-/231)0%+Y-&-%+E+G(,+Y-6)
(/*)/<(*0*)- E0%)Y- 6)- F0'*Y- 0- F&%,)(- 6)- 0*%03,()- B/*%)- x20%32%("- J33)'*0*+- 6)- 12E)0

#
-C'&*)@0-x20%32%(1&%-0-F&<*-(/*%&62<+-B/-0/21-#`HA-6)-^)11V;0//-G(-7"-q)(.-L'%)E((
M&8)1Y- #`H`OY- (/6)')/6)/*- 2/21- 6)- 01*21"
#H`
 G*((/,(F(3+Y- F&%,0- *0%)- 0- '2*2*- F(- 2G&%- E&6)10*+- E0*)E0*(3Y- B/306%S/62V<)- 2G&%- B/
E&6)121- 03*201- 01- <*%23*urii materiei, numit modelul standard. J3)<*- E&6)1
'%)3(@)0@+- G(- /0*2%0- '0%*(321)1&%- 30%)- <2/*- 3&/<*(*2)/,((- )1)E)/*0%(- 0(- E0*)%()("
j+!"#$%&'())*$+$*$'#%./&0"$#)'$1&6)-%0@+-6)-03,(2/)-'%03*(3-(/F(/(*+Y-<)-)T)%3(*+
B/*%)- '0%*(321)1)- B/3+%30*)- )1)3*%(3Y- F&%,0- 6)- (/*)%03,()- F((/6- 60*+- 6)- 1).)0- 12(
N&21&E8"-N&E'0%0*(>-32-(/*)%03,((1)-/231)0%)-<2/*-6)-10-#WW-'S/+-10-#WWW-6)-&%(
E0(- E(3("
9&%,0-)1)3*%&E0./)*(3+-1)0.+-)1)3*%&/((-G(-/231))1)-')/*%2-0-F&%E0-0*&E("-J*&E((Y
6)G(- <2/*- /)2*%(- )1)3*%(3Y- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- '%(/*%V&- F&%,+- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3+- %)@(6201+Y
')/*%2- 0- F&%E0- E&1)321)"
j& !"#$%&'())*$+ ,*&2$3& ;+<2%+*&%(1)- F+32*)- 0<2'%0- 6)@(/*).%+%((- /)2*%&/212(- 02
0%+*0*-3+-F&%,0-(E'1(30*+-B/-)>)/(E)/*-)%0-)T*%0&%6(/0%-6)-<108+Y-6)-#W13-&%(-E0(
E(3+- 6)3S*- (/*)/<(*0*)0- F&%,)1&%- /231)0%)- X- 603+- <)- (0- 30- 2/(*0*)- F&%,0- *0%)- L10
6(<*0/,0-6)-#W–13-EO"-=0@0-6)-03,(2/)-0-(/*)%03,((1&%-<108)-)<*)-6)-&%6(/21-#W–24jE"
50-<)-E0/(F)<*+-X-6)3(-X-10-*%0/<E2*0%)0-L6)@(/*).%0%)0O-'0%*(321)1&%-)1)E)/*0%)
G(-0-/231))1&%Y-6)<)&%(-'%&'21<S/6-'%&62<)1)-%)@21*0*)-10->(*)@)-F&0%*)-E0%("-o/)1)
0<)E+/+%(-B/*%)-(/*)%03,(2/(1)-)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)-G(-3)1)-<108)Y-02-3&/62<-10-<3U)E0
! 2/)(-2/(F(3+%(-0-3)1&%-6&2+-F&%,)Y-%)@21*S/6-F&%,0-)1)3*%&V<108+"-J3)0<*+-2/(F(30%)
<)- )T'1(3+- G(- '%(/- F0'*21- 3+- 10- 6(<*0/,)- F&0%*)- E(3(Y- 06(3+- 10- )/)%.((- F&0%*)- E0%(Y
F&%,0- <108+- )<*)- ).01+- 32- F&%,0- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3+"- J'0%)/*0- E0/(F)<*0%)- <108+- B/
)T')%(E)/*)1)- %)01(@0*)- 10- )/)%.((- [&0<)- 0%- %)F1)3*0- 6&0%- %0@0- <0- <32%*+- 0- @&/)(
<F)%(3)- 6)- 03,(2/)"- Z/- 0/21- #`I`Y- 7"j€)(/8)%.Y- A.- 7010E- G(- ^"- ^10<U&%&q- 02
'%(E(*- $%)E(21- M&8)1- ')/*%2- )108&%0%)0- *)&%()(- 2/(F(30*)- 0- (/*)%03,((1&%- )1)3*%&V
E0./)*(3)- G(- <108)"
j&!"#$%&'())*$+0%&4)#&()."&*$&<2/*-3)1)-E0(-<108)-(/*)%03,(2/(-30%)-<)-'&*-)T)%3(*0"
$)/*%2-'0%*(321)1)-(@&10*)-/(3(-/2-<)-(02-B/-3&/<(6)%0,()Y-F((/6-32-*&*21-/).1([08(1)
F0,+- 6)- 3)1)101*)- (/*)%03,(2/("
51)- 6)>(/- /&*08(1)- ')/*%2- 3&%'2%(1)- E0<(>)- G(Y- E0(- 01)<Y- B/- 30@21- 3&%'2%(1&%
3)%)G*("
Z/- 30@21- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)E)/*0%)- (/*)/<(*0*)0- 03)<*&%- F&%,)- )<*)- 6)- #W38- 6)- &%(
E0(-<108+-')/*ru r = 10–13 m 6)3S*-(/*)/<(*0*)0-F&%,)1&%-*0%("-J2-&-%0@+-6)-03,(2/)
*)&%)*(3- (/F(/(*+"
N10<(F(30%)0-F((/6-'%(E21-<*06(2-B/-B/,)1).)%)Y-*08)121-!"A-'%)@(/*+Y-B/-3&E'1)*0%)Y
>01&%(1)- *('(3)- 01)- 3&/<*0/*)1&%- 6)- (/*)%03,()- G(- 01)- %0@)1&%- 6)- 03,(2/)- ')/*%2
(/*)%03,((1)-F2/60E)/*01)-32/&<32*)-B/-'%)@)/*"-=0@0-6)-03,(2/)-)<*)-)T'%(E0*+-B/
E)*%("-Z/-*08)1-<2/*-60*)Y-6)-0<)E)/)0Y-'%&808(1(*+,(1)-*('(3)-6)-(/*)%03,()-(/*)%/+
L62%0*+O-G(-6)-(/*)%03,()-B/*%)-<(<*)E)-L<)3,(2/)-)F(303)O-3&%)<'2/@S/6-3)1&%-'0*%2
(/*)%03,(("- J3)0<*+- 310<(F(30%)- 3&/623)Y- 0G0- 32E- >&E- >)6)0- E0(- 6)'0%*)Y- 10- 2/0
6(/*%)- E&601(*+,(1)- 6)- <(<*)E0*(@0%)- 0- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)E)/*0%)"
j& $0%*(321)1)- )1)E)/*0%)Y- 30- 0*0%)Y- F+%+- <*%23*2%+Y- 30%)- F03- '0%te din modelul
standard, se împart în:
1. Particule-mesager L320/*)- 6)- 3SE'OY- 30%)- *%0/<E(*- (/*)%03,(2/(1)
F2/60E)/*01)]-fotonul *%0/<E(*)-(/*)%03,(2/(1)-)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)Y-bosonii vectoriali

#IW
 I17/9:62""8/% 0C1;:D/17:8/% J"% DF9"D"8/% 8<9% 6:9:67/9"E7"6/
Tabelul 5.4

C/*)%03,(0 N&/<*0/*0- 6) =0@0- 6) 7)3,(2/) D2%0*+

(/*)%03,() 03,(2/)-vEw )F(303)- vE2w *('(3+- v<w
tare ≈ 1 10–15 10–32 ≥ 10–22
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3+ ≈10–2–10–3 ∞ 10–36 ≥ 10–20
<108+ ≈10–5 10–18 10–42 ≥ 10–14
.%0>(*0,(&/01+ ≈10–39 ∞ – ≥ 10–8

intermediari W ± G( Z 0- (/*)%E)6(0@+- (/*)%03,(2/(1)- <108)Y- gluonii t%0/<E(*

(/*)%03,(2/(1)- *0%(- G(- gravitonul (/*)%E)6(0@+- (/*)%03,(2/(1)- .%0>(*0,(&/01)"
2. Z'%(*+"-/-/\0"%0$& '& +N#6"%*-)%& ./& *!(/%'+:*"!/G
2a. Quarcurile: u(up), d(down), c(charm), s(strange), t(top), b(beauty).
2b. Leptonii, 30%)-/2-'0%*(3('+-10-(/*)%03,(2/(1) tari: electronul, miuonul, tauonul,
G(- !/"(%*!"-& /-/+(%)!*+,& #*")!*+& D*& !/"(%*!"-& ('"]& (/*)%)03,(&/)0@+- <108- G(- )1)3V
*%&E0./)*(3"
M231)&/((- '%&*&/- G(- /)2*%&/Y- 6)G(- <2/*- 3&/<(6)%0*)- '0%*(321)- )1)E)/*0%)Y- /2
!
E0(-<2/*-<(E'1)-'0%*(321)-3(-<(<*)E)-6)-x20%32%(-32-&-<*%23*2%+-(/*)%/+-3&E'1)T+]
'L226OY- /L266O"
$0%*(321)1)- )1)E)/*0%)- 30%)- (/*)%03,(&/)0@+- *0%)Y- )1)3*%&E0./)*(3- G(- <108Y- <)
/2E)<3-hadroni G(-<)-BE'0%*-B/-6&2+-<28310<)]-mezonii F&%E0,( din 2 quarcuri (de
exemplu, pionii, kaonii) G(-barionii, F&%E0,(-6(/-:-x20%curi (de exemplu, protonul,
neutronul, hiperonii).
$%(/3('01((- U(')%&/(- <2/*]- 10E860- (Λ), omega (Ω–1), sigma (Σ±, Σ0).

!"R"5" L0%03*)%(<*(3(1)- 3&D2/)- 01)- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)D)/*0%)Q

$0%*(321)1)- )1)E)/*0%)- <)- 30%03*)%(@)0@+- '%(/- 2%E+*&0%)1)- E+%(E(]
– Masa (m).
– S*#6"-& ./& J*':$ (τ). Particule stabile sunt electronul, protonul, fotonul;
restul de particule sunt instabile.
– Spinul ( M )"- o/0- 6(/*%)- 3)1)- E0(- (E'&%*0/*)- 30%03*)%(<*(3(- 01)- '0%*(321)1&%
!
)1)E)/*0%)- )<*)- E+%(E)0- F(@(3+- E&E)/*- 3(/)*(3- '%&'%(2- L6)- <'(/O"
J3)0<*+- '%&'%()*0*)- (/*%(/<)3+- 0- '0%*(321)(- 30%)- 0'0%)- B/- 306%21- E)30/(3((
320/*(3)-0-F&<*-(/*)%'%)*0*+Y-B/-E&6-(/*2(*(>Y-30-6)F(/(/6-<*0%)0-6)-%&*0,()-0-'0%*(321)(
B/- [2%21- 0T)(- '%&'%(("- 7'(/21- '0%*(321)1&%- )1)E)/*0%)- )<*)- 30%03*)%(@0*- '%(/- 03))0
3+- E&62121- '%&()3,()(- <01)- ')- &- 0T+- 0%8(*%0%+- )<*)- ).01- 32- 0XX Y- 2/6)
XXjb-Xc4π-LX-F((/6-3&/<*0/*0-12(-$10/3yOY-(0%-0-)<*)-/2E+%21-320/*(3-6)-<'(/"-J3)<*0
0%)Y- 2/0- 6(/*%)- >01&%(1)]- 0, 1/2, – 1/2- <02- #jLF&*&/21O- G(- 3/2 (hiperonii ∆, Ω–).
Toate particulele elementare au spin.

#I#
 Din punct de vedere al spinului, pa%*(321)1)- )1)E)/*0%)- <)- BE'0%*- B/- 6&2+
30*).&%((]
0O-$0%*(321)-32-/2E+%-320/*(3-6)-<'(/-0-B/*%).-LWm-#m-4m-„OY-6)/2E(*)-bosoni,
62'+-/2E)1)-F(@(3(0/212(-(/6(0/-7"jR"jP&<)"-P&<&/((-/2-<)-<2'2/-'%(/3('(212(-6)
)T312@(2/)- 0- 12(- $021(m- ')- 03)10G(- /(>)1- )/)%.)*(3Y- 32- 03)1)0G(- /2E)%)- 320/*(3)Y
'&*- )T(<*0- 2/- /2E+%- /)1(E(*0*- 6)- '0%*(321)"
8O-$0%*(321)-32-/2E+%21-320/*(3-de spin semiîntreg (1/2; 3/2; 5/2; ...)Y-/2E(*)
>/%#*)!*,- 62'+- /2E)1)- F(@(3(0/212(- (*01(0/- 5/%(3&- 9)%E("- 9)%E(&/((- <)- <2'2/
'%(/3('(212(-6)-)T312@(2/)-01-12(-$021(Y-0<*F)1-3+-B/*%V&-<*0%)-320/*(3+-/2-<)-'&0*)
.+<(- E0(- E21*- 6)- 2/- F)%E(&/"
Fermionii <2/*- '0%*(321)1)V<2%<+- 0- 3SE'2%(1&%- 6)- (/*)%03,(2/)- Lx20%32%(1)- G(
1)'*&/((O"- 7*+%(1)- 1).0*)- F&%E0*)- 6(/*%V2/- /2E+%- (E'0%- 6)- F)%E(&/(- <2/*Y- 6)
0<)E)/)0Y-F)%E(&/(-L6)-)T)E'12Y-barionii, 06(3+-nucleonii G(-hiperonii, 30%)-<2/*
F&%E0,(- 6(/- *%)(- x20%32%(O"
Bosonii sunt particule de inter03,()- L'0%*(321)1)VE)<0.)%Y- 06(3+- '0%*(321)V
1)V320/*)- 01)- 3SE'212(- 6)- (/*)%03,(2/)O"
4&M'%+*!'&/-/+(%*+$&LWOY-2/6)-W-)<*)-320/*(F(30*+]-W-b-!/Y-!-b-WY-…#Y-…4Y-<02
! !- )<*)- 1/3 sau – 2/3- ')/*%2- x20%32%(m- /- )<*)- <0%3(/0- )1)3*%(3+- )1)E)/*0%+Y- 06(3+
>01&0%)0- 08<&12*+- 0- <0%3(/((- )1)3*%&/212(- <02- L01*F)1- <'2<OY- <0%3(/0- )1)3*%(3+- 0
'%&*&/212("
k'.%)!**,& +'%/& +"6%*!.& ='%*)!**& D*& #/B)!**,& 0"!(& >)%#':*& .*!& `"'%+"%*& 6/!(%"
+'%/& 0\'"& ./>*!*(& EC!& 0(*-& '#/%*+'!,& !/6%)()+)-'%Q& .)"$& +'%'+(/%*0(*+*& E!"#/%/
+"'!(*+/QG& +"-)'%/'G- F()3+%2(- *('- 6)- x20%3- (- <V02- 0*0G0*- *%)(- 321&%(- 6(F)%(*)- %&G2Y
0180<*%2Y- G(- >)%6)- X- G(- aroma – u, d, s, c, b, t"- n06%&/((- <2/*- (/3&1&%(- L018(O
3&/F&%E-%).21)(-30%)-0F(%E+-3+-k<(<*)E21-F&%E0*-6(/-x20%32%(-3&1&%0*)Y-*%)82()-B/
F(/01- <+- F()- F+%+- 321&0%)l"
M2-<)-'&*-'2/)-B/-)>(6)/,+-x20%32%(-1(8)%("-7)-'%)<2'2/)-3+-F&%,)1)-6)-321&0%)
30%)-E)/,(/-x20%32%(1)-BE'%)2/+-<2/*-6)')/6)/*)-6)-2/-'&*)/,(01-30%)-3%)G*)-32
6(<*0/,0Y-30@-0<)E+/+*&%-03)12(-%)<&%*-30%)-,(/)-1).0*)-BE'%)2/+-6&2+-8(1)"-N2-3S*
<)-B/3)0%3+-<)'0%0%)0-E0(-E0%)-0-8(1)1&%Y-<)-B/*SE'(/+-&-%)@(<*)/,+-G(-E0(-E0%)"
Z/*%V&- %)03,()- /231)0%+- <)- 3&/<)%>+- <0%3(/0- )1)3*%(3+- G(- /2E+%21- 6)- /231)&/(
L'%&*&/(- G(- /)2*%&/(O"- $)/*%2- )T'1(30%)0- 3&/<)%>+%((- /2E+%212(- 6)- /231)&/(- <V0
(/*%&62<- &- E+%(E)- /&2+Y- 0'%+*!'& ='%*)!*+$& L^O- L<02- /2E+%21- 320/*(3- 80%(&/(3O"
9()30%)- '0%*(321+- )<*)- 30%03*)%(@0*+- G(- '%(/- <0%3(/+- )1)3*%(3+- G(- <0%3(/+- 80%(&/(3+"
J<*F)1Y- /)2*%&/21- 0%)- <0%3(/0- )1)3*%(3+- W- G(- <0%3(/0- 80%(&/(3+- d#m- '%&*&/21- 0%)
<0%3(/0- )1)3*%(3+- L)1)E)/*0%+O- d#- G(- <0%3(/0- 80%(&/(3+- d#- L>"- *08)121- !"!O"
26-*+':*/?& M$& 0/& J/%*>*+/& -/A/'& ./& +)!0/%J'%/& '& 0'%+*!**& /-/+(%*+/& D*& -/A/'& ./
+)!0/%J'%/& '& 0'%+*!**& ='%*)!*+/& 6/!(%"& "%#$()'%/'& %/'+:*/& !"+-/'%$G
6& F& #W!P- →- ##!P- d- πd"
=)@&1>0%)]- W- b- d#- d- !- d- !- X- !- d- #- b- Wm- ^- b- d#- d- #W- X- ##- d- W- b- W"
Z/*%23S*-B/-%)03,((1)-/231)0%)-10-)/)%.((-E(3(-/2-<)-.)/)%)0@+-'0%*(321)Y-3&/<)%V
>0%)0- <0%3(/((- 80%(&/(3)- )<*)- )3U(>01)/*+- 3&/<)%>+%((- /2E+%212(- 6)- /231)&/("
X- M6*!"-& *B)()6*+& LSOY- D(/- '2/3*- 6)- >)6)%)- 01- *!(/%'+:*"!*-)%& !"+-/'%/Y- /)2V
#I4
 Particule elementare ale modelului standard
Tabelul 5.5
90E(1(0 ?)'*&/( †20%32%(
<02 $0%*(3210- G(- 0/21 ;0<0- 6) 70%3(/0 $0%*(3210- G(- 0/21 J%&E0 ;0<0- 6) 70%3(/0
.)/)V 6)<3&')%(%(( 7(E8&1 %)'02< )1)3*%(V 6)<3&')%(%(( 7(E8&1 %)'02< )1)3*%(3+
%0,(0 v;)gc+2w 3+- v)w v;)gc+2w v)w
I Neutrinul 20 eV/+2
electronului νe ≠0 0 Up (sus) u 2–8 +2/3
(1954)
Electronul (1898) e 0,511 –1 Down (jos) d 5–15 –1/3
II Neutrinul miu-
onului (1962) νµ ≠0 0 Charm (farmec) (1974) c 1500 +2/3
Miuonul (1936) µ 105,658 –1 Strange (straniu) (1974) s 300 –1/3
III Neutrinul R&'cR%2*U
taonului ντ i- #HA W L>S%Fc06)>+%O-L#``!O * #I!f#W3 +2/3
Taonul (1975) τ #IQAY: X# P&**&EcP)02*‚ 8 A!WW X#c:
L80@+cF%2E2<),)O- L#`IIO
1. Model21-<*0/60%6-(/3126)-H-1)'*&/(-G(-#Q-x20%32%(Y-06(3+-F()3+%2(-x20%3-6(/-*08)1-B(-<2/*-0<&3(0*)
G(- 3)1)- *%)(- <0%3(/(- 3&1&%"- Z/- '12<Y- F()3+%)(- '0%*(321)- 6(/- *08)1- B(- 3&%)<'2/6)- 3S*)- &- 0/*('0%*(321+
L32- <0%3(/0- 6)- <)E/- &'2<O"
4"- Z/- 0/21- #``Q- <V0- 6)<3&')%(*Y- 3+- /)2*%(/((- 02- E0<+- 6)- %)'02<"
!
K9"16"L:8""% M:9"<1"% 6C% EL"1C8% 'N(
Tabelul 5.6

P0%(&/( N&/,(/2*21 70%3(/0 ;0<0 R(E'21- 6) $%(/3('01)1)

B/- x20%32%( - )1)3*%(3+ [MeV/c2] >(0,+ 6)@(/*).%+%(
vB/-2/(*+,(-6)-)w v<w
Nucleoni
p uud +1 938,272 ∞ –
n udd 0 939,565 886,7 peνe
Hiperoni
Λ uds 0 1115,683 2,63×10–10 pπ–, nπ0
Σ+ uus +1 1189,37 0,80×10–10 pπ0, nπ+
Σ0 uds 0 1192,642 7,4×10–20 Λγ
Σ– dds –1 1197,449 1,48×10–10 nπ–
Ξ0 uss 0 1314,83 2,90×10–10 Λπ0
Ξ– dss –1 1321,31 1,64×10–10 Λπ–

*%&/21- G(- '%&*&/21- 02- '%&'%()*+,(- (6)/*(3)Y- F((/6- <*+%(- 01)- 03)1)(0G(- '0%*(321)Y- /2V
31)&/21"-D)&<)8(%(1)-30%)-0'0%-B/*%)-/)2*%&/-G(-'%&*&/Y-E0<)-'2,(/-6(F)%(*)Y-<0%3(/(
6(F)%(*)-L@)%&-<02-/O-)*3"Y-<2/*-0*%(82(*)-*!(/%'+:*"!*-)%&/-/+(%)#'A!/(*+/"-7)-3&/V
<(6)%+- 3+- /231)&/21- 0%)- 2/- <'(/- (@&*&'(3- S- b- #c4Y- (0%- /)2*%&/21- G(- '%&*&/21- <)
6)&<)8)<3- '%(/- '%&()3,(0- <'(/212(- (@&*&'(3- SB- b- …#c4- LF&%E)0@+- 2/- 6281)*O"- D)V
/2E(%)0- 6)- <'(/- (@&*&'(3- '%&>(/)- 6)- 10- F0'*21- 3+- /)2*%&/21- G(- '%&*&/21- 0%- F(
k(*6"%*&*B)()6*+/l-01)-/231)&/212(Y-10-F)1-32E-(@&*&'((-<2/*-6(>)%<)-*('2%(-01)-2/2(
)1)E)/*- 3U(E(3"
#I:
 C/*)%03,(2/)0-/231)0%+-)<*)-*%0/<E(<+-6)-'(&/(-G(-<V0-'%)<2'2<-3+-03)G*(0-F&%E)0V
@+-2/-E21*('1)*-F0,+-6)-<'(/21-(@&*&'(3-S&b-#Y-6)&<)8(/62V<)-'%(/-'%&()3,(0-<'(/2V
12(- (@&*&'(3- SB- b- d#Y- WY- X#- LF&%E)0@+- *%('1)*21- 6dY- 6XY- 6WO"
X- M(%'!*/('(/'& LMO"- Z/- %)03,((1)- /231)0%)- 10- )/)%.((- B/01*)- <V0- &8<)%>0*- 3+- <2/*
'0%*(321)-)1)E)/*0%)-30%)-<)-.)/)%)0@+-/2E0(-B/-')%)3U(m-6)-)T)E'12Y-2/-U(')%&/
Λ-0'0%)-B/<&,(*-6)-2/-E)@&/-lW-G(-/(3(&60*+-<(/.2%"-J3)0<*+-k<*%0/()*0*)l-0-3&/62<
10-(6))0-3+-0%-)T(<*0-2/-/2E+%-320/*(3-/&2Y-MY-30%)-<)-3&/<)%>+Y-/2E(*-<*%0/()*0*)"
7+- 3&/<(6)%+E- 6&2+- %)03,((]
πX- d- 6- →- lWMb#- d- ΛMbX#- G(- ΛMbX#- →- πX- d- 6& ?
Z/-'%(E0-%)03,()Y-<*%0/()*0*)0-<)-3&/<)%>+Y-6)@(/*).%0%)0-'%&62<)1&%-%)03,()(-<)
)F)3*2)0@+- '%(/- (/*)%E)6(21- (/*)%03,(2/(1&%- *0%(- G(- *(E'21- 6)- 6)@(/*).%0%)- )<*)
<32%*"-Z/-0-6&20-%)03,()Y-<*%0/()*0*)0-/2-<)-3&/<)%>+Y-6)@(/*).%0%)0-<)-)F)3*2)0@+
'%(/- (/*)%03,((- <108)- G(- *(E'21- 6)- 6)@(/*).%0%)- )<*)- %)10*(>- 12/."- M(%'!*/('(/'& <)
'&0*)-3013210-32-0[2*&%21-%)10,()(-M-b-4-iWh-X-^Y-2/6)-^-)<*)-0'%+*!'&='%*)!*+$Y
(0%-iWh-b-W-X-SB-L2/6)-W-)<*)-0'%+*!'&/-/+(%*+$Y- SB-6%)*/+:*'&06*!"-"*&*B)()6*+O
)<*)-<0%3(/0-)1)3*%(3+-E)6()-0-2/2(-E21*('1)*"-g)%(F(30%)-L>"-*08)121-!O"-D03+-iWh
LΛO- b- WY- %)@21*+- ')/*%2- ΛY- M- b- X#"
!
!"R":" 432%*- (<*&%(3
$%(E0- '0%*(321+- )1)E)/*0%+- 6)<3&')%(*+- 0- F&<*- )1)3*%&/21Y- B/- #Q`IY- 6)- 3+*%)
z"jz"jRU&E<&/- L$%)E(21- M&8)1Y- #`WHO"- D)/2E(%)0- 6)- )1)3*%&/- 0- F&<*- 60*+- 6)
N"jz"j7*&/)‚Y-F(@(3(0/-G(-0<*%&/&E-(%10/6)@"-Z/-0/21-#`#`Y-5"-=2*U)%F&%6-L$%)E(21
M&8)1Y-#`WQOY-)1)>-0-12(-z"-z"jRU&E<&/Y-0-6)<3&')%(*-'%&*&/21-L`p = e, mp = 1836meOY
'0%*(321+- 30%)- )%0- )T'21@0*+- 6(/- /231)21- 0*&E(3- 10- 8&E80%60%)0- 03)<*2(0- 32
'0%*(321)-α. În anul 1932 J. Chadwi3yY-)1)>21-12(-=2*U)%F&%6Y-0-6)<3&')%(*-/)2*%&/21
32-E0<0-'2,(/-6(F)%(*+-6)-3)0-0-'%&*&/212(-G(-/)2*%2-6(/-'2/3*-6)->)6)%)-)1)3*%(3Y
3&/<*(*2(/6- 3)0101*+- 3&E'&/)/*+- 0- /231)212(- 0*&E(3"
9&*&/21- 0- F&<*- (/*%&62<- 6)- ;"- $10/3y- B/- 0/21- #`WWY- 30- &- 320/*+- 0- 3SE'212(
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3-')-30%)-0*&E((-&-)E(*-<02-&-08<&%8"-$%(E)1)-)T')%(E)/*)-%)2G(*)
')/*%2- 6)*)3*0%)0- F&*&/212(- 02- F&<*- F+32*)- B/- 0/21- #`4#- 6)- n"- P&*U)"
Neutrinul a fost prezis de W. Pauli în anul 1930; neutrinul electronic a fost
descoperit abia în anul 1953"- Z/- 0/21- #`H4- <V0- 3&/<*0*0*- )T')%(E)/*01- )T(<*)/,0
0- 6&2+- *('2%(- 6)- /)2*%(/(Y- )1)3*%&/(3- G(- E(2&/(3"
Mediat<9""% "17/9:62""8<9% 0C1;:D/17:8/
Tabelul 5.7
;)6(0*&% 70%3(/0 ;0<0 C/*)%03,(0
)1)3*%(3+- v/w [GeV/c2]
gluon 0 0 tare (culoare)
foton 0 )1VE0." )1)3*%&<108+
W± ±1 80,33 <108+- LB/3+%30*+O
Z0 0 91,187 <108+- L/)2*%+O

#IA
 Z/- 0/21- #`:HY- N"- D"- J/6)%<&/- L$%)E(21- M&8)1Y- #`:HO- 6)<3&')%+- B/- %06(0,(0
3&<E(3+-E(2&/21-32-E0<0-#µ = 211me. În anul 1977 a fost detectat leptonul tau,
adi3+- *02&/21Y- 30%)- BE'%)2/+- 32- )1)3*%&/21- G(- E(2&/21- 02- '%03*(3- 03)1)0G(
'%&'%()*+,(Y- 6(F)%(/6- 6&0%- '%(/- E0<0- 1&%"
Z/- 0/21- #`:!- n"- t2y0>0Y- 0- '%)@(<- )T(<*)/,0- E)@&/(1&%"- Z/- 0/21- #`AI- 02- F&<*
6)<3&')%(,(- )T')%(E)/*01- B/- %06(0,(0- 3&<E(3+- '%(E((- E)@&/(Y- '(&/((- Lπ±OY- 30%)
(/*)%E)6(0@+- (/*)%03,(2/)0- 6(/*%)- /231)&/("
Z/*%)-0/((-#`AWX#`!W-<V02-&8<)%>0*-'0%*(321)1)-30%)-3&/,(/)02-x20%321-0]-kaonii
G(- hiperonii"- Z/*%)- 0/((- #`!WX#`HW- <V0- 3&/<*0*0*- )T')%(E)/*01- 3+- /231)&/((- <2/*
F&%E0,(- 6(/- x20%32%("- Z/- 0/21- #`IA- 3&1)3*(>)1)- 3&/62<)- 6)- P"- =(3U*)%- G(- 7"- R(/.
L102%)0,(-0(-$%)E(212(-M&8)1Y-#`IHO-02-6)<3&')%(*-(/6)')/6)/*-2/-E)@&/-32-E0<0
:XA-#6. Au urmat o serie de particule cu charm, 30%)-3&/,(/-x20%321-+] mezonii
D, F, Λ+c. În anul 1977 s-a descoperit o particulã cu masa 10 mp X- <*0%)0- 1).0*+
–
bb- G(- B/- #`Q#- '0%*(321)1)- 32- beauty, 30%)- 3&/,(/- x20%321- ="- Z/- 0/21- #``!Y- 10
-
9)%E(108- LP0*0>(0Y- 7oJO- <V0- 6)<3&')%(*- <*0%)0- 1).0*+- tt Y- 30%)- 3&/,(/)- x20%3ul
top t.
Z/-0/21-#`Q:Y-3&1)3*(>21-12(-N0%1&-=288(0-LPremiul Nobel, în anul 1984, cu S.
van der Meer.O- 6)- 10- N5=M- LN)/*%21- )2%&')0/- 6)- 3)%3)*+%(- /231)0%)Y- ^)/)>0- X !
51>),(0O- 0- 6)<3&')%(*- bosonii vectoriali intermediari W±Y- 5{Y- '%)@(G(- 6)- (/)%*'
/-/+(%)0-'=$?
$%(E0- 0/*('0%*(321+- '%)@(<+- 6)- $"- J"- ;"jD(%03- L#`4QOY- pozitronul, 0- F&<*
6)<3&')%(*+- B/- %06(0,(0- 3&<E(3+- B/- 0/21- #`:4- 6)- N"- D"- J/6)%<&/"- J2- 2%E0*
antiprotonul B/- 0/21- #`!!Y- 0/*(/)2*%&/21- B/- 0/21- #`HW- G(- 01*)- '0%*(321)"
În anul 1950 E0%)1)- F(@(3(0/- 5/%(3&- 9)%E(- L$%)E(21- M&8)1Y- B/- #`:QO- G(
3&108&%0*&%((- <+(- 6)<3&')%+- '%(E0- '0%*(321+- /2E(*+- %/B)!'!:$,& 10- BE'%+G*()%)0
E)@&/(1&%- π+- ')- '%&*&/("- =)@&/0/,)1)- <2/*- U06%&/(- B/- <*+%(- )T3(*0*)"- D0*&%(*+
6)@(/*).%+%((- '%(/- (/*)%03,(2/(- *0%(Y- %)@&/0/,)1)- 02- *(E'- 6)- >(0,+- F&0%*)- <32%*Y- 6)
&%6(/21- #W–23–10–24s.
C/*)%03,(2/(1)-X-62'+-3&/<*0/*)1)-1&%
6)- 32'10[- X- <)- 310<(F(3+- B/- %0'&%*21
#]#W –2 :10 –10 :10 –38 - ')/*%2- 3)1)- *0%(Y
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)Y- <108)- G(- .%0>(F(3)"
N&/<*0/*)1)- 6)- 32'10[- 6)'(/6- 6)
)/)%.()"- 5T(<*+- &- >01&0%)- 0- )/)%.()(
')/*%2- 30%)- (/*)%03,(2/(1)- )1)3*%&E0.V
/)*(3)Y- <108)- G(- *0%(Y- /2- <)- E0(
6)&<)8)<3- '%(/- >01&0%)0- 3&/<*0/*)(- 6)
32'10["- $&*%(>(*- )<*(E+%(1&%Y- 3)1)- *%)(
*('2%(- 6)- (/*)%03,(2/(- 3&/>)%.- 10- & !"#$% &$()$- D(0.%0E0- 3&/>)%.)/,)1&%- *('2%(1&%
6(<*0/,+- )T*%0&%6(/0%- 6)- E(3+- 6)- #W–31 6)- (/*)%03,(2/("
m (corespunzând la o energie de
≈ 1015j^)gO- /2E(*+- <30%0- 6)- 2/(F(30%)- LF(."j!"4:O"

#I!
 ?0- )/)%.((- E0(- [&0<)- <2/*- 2/(F(30*)Y- 0G0
32E- 0E- E0(- 0F(%E0*Y- 6&0%- (/*)%03,(2/(1)
)1)3*%&E0./)*(3)- G(- <108)- B/- (/)%*'& "!*>*+'($
/-/+(%)\0-'=$& '%&'2<+- 10- B/3)'2*21- 0/(1&%
#`IW"- J3)0<*+- *)&%()- '%)@(3)- )T(<*)/,0
bosonului Higgs L30%)- .)/)%)0@+- E0<)1)
3)1&%101*)- '0%*(321)OY- %)3)/*- '2<- B/- )>(6)/,+
L!- <)'*)E8%()- 4WWWO- 10- N5=M- L^)/)>0O"
;)*&60-F&1&<(*+-10-.(.0/*(321-033)1)%0*&%-?5$
L3(%32EF)%(/,+- 6)- 4I- yEO- )<*)- 03))0- 0
F0<3(321)1&%- B/3%23(G0*)- B/- 30%)- <)- 3(&3/)<3
)1)3*%&/(- 32- '&@(*%&/(- 10- )/)%.((- )T*%)E- 6)
E0%("-J3)0<*+-'0%*(321+-Ln(.<<&/OY-60*+-F((/6
(E'&%*0/,0- )(- ')/*%2- *)&%(0- (/*)%03,((1&%
F2/60E)/*01)Y-)<*)-6)/2E(*+-B/-12E)0-<')3(0V
1(G*(1&%- k'0%*(3210- 12(- D2E/)@)2l"- $)/*%2
3)%3)*+%(1)- 0<2'%0- 03)<*)(- '0%*(321)- <V02
! 3U)1*2(*- ')<*)- #W- E(1(0%6)- 6)- 6&10%(Y- /)3)<0%(
!"#$% &$(*$- o/- )>)/(E)/*- 6)- (/*)%03,() 3%)+%((- 033)1)%0*&%212(- <2')%<&F(<*(30*- ?5$
B/- 30E)%0- 32- 821)" E)/(*- <+- ')%E(*+- 3&/F(%E0%)0- L<02- /2O- 0
('&*)@)(-12(-n(.<<Y-0>0/<0*+-B/3+-6(/-0/21-#`HA"
Un impact extrem de profund în descoperirea de noi-'0%*(321)-G(-%)@&/0/,)-1V0
0>2*-*)U/(30-6)-6)*)3,()-B/-<(<*)E21-30E)%)1&%-32-821)Y-6)@>&1*0*-B/-'%(/3('01-6)
?2(<-J1>0%)@-L$%)E(21-M&8)1Y-B/-0/21-#`HQO"-$)/*%2-)T)E'1(F(30%)Y-B/-F(.2%0j!"4A
)<*)- %)'%&62<+- F&*&.%0F(0- 2/2(- )>)/(E)/*- 6)- (/*)%03,()- B/%).(<*%0*- '%(/- 03)0<*+
*)U/(3+"-Z/-F&*&.%0F()-0'0%)-(/*)%03,(0-2/2(-E)@&/-π–-0>S/6-(E'21<21-6)-#-^)gc3
32- 2/- '%&*&/- B/- 30E)%0- 32- 821)- 32- U(6%&.)/- 1(3U(6"- =)03,(0- &8<)%>0*+- )<*)]
π– + p → K0 + ΛY
2%E0*+- 6)- 6)@(/*).%+%(1)]
}0 → π+ + π–- G(- Λ → π– + p.
Vizualizarea 6(%)3*+- 0- 2/&%- (/*)%03,((- 30%)- 02- 1&3- 10- /(>)1- 320/*(3- 0- 0>2*- 2/
(E'03*- )T3)',(&/01- G(- 0- 60*- <*%+123(%)- 03)<*)(- E)*&6)- B/- F(@(30- '0%*(321)1&%
)1)E)/*0%)"

!"R"A" =07(0,(0- 3&<D(3+Q

În urma experimentelor cu camera Wilson, fotoemulsiilor nucleare etc. s-a
dedu<-3+-%06(0,(0-3&<E(3+-)<*)-F&%E0*+-6(/*%V2/-F12T-6)-'0%*(321)-)1)E)/*0%)-30%)
0[2/.-10-<2'%0F0,0-$+ES/*212("-5T(<*+-%'.*':*'&+)0#*+$&6%*#'%$-G(-3)0-0/+"!.'%$,
3%)0*+-B/-0*E&<F)%0-*)%)<*%+-6)-(/*)%03,(2/)0-%06(0,()(-3&<E(3)-'%(E0%)-32-/231))1)
0*&E(3)-01)-g0@)1&%-30%)-3&E'2/-0)%21-0*E&<F)%(3-')%(*)%)<*%2"-5T(<*)/,0-%06(0,()(
3&<E(3)-0-F&<*-<*08(1(*+-B/-0/21-#`#4-6)-F(@(3(0/21-02<*%(03-g(3*&%-n)<<-L$%)E(21
M&8)1Y-#`:HOY-'%(/-&8<)%>0%)0-(&/(@+%((-0)%212("-$%(/-<*26(21-'%&'%()*+,(1&%-%06(0,()(

#IH
3&<E(3)-<V02-6)<coperit pozitronul, miuonul, hiperonul lambda, kaonii K, piuonul
π–. =06(0,(0- '%(E0%+- )<*)- F&%E0*+- B/- '%&'&%,()- 6)- `Wa- 6)- '%&*&/(Y- IY!a- 6)
'0%*(321)- α- G(- 6(F)%(*)- /231))- 01)- )1)E)/*)1&%- 2G&0%)- L5- ≤- A#O"- =06(0,(0- 3&<E(3+
<)32/60%+Y-F&%E0*+-<28-03,(2/)0-3)1)(-'%(E0%)Y-)<*)-3&/<*(*2(*+-G(-6(/-'0%*(321)-32
>(0,+-<32%*+-LE)@&/((-πO-30%)-/2-0[2/.-6)'0%*)-6)-1&321-F&%E+%((Y-6)@(/*).%S/62V<)"
$%&3)<21- 6)- F&%E0%)- B/- 30<306+- 0- 320/*)1&%- γ- G(- 0- ')%)3U(1&%- /±- 6)*)%E(/+
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Tabelul 5.8

Timpul Faza Procesul ρ(kg/m3) T(K)

cosmic dominant

W 7(/.210%(*0*) ;0%)0- 5T'1&@()

<'0,(&V*)E'&%01+
10–43- < 90@0- '0%*(321)1&% N%)0%)0- 6)- '0%*(321) AY!f#W94 4,7·1031
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10–6 s ................. .................... 4,5·1020 1,5·1013
Faza h06%&/(3+ J/(U(10%)-80%(&/V
0/*(80%(&/
1 s ................. ..................... 4,5·108 1,5·1010
90@0- 1)'*&/(3+ J/(U(10%)-)––e+
3 ani ................. ..................... 1,4·104 1,1·109
90@0- %)03,((1&% 7(/*)@0- /231))1&%- 6)
6)- <(/*)@+ - 6)2*)%(2- G(- 6)- U)1(2
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($-?0-3)->01&0%)-0-)/)%.()(-3(/)*(3)-0-'%&*&/(1&%-')%(&060-6)-%&*0,()-<)-E&6(F(3+-32-#a
F0,+- 6)- ')%(&060- 6)- %&*0,()- B/- 30@21- /)%)10*(>(<*r
2πm 2π( Ec + m0 c 2 ) 2πEc ∆T Ec
SW-b- qB Y-S-b- m-S-X-SW-b-∆S-b- c 2 qB Y- -b- -b-WYW#Y-6)
Ec + m0 c 2
2
c qB T
2/6)- %)@21*+- <+& b- WYW#W#- #6+4- b- `YAQ`- ;)g- ≈- `Y!- ;)>"
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2%E+*&0%)1)-%)03,((]
6- d- #4n- →- :4n)- d- πWm 6- d- #W!P- →- ##!P- d- πdm 6- d- πX- → ΣX- d- }d"
$)/*%2- %)03,(0]- 6- d- #n- →- 4n)- d- π
4 : W

6 4
#
n :
4
n) πW !
W d- # d- # d- 4 W W- b- #- d- #- X- 4- b- W
^ d- # d- 4 d- : W ^- b- #- d- 4- X- :- b- W

!"#$%&'&( )"#)*+&
'$%P0%(&/((-<)-BE'0%*-B/-6&2+-k<28.%2')l"-o/0-)<*)-3)0-0-/231)&/(1&%-L!Y-6OY-3)0101*+-0-„r
($- D03+- B/*%V&- '&<(8(1+- 0.1&E)%0%)- 6)- #W31 protoni s-ar observa o dezintegrare a
protonului, care ar fi vârsta protonului?
R: 1031 ani.
)$%;(2&/((-<2/*-'0%*(321)-(/<*08(1)Y->(0,0-1&%-E)6()-F((/6-6)-&%6(/21-E(3%&<)32/6)1&%"
;(2&/21-µ–-<)-6)@(/*).%)0@+-62'+-<3U)E0-µ– → e– + –νe + νµ. Analog, care va fi schema
de dezintegrare pentru µ+r- 728@(<*+- '0%*(321)1)- 6)@(/*).%+%((- B/- E(2&/(r
4. Care pa%*(321)-3&/<*(*2()-0.%).0*)-F&%E0*)-6(/-6&2+-x20%32%(-G(-30%)-6(/-*%)(-x20%32%(r
N)- *('- 6)- '0%*(321)- <2/*- 03)<*)0Y- 6(/- '2/3*- 6)- >)6)%)- 01- /2E+%212(- 320/*(3- 0r
&$-7+-<)-<3%()-<3U)E0-6)-6)@(/*).%0%)-0-/)2*%&/212(-32/&<3S/6-3+-2/21-6(/*%)-x20%32%(1)
.-01)-/)2*%&/212(-<)-*%0/<F&%E+-B/*%V2/-x20%3-"-G(-3+-01-*%)(1)0-*)%E)/-01-6)@(/*).%+%((-B1
%)'%)@(/*+- 2/- 0/*(/)2*%(/- L6)j*('rO"
+$-Z/*%V&-%)03,()-/231)0%+-B/-30%)-'0%*(321)1)-30%)-(/*)%03,(&/)0@+-02-<28<*%23*2%0-F&%E0*+
6(/-x20%32%(Y-<)-'&*-3&/<(6)%0-x20%32%(1)-30-F((/6-B/-<*0%)-1(8)%+-')-62%0*0-%)03,()(-/231)0%)r
,$- R)%E)/((- 6)- U06%&/Y- 1)'*&/Y- F)%E(&/- <2/*- 2*(1(@0,(- B/- 310<(F(30%)0- '0%*(321)1&%"- N0%)
6(/*%)- 03)G*(0- '&*- F(- 0'1(30,(- x20%32%(1&%r
8. Hiperonul Σ*0-6)@(/*).%)0@+-B/-2%E+*&0%)1)-30/01)-LE&62%(O]-Σ+ + π–, Σ– + π+, Σ0-d-r-G(
Λ-d-r"-Z/1&32(,(- 3&%)<'2/@+*&%- <)E/)1)- 6)- B/*%)80%)"

#Q#
 9. Sunt posibile structuri hadronice formate numai din cuplajul a doi sau trei gluoni?
10. 7)-6)@(/*).%)0@+Y-<02-/2Y-*&,(-U(')%&/((r- I1;"6:2"/@- >"- *08"- CCC- 6(/- J/)T)"
''$- $)/*%2- E0<0- 6)- %)'02<- 0- /)2*%(/212(- )1)3*%&/(3Y- <V0- 3&/<*0*0*- )T')%(E)/*01- 3+
03)0<*0- *%)82()- <+- F()- i- 4W- )gc+4"- 7+- <)- )T'%(E)- (/).01(*0*)0- B/- y(1&.%0E)"
20 ⋅ 1,6 ⋅ 10−19
9 ⋅ 108
?@- #Wjν - i- - b- r"
$

-*./& ,*$+0"/()+/"1
'$- 51)E)/*)1)- IH
:4
^)- G(- IH
:A
7)- <2/*- (@&*&'(- <02- (@&80%(r
($- kZ/+1,(E)l- 80%()%)(- 6)- '&*)/,(01- )<*)- 60*+- 6)- %)10,(0]
Z1Ze Ze 2 Z Ze2
0O- m- 8O- m- 3O- 1 "
4πε 0 R 4πε0 R 4πε 0 R
)$- Z/- 1).)0- 6)@(/*).%+%((- %06(&03*(>)- 3- b- 3W)Xλ(Y- 3- %)'%)@(/*+]
0O- /2E+%21- 6)- /231))- 6)@(/*).%0*)m
8O- /2E+%21- 6)- /231))- /)6)@(/*).%0*)m
3O- /2E+%21- *&*01- 6)- /231))"
! *$- =)10,(0- 6(/*%)- 03*(>(*0*)0- Λ- G(- 3&/<*0/*0- %06(&03*(>+- λ- )<*)]
0O- Λ- b- λ3m- 8O- Λ- b- λc3m- 3O- λ- b- Λ3"
&$-N013210,(-6)-3S*)-&%(-)<*)-E0(-E0%)-6)3S*-*(E'21-6)-B/[2E+*+,(%)-(/*)%>0121-6)-*(E'
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+$- NS*)- /231))- <)- 6)@(/*).%)0@+- 6(/- 6&2+- .%0E)- 6)- %06(&3&801*- HW
4I
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&%)r- LS#c4- b- !Y:- 0/(O"
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%)'02<- 6)- 4:!YWA:`:- 2"- 7)- 32/&<3]- #6- b- #YWWI4``- 2- G(- #!- b- #YWWQH`W- 2"
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-$- C6)/*(F(30,(- %)10,(0- )/)%.()(- 6)- 1).+*2%+- 0- /231)212(]
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#Q4
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 Tabelul I
8@>G<-D=$Z<<T([ (T(:W=@><:([ $T([ (T(N(>W(T@=

Elemen-
tul
chimic K L M N O P Q
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d 7s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
H 1
2
He 2
3
Li 2 1
4
Be 2 2
5
B 2 2 1
6
C 2 2 2
7
N 2 2 3
8
O 2 2 4
9
F 2 2 5
10
Ne 2 2 6
11
Na 2 2 6 1
12
Mg 2 2 6 2
13
Al 2 2 6 2 1
! 14
Si 2 2 6 2 2
15
P 2 2 6 2 3
16
S 2 2 6 2 4
17
Cl 2 2 6 2 5
18
Ar 2 2 6 2 6
19
K 2 2 6 2 6 1
20
Ca 2 2 6 2 6 2
21
Sc 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
22
Ti 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
23
V 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
24
Cr 2 2 6 2 6 4 2
25
Mn 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
26
Fe 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
27
Co 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
28
Ni 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
29
Cu 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
30
Zn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
31
Ga 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
32
Ge 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
33
As 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
34
Se 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
35
Br 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
36
Kr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
37
Rb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1

!"(
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
38
Sr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2
39
Y 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
40
Zr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
41
Ni 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 4 1
42
Mo 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 1
43
Te 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 2
44
Ru 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 7 1
45
Rh 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 8 1
46
Pd 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10
47
Ag 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1
48
Cd 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2
49
In 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 1
50
Sn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2
51
Sb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 3
52
Te 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 4
53
I 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 5
54
Xe 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6
55
Cs 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1
56
Ba 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 2
57
La 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
58
Ce 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2 6 2 !
59
Pr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 3 2 6 2
60
Nd 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 4 2 6 2
61
Pm 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 5 2 6 2
62
Sm 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 6 2 6 2
63
Eu 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
64
Gd 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
65
Tb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 9 2 6 2
66
Dy 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 10 2 6 2
67
Ho 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 11 2 6 2
68
Er 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 12 2 6 2
69
Tm 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 13 2 6 2
70
Yb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2
71
Lu 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
72
Hf 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2 2
73
Ta 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2
74
W 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
75
Re 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 5 2
76
Os 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 6 2
77
Ir 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 7 2
78
Pt 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 9 1
79
Au 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 1
80
Hg 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2

!"*
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
81
Tl 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 1
82
Pb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 2
83
Bi 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 3
84
Po 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 4
85
At 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 5
86
Rn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6
87
Fr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1
88
Ra 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2
89
Ac 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
90
Th 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
91
Pa 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 (2) 2 6 3(1) 2
92
U 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 (3) 2 6 4(1) 2
93
Np 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 4 2 6 1 2
94
Pu 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 6(5) 2 6 (1) 2
95
Am 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
96
Cm 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
97
Bk 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 9(8) 2 6 (1) 2
98
Cf 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 10(9) 2 6 (1) 2
99
Es 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 11(10) 2 6 (1) 2
100
Fm 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 12(11) 2 6 (1) 2
! 101
102
Md
No
2
2
2
2
6
6
2
2
6
6
10
10
2
2
6
6
10
10
14
14
2
2
6
6
10
10
13(12) 2
14 2
6 (1) 2
6 2
103
Lw 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
104
Ku 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 2 2
105
Ha 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2

!""
 Tabelul II

Mase atomice

6789:; 2<=> ?@ 1ABC 6789:; 2<=> ?@ 1ABC 6789:; 2<=> ?@ 1ABC

DE787D 8ABC AF:87DC DE787D 8ABC AF:87DC DE787D 8ABC AF:87DC

n 1 1,008665 24 23,990967 59 58,933189

H 1 1,007825 Mg 23 22,994135 60 59,933806
2 2,014102 24 23,985044 Cu 63 62,929594
3 3,016049 25 24,985840 65 64,927786
He 3 3,016030 26 25,982591 Zn 65 64,929234
4 4,002604 27 26,984345 Br 82 81,916802
Li 6 6,015126 Al 26 25,986900 Sr 88 87,905640
7 7,016005 27 26,981535 89 88,907430
Be 7 7,016931 28 27,981908 90 89,907770
8 8,005308 Si 28 27,976927 Y 90 89,907180
9 9,012186 29 28,976491 Ag 107 106,906970
10 10,013535 30 29,973761 I 127 126,904350
B 10 10,012939 31 30,975349 128 127,905820
11 11,009305 P 30 29,978320 Au 198 197,968240 !
C 11 11,011431 31 30,973763 Tl 204 203,973890
12 12 32 31,973908 Pb 206 205,97446
13 13,003354 S 32 31,972074 207 206,97589
14 14,003242 33 32,971460 208 207,97664
N 13 13,005739 34 33,967864 Bi 209 208,98042
14 14,003074 35 34,969034 210 209,98411
15 15,000108 Cl 35 34,968854 Po 210 209,98287
O 15 15,003072 36 35,968312 Rn 222 222,01753
16 15,994915 37 36,965896 226 226,02536
17 16,999133 Ar 36 35,967548 Th 232 232,03821
18 17,999160 37 36,966772 233 233,04143
F 18 18,000950 39 38,964321 U 234 234,04090
19 18,998405 40 39,962384 235 235,04393
20 19,999985
Ne 20 19,992440 K 39 38,963714 236 236,04573
21 20,993849 42 41,962417 238 238,05076
22 21,991384 Cr 51 50,944786 239 239,05432
Na 22 21,994435 Mn 55 54,938054 Pu 238 238,04952
23 22,989773 Co 58 57,935754 239 239,05216

!")
 3./-.&#(45&+#,-2.(&1*+#+/.,#+#)#"(2.#
Nr. de Energie
G@HI87<@A BA<D7HC 2I8C< 2I8C<>?@ 6J7H ?@><@JAIB
,B789:;- @;@DF<7DC 9A<7:H7D BF<AH7etate m0c2
Q B S s (MeV)
Foton 0 0 0 1 0
(γ)
Pion +1 0 0 0 139,6
,RCI+#

(π) 0 0 0 0 135
Kaon +1 0 +1 0 194
(K) 0 0 +1 0 198
Electron
(e) –1 0 0 1/2 0,511
)RL;I+#

Miuon
(µ) –1 0 0 1/2 105,6
Neutrino
(ν) 0 0 0 1/2 ≠0
Proton
*JA#I+#

! (p) +1 +1 0 1/2 938,3

Neutron
(n) 0 +1 0 1/2 939,6
Lambda
(Λ) 0 +1 –1 1/2 1115,6
Sigma
(Σ) +1 +1 –1 1/2 1189
'#LRAI+#

0 +1 –1 1/2 1192
–1 +1 –1 1/2 1197
Xi
(Ξ) 0 +1 –2 1/2 1315
–1 +1 –2 1/2 1321
Omega
(Ω) –1 +1 –3 3/2 1672

!)%
 Tabelul III

617(#82,-2.(&1*+#,)2&,.#-.#9#"(2(&8#:
Numerele cuantice ale
K78J>8@?7I 1:?>?@ LHF7JA<F7DI;A >>>>>>>>>>>>>AHF7JA<F7DI;@7
?@>M7ANC ?@O7HF= D:<@BJIHOCF:A<@
(s) Q B S s
∞ – γ (coincide cu 0 0 0 1
particula)
2,6 ⋅ 10–8 π+ → µ + + ν π– –1 0 0 0
0,8 ⋅ 10–16 π0 → γ + γ π0 (coincide cu 0 0 0 0
1,2 ⋅ 10–8 K+ →µ+ + ν K– part.) –1 0 –1 0
0,9 ⋅ 10–10 K 0 → π+ + π– K0 0 0 –1 0

∞ – e+ (pozitron) +1 0 0 1/2

2,2 ⋅ 10–6 µ–→e– + ν + ~

ν µ+ +1 0 0 1/2

∞ – ~ν 0 0 0 1/2

∞ – p~ –1 –1 0 1/2
!
917 n → p + e– + ~
ν n~ 0 –1 0 1/2

~
2,6⋅ 10–10 Λ → p + n– Λ 0 –1 +1 1/2
~–
0,8 ⋅ 10–10 Σ+ → p + π0 Σ –1 –1 +1 1/2
~0
5,8 ⋅ 10–20 Σ0 → Λ + γ Σ 0 –1 +1 1/2
~+
1,5 ⋅ 10–10 Σ– → n + π– Σ +1 –1 +1 1/2

2,9 ⋅ 10–10 Ξ → Λ + π0 Ξ0 0 –1 +2 1/2

~+
1,6 ⋅ 10–10 Ξ – → Λ + π– Ξ +1 –1 +2 1/2
~+
0,8 ⋅ 10–10 Ω → Λ + K– + K0 Ω +1 –1 +3 3/2

!)!
 ;<=%>!=>?, !><@A;?, BCB!D?E

Sarcina electronului qe = – 1,6021733·10–19 C

Masa de repaus a electronului me = 9,10938·10–31 kg
6A<D7HA> BJ@D7P7DC> A> @;@DF<:HI;I7> ,MA;:A<@> A9B:;IFC- %Qme = 1,758819·1011 C·kg–1
Masa de repaus a protonului mp = 1,67262·10–27 kg
Masa de repaus a neutronului mn = 1,67492·10–27 kg
RAJ:<FI;> ?7HF<@> 8ABA> J<:F:HI;I7> S7> A> @;@DF<:HI;I7 mp/mn = 1836,1527
Viteza luminii în vid c = 2,99792458·108 m·s–1
2I8C<I;>;I7>LM:TA?<: NA = 6,02136·1023 mol–1
Constanta lui Planck h = 6,626075·10–34 J·s
! Constanta lui Faraday F = 9,64853·104 C·mol–1
Constanta lui Boltzmann k = 1,38065·10–23 J·K–1
Constanta gazelor R = 8,31434 J· K–1·mol–1
Constanta lui Rydberg R∞ = 1,097373·107 m–1
Factori de transformare 1 eV = 1,60210·10–19 J
1 u = 1,66054·10–27 kg
1 uc2 = 931,194 MeV
PrimA> <AOC> U:E< r1 = 5,2973·10–11 m
ÅHTBF<V8I; !> Å> W> !%–10 m
Permitivitatea vidului ε0 = 8,8548·10–12 F·m–1
Permeabilitatea vidului µ0 = 4π·10–7 H·m–1

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[1] Physics, H. C. Ohanian; W. W. Norton & Company, New-York – London, 1985.

[2] An Introduction to Astronomy, Th. T. Army; Ed. Mosby (USA), 1996.
[3] Advanced Level Physics, M. Nelkon, P. Parker; H. E. B. London, 1989.
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[5] Optica, M. Giurgea, L. Nasta; Ed. Academiei Române, 1998.
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