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TEZĂ DE DOCTORAT
STUDIUL INFLUENȚEI RADIAȚIEI LASER
CU NIVEL ENERGETIC SCĂZUT
ASUPRA MECANISMULUI BIOLOGIC
AL REGENERĂRII OSOASE GHIDATE
Conducător Științific
PROF. UNIV. DR. CARMEN TODEA
Timișoara
2020
II
III
CUPRINS
LISTA ABREVIERILOR
INDEXUL FIGURILOR
Fig. 1. Curba Arndt-Schulz. Axa orizontală prezintă creșterea dozei (de la stânga la
dreapta) și indică faptul că biostimularea apare cu doze relativ mai mici în
comparație cu dozele mai mari care provoacă bioinhibiția (adaptare după
191,196) ............................................................................................................................ 32
Fig. 2. Fereastra terapeutică în funcție de lungimea de undă (adaptare după 197) ....................... 34
Fig. 3. Principalele mecanisme de acțiune ale fotobiomodulării (adaptare după 196) ................... 36
Fig. 4. Schema defectului creat la nivelul osului parietal al animalului studiat ............................. 50
Fig. 5. Etapele din cadrul intervenției chirurgicale: reflectarea lamboului (a), realizarea
defectului parietal cu ajutorul frezei burghiu de diametru 5 mm (b), aspectul
circumferinței defectului în timpul îndepărtării capacului osos (c, d, e),
augumentarea defectului cu xenogrefă (f), plasarea membranei de colagen (g),
sutura plăgii în 2 planuri, profund (h) și superficial (i) .................................................... 51
Fig. 6. Aspectul ghidului de plastic realizat intraoperator, cu repere craniene pentru
poziționare corectă a fibrei laser (a), aspect în timpul biomodulării laser (b),
aparatul laser utilizat, IRRADIA Mid-Laser® (c)............................................................. 52
Fig. 7. Aspectul diferilor tipuri de probe recoltate: grup control negativ, cu defect
neaugumentat, lăsat pentru vindecare spontană (A), grup control pozitiv, cu
defect augumentat cu xenogrefă (B), grup de studiu cu defect augumentat și
supus biomodulării laser (C) .......................................................................................... 54
Fig. 8 a-f. Scanarea eșantioanelor cu ajutorul sistemului dezvoltat intern CMS / SS OCT .......... 55
Fig. 9. Schița defectului analizat (A), schița celor 4 cadrane analizate (B), imaginile
obținute cu ajutorul sistemului dezvoltat intern CMS / SS OCT ..................................... 56
Fig. 10. Pragurile de luminozitate stabilite pentru analiză ............................................................ 58
Fig. 11. Vizualizare în 12 imagini pentru o pereche de imagini formate din grupul A și
grupul C. Imaginile grupului A au fost înregistrate după cel mai scurt interval
de timp considerat (14 zile) și imaginile din grupul C au fost înregistrate după
cel mai lung interval de timp considerat (30 de zile). Diferențele dintre un
eșantion cu cel mai mic și cea mai mare cantitate de os nou format este
evidențiată. Se arată perechea de imagini pentru fiecare din cele patru
cadrane (i) - (iv) conform notației din figura 9A. Fiecare imagine OCT en-face
are o suprafață pătrată (în planul xy) de 2,8 × 2,8 mm2. Imaginea este cea a
perechii de 12 imagini pentru cadran (iii). Prima imagine en-face este colectată
la o adâncime z = 0,4 mm, în timp ce distanța dintre imaginile en-face afișate
este de 42,56 µm. Raza axială a celor două imagini cu B-scan este de 1,6
mm. Toate distanțele sunt măsurate în aer ................................................................... 60
Fig.12. Monitorizarea procesului de formare a osului nou pentru cele trei grupuri A, B și
C - după (1) t1 = 14 zile, (2) t2 = 21 zile și (3) t3 = 30 zile. Au fost luate în
XI
considerare cadranul din stânga sus (ii) al fiecărui eșantion (a se vedea Fig. 9
(a)). Fiecare imagine OCT en-face are o suprafață pătrată (în planul xy, a se
vedea Fig. 9) de 2,8 × 2,8 mm2. Prima imagine en-face afișată este colectată
la adâncimea z = 0,4 mm, în timp ce distanța dintre imaginile afișate este de
42,56 µm. Domeniul axial (în profunzimea probei) din imaginile B-scan este de
1,6 mm ........................................................................................................................... 62
Fig. 13. Același studiu ca în Fig. 11, care arată reconstrucțiile 3D-OCT ale cadranului
din stânga sus a probelor pentru fiecare grup, A, B și C după (1) t1 = 14 zile,
(2) t2 = 21 zile și (3) t3 = 30 zile .................................................................................... 63
Fig. 14. Corespondența dintre schema defectului osos prezentată anterior (în fig. 4) și
diferite tipuri de os din interiorul defectului, folosind imagini OCT ................................. 64
Fig. 15. Aspect din timpul prelucrării imaginilor obținute, cu ajutorul software-ului dedicat
dezvoltat in-house.......................................................................................................... 64
Fig. 16. Colaj de imagini en-face care prezintă structura osoasă diferită în imaginile
obținute cu scanări OCT: reprezentarea vindecării osoase pentru grupul de
control negativ A (a) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de zile), pentru grupul de control
pozitiv B (b) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de zile) și pentru grupul experimental C
(c) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de zile). Procentul fiecărui tip de os este indicat pe
fiecare imagine OCT ...................................................................................................... 66
Fig. 17 Valori medii și abateri standard pentru reprezentarea (A) a osului nativ, (B)
xenogrefă (os bovin), (C) țesut osos nou format în grupele studiate,
numerotate de la I la IX, în funcție de timpul de vindecare și de tipul a
tratamentului aplicat:(I)control negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 30 de zile
(defect vindecat spontan); (II)control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 30 de
zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă de os bovin); (III)grupul de studiu C, timp de
vindecare 30 de zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă; s-a aplicat radiație
laser);(IV)control negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 21 de zile (defect
vindecat spontan); (V)control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 21 de zile
(defect umplut cu xenogrefă); (VI)grupul de studiu C, timp de vindecare 21 de
zile (defect completat cu xenogrefă; s-a aplicat radiație laser); (VII)control
negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect vindecat spontan);
(VIII)control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect umplut cu
xenogrefă);(IX)grupul de studiu C, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect umplut cu
xenogrefă; radiație laser aplicată) .................................................................................. 71
Fig. 18 Comparație între cele trei grupuri de studiu privind osul nou format, cu
semnificație din punct de vedere statistic (P <0,05)....................................................... 71
Fig. 19. Colorația tricromă Masson 10 ×, care demonstrează rezultate diferite pentru (A)
grup V (grup pozitiv de control B, timp de vindecare 21 de zile, defect umplut
cu grefă de os bovin) și (B) grupa VI (studiu de grup C, timp de vindecare 21
de zile, defect umplut cu grefă osoasă bovină; s-a aplicat radiație laser).
Câteva elemente celulare inflamatorii, material eozinofilic omogen încrucișat
cu țesut fibros într-o cantitate mică (aproximativ 2:1) și granuloame din
XII
materialul de sutură este prezentat în (A). Lamele osteoide care tind să lege
țesutul osos de materialul eozinofil (care este reprezentat de grefa osoasă
bovină) sunt prezentate în (B), unde unele dintre lamele osoase sunt delimitate
focal de osteoblaste. *, lamele osteoide ........................................................................ 73
Fig. 20(a). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup NC. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE (stânga), mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta),
mărire originală: 10x ...................................................................................................... 76
Fig. 20(b). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup PC. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 20x. Bogat infiltrat inflamator polimorf predominat granulocitar, arii
extinse de necroză fibrinoidă (N), țesut conjunctiv cu benzi subtiri de colagen,
”corp străin” în periferie .................................................................................................. 77
Fig. 20(c). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricroma Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 10x. Țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT) ce înglobează material eozinofil
omogen, prezente celule gigante multinucleate (CGM) și infiltrat inflamator ................. 78
Fig. 21(a). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup NC. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 10x. Bogat țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT), arii de osteoid (Ob),
extravazate hematice..................................................................................................... 79
Fig. 21(b). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup PC. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 10x. Material eozinofil abundent care este disecat de tesut fibros,
prezente celule gigante multinucleate ........................................................................... 80
Fig. 21(c). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 10x. Lamele osteoide care tind să facă legătura între țesutul osos
(OT) și materialul eozinofil, unele lamele osoase sunt delimitate focal de
osteoblaste (Ob) ............................................................................................................ 82
Fig. 22(a). Probele după 30 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire
originală: 10x. Lamele de țesut osos în diferite stadii de maturare cu țesut
conjunctiv fibros (CT) în cantitate scăzută ..................................................................... 83
Fig. 22(b). Probele după 30 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material
eozinofil; CT-țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos.
XIII
Fig. 27. Imagini micro-CT ale defectelor regenerate în eșantion prelevat reprezentativ,
evaluat la 30 de zile postoperator. Periferia defectului nu au fost acoperită cu
xenogrefă, fiind astfel expusă direct radiației laser. O mare cantitate de os nou
format poate fi observată la periferia defectului, așa cum este indicat cu
săgețile galbene. A: reconstrucție 3D; B: secțiune transversală. Țesutul gri
este osul matur; țesutul roșu este osul în curs de remodelare; țesutul alb este
biomaterial .................................................................................................................... 97
Fig. 28. Schema de reprezentare a celor 3 puncte de aplicare a radiației laser: mezial,
distal și apical, în dreptul fiecărui implant dentar inserat ............................................. 102
Fig. 29. Aspect CBCT inițial, cu delimitarea zonelor de interes (a); aspect CBCT post-
chirurgical și după tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, la aprox. 12 luni, în
aceleași arii de interes anterior definite (b) .................................................................. 104
Fig. 30. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel cortical, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an
după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser
(portocaliu) ................................................................................................................... 105
Fig. 31. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an
după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser
(portocaliu) ................................................................................................................... 105
Fig. 32. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an
după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser
(portocaliu) ................................................................................................................... 106
Fig. 33. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an
după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser
(portocaliu) ................................................................................................................... 106
Fig. 34. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel cortical, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală și la aproximativ 1 an după
intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser ................................. 107
Fig. 35. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități
Hounsfield, înainte de intervenția chirurgicală și la aproximativ 1 an după
intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser .................................. 107
Fig. 36. Test Tukey aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, p=3,6% ..................................................................... 108
Fig. 37. Test Tukey aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, p=0% ........................................................................ 109
XV
INDEXUL TABELELOR
Tabel 2. Descriere sumară a tehnologiilor bazate pe raze X, după 108, 183-185 ............................... 28
Tabel 6. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de femei ............................................. 108
Tabel 7. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de bărbați ........................................... 108
Tabel 8. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de femei ............................................. 109
Tabel 9. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de bărbați ........................................... 109
XVI
DEDICAȚIE
MULȚUMIRI
INTRODUCERE
efectul lor asupra reparării osoase care sunt bazate pe dovezi. Efectele
biomodulării, în asociere cu biomateriale în procesele de reparare a defectelor
osoase, au nevoie de studii suplimentare, întrucât s-au constatat răspunsuri
diferite din partea organismului gazdă.
Un al treilea obiectiv și aspect particular al acestei cercetări îl constituie
stimularea colaborării cu centre internaționale specializate în acest domeniu, care
sunt interesate, la rândul lor, să-și aducă contribuțiile în aceste direcții de interes
medical. Se va obține astfel, o permanent informare în acest domeniu de vârf din
medicina dentară și un feed-back pentru rezultatele obținute, publicarea studiilor
multicenter având un rol determinant în implementarea eficientă a acestor metode
de tratament de avangardă. Acest obiectiv are la bază scopul final al activității de
cercetare fundamentală și aplicativă de mare complexitate desfășurată în
colaborare interdisciplinară, și anume acela de a obține o creștere a calității actului
medical, datorită încorporării tehnologiei laser ca și terapie dedicată în cabinetele
de medicină dentară.
În acest sens, metodele de evaluare și tehnologiile incluse în studiu
prezintă specificitate înaltă și aplicabilitate largă în domeniul nostru de interes.
Tomografia computerizată este o tehnică neinvazivă imagistică morfologică ce
poate cuantifica structura internă a unui obiect tridimensional. Aceasta oferă
imagini biologice cu rezoluții izotrope variind de la câțiva milimetri în aparatele
clinice de tomografie computerizată, până la câțiva zeci de micrometri în aparatele
de micro-CT din laboratoarele de cercetare, și în cele din urmă în aparate cu
radiație de tip sincrotron, rezoluția poate să coboare până mai jos de 100 nm. În
prezent, s-au produs multe îmbunătățiri în achiziționarea și analizarea de imagini
de micro-CT pentru structura osoasă trabeculară și a biomaterialelor utilizate în
regenerare osoasă. Utilizarea radiației synchorotron (SR) în relație cu micro-CT, în
locul radiațiilor X convenționale, a adus numeroase avantaje în ceea ce privește
calitatea imaginii și raportul dintre semnal și zgomot. Datorită proprietăților radiației
synchorotron, această metodă ne permite studierea simultană a microstructurii și
a mineralizării osoase, nu doar prin intermediul furnizării de imagini, ci și prin
tehnici de cuantificare și de măsurare a parametrilor ce țin de geometria și
topologia arhitecturii și a structurii osoase10.
Cea de-a doua metodă propusă de analiză a rezultatelor este reprezentată
de tomografia în coerență optică (OCT). Aceasta este o tehnică atractivă, non-
invazivă, prin care se pot obține imagini de rezoluții înalte, bazându-se pe
interferometria în coerență joasă (LCI), prin intermediul căreia se pot obține
secțiuni la scala micrometrică11. Tomografia în coerență optică extinde capacitățile
razelor X, păstrându-și caracterul de metodă neinvazivă, cu aplicabilitate atât în
practica medicinei dentare, cât și în domeniul cercetării științifice. Majoritatea
XXIV
studiilor realizate până în prezent utilizând această tehnologie includ atât imagini
ale structurilor dentare dure normale și patologice, cât și investigații ale calității
diverselor tratamente dentare. În acest sens, s-au evaluat defecte ale materialelor
de obturație, microinfiltrațiile de la nivelul interfeței dinte-obturație dentară,
calitatea adeziunii bracket-ului la țesutul dur dentar, restaurările protetice și
microinfiltrațiile de la nivelul dinte-restaurare protetică12-13. OCT-ul se mai folosește
pentru redarea imaginilor de la nivelul canalelor și a dentinei radiculare, pentru
prezența sau absența microinfiltrațiilor periapicale și pentru evaluarea
osteointegrării implantelor. Această metodă imagistică prezintă o sensibilitate
crescută comparativ cu alte metode de investigare în acest sens, motiv pentru
care este justificată integrarea sa ca parte componentă a prezentei cercetări.
Ambele metode imagistice au fost coroborate cu standardul de aur în ceea
ce privește analiza calitativă a vindecării osoase, examenul histologic al
eșantioanelor studiate.
În cele din urmă, rezultatele studiului experimental au fost completate cu
cele obținute în urma unei analize retrospective a vindecării osoase în cazul
pacienților supuși intervențiilor chirurgicale din sfera orală, care au primit ulterior
tratament prin fotobiomodulare, iar investigațiile computer tomograf cu fascicul
conic mi-au permis analiza modificărilor în densitatea minerală osoasă.
Prezentul studiu a urmărit, așadar, obținerea unei perspective reale asupra
tehnicilor și materialelor de uz curent în practica stomatologică, cu accent pe un
protocol predictibil de utilizare a radiației laser în cadrul proceselor de regenerare
osoasă ghidată, cu beneficii directe în rândul pacienților și al medicilor.
În prima parte a tezei sunt prezentate o serie de noțiuni din literatura de
specialitate, care reprezintă stadiul actual al cunoașterii în domeniul de interes, iar
în partea a doua sunt prezentate pe larg materialele, metodele și rezultatele
obținute prin cercetările personale.
PARTE GENERALĂ
STADIUL ACTUAL AL CUNOAŞTERII
Capitolul 1.
GENERALITĂȚI PRIVIND FIZIOLOGIA OSOASĂ ȘI
TEHNICILE DE REGENERARE OSOASĂ GHIDATĂ
imatur este ulterior înlocuit cu os lamelar matur, iar osul spongios, format din
trabecule distincte, persistă intern și țesutul său vascular devine măduva roșie;
- calcificarea osteoidului, care are rolul de a-l transforma într-un țesut
relativ impermeabil, a cărui nutriție este asigurată în continuare de rețeaua
vasculară internă;
- formarea unei membrane externe cu rol de protecție, a cărei
distrugere poate cauza moarte celulară și pierdere osoasă.
Formarea osoasă de tip intramembranos este mediată de către
structurile mezenchimale scheletogene și este aproape integral controlată prin
factori locali (musculari, de presiune, limbă, nervi) și indirect, prin osificarea
endocondrală. Factorii genetici au o influență redusă, influențând doar
dimensiunile externe osoase și episoadele de creștere.
Setiawati și colab.16 descriu foarte sistematic și mecanismul encondral de
formare osoasă, tipic oaselor lungi, care are la bază formarea inițială a unui țesut
cartilaginos, înconjurat de pericondru și care ulterior se transformă în periost. În
funcție de localizarea mineralizării, aceasta poate fi pericondrală sau encondrală,
ambele fiind întâlnite în formarea oaselor lungi, însă numai osificarea encondrală dă
naștere oaselor scurte. Etapele de formare sunt următoarele:
- Gruparea celulelor mezenchimale sub forma șablonului viitorul os;
- Diferențierea celulelor mezenchimale în condrocite;
- Hipertrofierea condrocitelor și formarea matricei cartilaginoase cu
zonă centrală calcificată;
- Formarea vaselor sanguine, care asigură nutriția pericondrului și
stimulează celulele osteoprogenitoare de la acest nivel să producă
osteoblaste, care vor transforma pericondrul în periost și vor iniția
formarea centrelor de osificare;
- Continuă dezvoltatea periostului și divizia celulară, ceea ce asigură
creșterea producției matricei osoase; membrana pericondrului
dezvoltă noi condroblaști, care asigură creșterea apozițională, iar
celulele centrale determină calcificarea.
osoasă care are loc în cazul unui defect existent. Acest proces complex
implică interacțiunea dintre celule, factori de creștere și matrice extracelulară și
constă în faze multiple și bine organizate, care încep imediat după ce defectul
a luat naștere, debutând cu răspunsul inflamator local, care este urmat de
mobilizarea celulelor hematopietice și stem mezenchimale, care vor forma o
nouă rețea vasculară, urmată de o matrice de țesut moale și, în final, vor
induce formarea de os nou17-20(tabel 1). Biologia țesutului osos ne indică o
structură histologică dinamică, adaptată la procesele metabolice locale, prin
intermediul celulelor osoase implicate în procesele de resorbție și de
neoformare. S-a arătat faptul că activitatea osteocitelor și cea a osteoclastelor
durează de la câteva zile la câteva săptămâni, timp în care la nivelul lacunelor
celulare apar osteoclastele cu rol de resorbție a țesuturilor inactive, formând o
suprafață la nivelul căreia vor acționa osteoblastele, prin formarea de lamele
concentrice de os compact imatur, respectiv lamele rectilinii de os spongios,
care se vor mineraliza dupa 1-2 zile4,21. Toate cele 4 componente majore ale
unei plăgi osoase, incluzând osul cortical, osul medular, periostul și țesutul
moale învecinat contribuie la procesul de vindecare osoasă în maniere diferite,
care depind de parametri precum factorii de creștere, hormonii și nutrienții, pH,
stabilitatea mecanică etc22.
Din punct de vedere cronologic, procesul de vindecare osoasă
parcurge câteva etape a căror cunoaștere este de o importanță majoră17:
- Imediat după trauma osoasă, prejudiciul adus rețelei vasculare locale
este responsabil de formarea unui cheag de sânge sau a unui
hematom, care va avea în componența sa trombocite, leucocite,
macrofage, fibrină, factori de creștere și citokine, care vor forma o
matrice ce permite migrarea celulelor inflamatorii, a celulelor
endoteliale și a fibroblaștilor.
- Prima etapă în vindecarea fracturilor osoase este reprezentată de faza
inflamatorie, care debutează în primele 12-24h, are punctul culminant la
24h și durează aproximativ 7 zile. Această etapă este caracterizată de o
fază destructivă, cu răspuns local marcat inflamator și hipoxie, de care
sunt responsabile primele celule ajunse la nivelul plăgii, neutrofilele,
urmate fiind de macrofage și limfocite. Rolul macrofagelor este acela de a
fagocita țesuturile necrotice și de a elibera factori de creștere și citokine,
care vor iniția procesul de vindecare osoasă23. Factorii de creștere
implicați în acest proces sunt: factorul de creștere TGF-β, factorul de
creștere vascular endotelial VEGF, factorul de creștere derivat din
trombocite PDGF, interleukinele 1 și 6 (IL-1, IL-6), factorul de necroză
tumorală TNF-α, proteinele morfogenetice osoase BMP, factorul de
5
trabecular și cortical are nevoie de rezoluții de 0,1 mm sau mai puțin 130, ceea
ce face ca MSCT să fie promițător pentru moment, dar nu este ideal131,132. Un
dezavantaj al MSCT este doza de radiație mult mai mare în comparație cu
DEXA.
10 μm sau chiar 1 μm108, metoda fiind utilizată atât în imagistică medicală, cât
și în scopuri industriale. Deschiderea rotundă, din interior, între sursa de raze
X și detector, este mică, cu diametrul de aproximativ 50-80 mm, permițând
imagini in vivo numai pentru animale mici. Timpul imagistic este considerabil
lung, deseori ore, iar doza de radiație mare147. Micro-CT și-a dovedit
aplicabilitatea extrem de importantă în imagistica probelor de țesut în
proiectele de cercetare, fiind considerat standardul de aur pentru imagistica
microarhitecturii osoase148, însă nu este la fel de potrivit pentru imagistica
medicală a pacienților, datorită particularităților tehnice descrise anterior.
În prezent, s-au produs multe îmbunătățiri în achiziționarea și
analizarea de imagini de micro-CT pentru structura osoasă trabeculară și a
biomaterialelor utilizate în regenerare osoasă. Micro-tomografia computerizata
a fost efectuată pentru a observa regenerarea osoasă la nivelul tuturor sit-
usurilor defectului. Folosind un program de calculator pentru a converti imagini
de micro-CT în imagini de formă tridimensională, poate fi observat și analizat
întreg osul regenerat la nivelul defectelor create anterior10. Deși nu poate
furniza toate datele din cadrul unei analize histologice, micro-CT are un avantaj
substanțial în determinarea caracteristicilor structurale și a parametrilor de
creștere osoasă în cele trei dimensiuni10,149.
Utilizarea radiației synchorotron (SR) în relație cu micro-CT, în locul
radiațiilor X convenționale, a adus numeroase avantaje în ceea ce privește
calitatea imaginii și raportul dintre semnal și zgomot. Datorită proprietăților radiației
synchorotron, această metodă ne permite studierea simultană a microstructurii și
a mineralizării osoase, nu doar prin intermediul furnizării de imagini, ci și prin
tehnici de cuantificare și de măsurare a parametrilor ce țin de geometria și
topologia arhitecturii și a structurii osoase10. Prima utilizare a synchorotron micro-
CT a fost in direcția evaluării eficienței unui tratament medicamentos folosit în
cazul bolnavilor de osteoporoză, care au fost supuși biopsiei înainte de tratament
și la unul sau doi ani după tratament. Rezultatul studiului a arătat o creștere a
mineralizării sub tratament, fără modificarea semnificativă a micro-arhitecturii
osoase, ceea ce a fost în concordanță cu rezultatele așteptate prin utilizarea
bifosfonaților în tratamentul bolnavilor de osteoporoză150. Dezvoltarea diferitelor
modele animale în vederea cercetărilor, în special a șoarecilor, a conturat o nouă
arie de utilizare cu succes a SR micro-CT, întrucât această tehnologie poate
furniza imagini de o înaltă rezoluție.
Numeroase studii149,151 au arătat că micro-CT este un instrument util
pentru a obține imagini tridimensionale de înaltă rezoluție în vederea evaluării
vindecării osoase, a interfeței cu materialul și a biocompatibilității substituentelor
osoase. Imaginile obținute pot fi utilizate pentru analiza morfometrică neinvazivă
26
între țesuturi. Unele studii sugerează că aceste valori ale nuanțelor de gri
măsurate pe tomografia computerizată cu fascicul de con CBCT pot fi
fiabile171,177, dar valorile diferă între dispozitive, precum și în funcție de plasarea
obiectului în imaginea FOV178-182.
Capitolul 2.
MECANISMUL, ROLUL ȘI BENEFICIILE
FOTOBIOMODULĂRII ÎN CADRUL PROCEDURILOR
DE AUGUMENTARE ȘI REGENERARE OSOASĂ
Fig. 1. Curba Arndt-Schulz. Axa orizontală prezintă creșterea dozei (de la stânga la dreapta) și
indică faptul că biostimularea apare cu doze relativ mai mici în comparație cu dozele mai mari care
provoacă bioinhibiția (adaptare după 191,196)
Karu203 a propus încă din anul 1988, una dintre cele mai acceptate teorii
cu privire la interacțiunea dintre radiația laser și celulă, aceasta bazându-se pe
mecanismul de semnalizare mitocondrială retrogradă care are loc sub influența
luminii laser din spectrul vizibil și din cel infraroșu: primul pas este reprezentat
de absorbția unui foton cu energie hv de către cromoforul Cox, urmat de
creșterea potențialului de membrană mitocondrial, creșterea sintezei de ATP și
modificări în concentrațiile speciilor reactive de oxigen, Ca2+ și NO. Apare, de
asemenea, o comunicare între mitocondrie și nucleu, datorită modificărilor de
ultrastructură mitocondrială. Aceste modificări determină și schimbări ale
sintezei ATP, ale potentialului redox intracelular, ale ph-ului și ale nivelului de
adenozin monofosfat ciclic (cAMP)190.
S-a propus, de asemenea, ipoteza efectelor biologice ale
fotobiomodulării asupra canalelor de ioni, întrucât s-a observat eficiența unor
lungimi de undă mult mai mari decât cele absorbite de CCO, precum și un
influx rapid de calciu la nivelul celulelor expuse fotobiomodulării și capacitatea
acesteia de a reduce durerea, care nu pot fi explicate prin fenomenul de
suprastimulare mitocondrială7. Studiile recente au demonstrat existența unui
grup mare de canale de ioni numite canale de potențial tranzitor al receptorilor
(TRP), în componența cărora intră 6 subgrupuri, între care și TRPV (V-
vaniloid). Aceștia din urmă sunt implicați în numeroase funcții fiziologice,
precum intermedierea văzului la insecte (deci sensibilitatea pentru lumină),
fiind sensibil la căldură, presiune și o gamă de produse naturale și liganzi
37
datorată efectelor mitocondriale este modificată, sub forma unui stress celular,
cu răspuns în reglarea supraviețuirii celulare și în regenerarea țesuturilor.
Aceste efecte pe termen lung se traduc clinic în vindecarea rănilor, reducerea
inflamației, regenerarea țesuturilor degradate, stimularea și mobilizarea
celulelor stem etc7. Rolul fotobiomodulării în cadrul proceselor de vindecare,
reparare și regenerare osoasă au avut la bază studiile anterioare, care au
demonstrat faptul că fibroblaștii iradiați prin fotobiomodulare au produs o
cantitate mai mare de colagen. Pe același raționament, s-a mers mai departe,
considerându-se că osteoblaștii iradiați cu laser vor fi stimulați în vederea
formării matricei osteoide. Indiferent de factorul care a cauzat defectul osos,
procesele de reparare de la acest nivel urmează aceeași succesiune de etape,
descrise detaliat anterior, în subcapitolul 1.1.3. De asemenea, s-a observat că
procesele care apar în vindecarea țesuturilor moi, au loc și la acest nivel:
inflamație, fibroplazie, remodelare. Spre deosebire de procesele de vindecare
a țesuturilor moi, la nivel osos, odontoblaștii și osteoclastele acționează prin
reconstrucția și remodelarea țesutului osos lezat. Formarea de os depinde de
două condiții preexistente: vascularizația zonei și suportul mecanic, la nivelul
căruia se va depune matricea osteoidă, care se va mineraliza ulterior. Prima
fază în formarea osoasă este rapidă, însă constă în organizarea unui țesut
bogat celularizat, cu mineralizare slabă, având fibre orientate aleatoriu și
rezistență scăzută. Ulterior, acesta va fi înlocuit de osul lamelar matur, capabil
să suporte presiuni mecanice de tipul celor existente în implantologie. Studiile
experimentale au indicat efectul laserului la acest nivel, prin creșterea fibrelor
de colagen, obținerea unui aranjament lamelar mai compact și cu o mai bună
vascularizație. Microcirculația este de asemenea îmbunătățită, ceea ce asigură
un transport mai bun al oxigenului, al nutrienților și al factorilor de creștere,
toate cu beneficii în cadrul proceselor de reparație. Din punct de vedere clinic,
aceste procese se traduc printr-un depozit osos matur, cantitativ și calitativ
superior201, care să asigure necesitățile restaurărilor protetice pe implante.
Renno8 și Stein9 au arătat o creștere semnificativă în proliferarea
osteoblastelor după iradierea cu energie laser de la o diodă de 830 nm la 20
J/cm2. În plus, laserul pare să accelereze procesul de reparare a fracturilor și
produce o creștere a volumului calusului format și o creștere a densității
minerale osoase. Efectele legate de utilizarea fotobiomodulării includ
vascularizație crescută, creșterea activității osteoblastice, organizarea de fibre
de colagen și schimbări în nivelul mitocondrial și intracelular de adenozin
trifosfat. Este o metodă neinvazivă de a stimula osteogeneza și de a accelera
vindecarea defectelor osoase209-213.
41
PARTE SPECIALĂ
CONTRIBUȚII PERSONALE
Capitolul 3.
DATE PRELIMINARE NECESARE REALIZĂRII
CERCETĂRII PERSONALE ȘI STABILIREA
MODELULUI EXPERIMENTAL
La șoareci, regiunea calvariei este cel mai frecvent sit utilizat221, deși
poate răspunde diferit față de oasele maxilare sau mandibulare, deoarece
deține aspecte anatomice distincte, are o vascularizație abundentă și comportă
riscul mortalității animale secundară leziunilor cerebrale intraoperatorii. Pe de
altă parte, defectele mandibulei sunt create frecvent în regiunea ramului, o
structură foarte subțire, care îngreunează crearea unui defect de grosime
monocorticală, caracteristică fundamentală pentru menținerea substanței
testate în contact și sprijinită exclusiv de țesutul dur222-224. Femurul șobolanilor
Wistar este de asemenea posibil să fie utilizat225, dar centrul său este
preponderent medular și, dacă se intenționează aplicarea biomaterialului în
mandibula umană, acest tip de model de studiu trebuie descurajat. Rata
metabolică a șobolanului Wistar trebuie, de asemenea, luată în considerare; cu
cât animalul este mai mic, cu atât rata metabolică este mai mare în comparație
cu cea a unui om: 30 de zile de viață ale omului corespund unei zile de viață a
șoarecelui226. Rata metabolică crescută a acestui model animal presupune o
perioadă de observare mai scurtă pentru obținerea eșantionării datelor.
Perioade lungi de observații ar putea arăta atât grupuri de testare, cât și de
control, cu defectele avansate / vindecate complet, fără a evidenția potențialul
benefic real al unui biomaterial222,227.
Având toate aceste cunoștințe referitoare la posibilitățile alegerii
modelului animal228, în prima fază a cercetării, s-a decis utilizarea șobolanului
de laborator, rasa Wistar. Șobolanul de laborator Wistar este o rasă outbread,
fiind cea mai utilizată în cercetarea pe animale, în diverse modele
experimentale pentru: domenii chirugicale, testări de siguranță și eficacitate,
nutriție, obezitate indusă prin dietă, oncologie. Înainte de ȋnceperea unui
experiment care necesitǎ anestezia unui șobolan de laborator sunt o serie de
factori care trebuie luați ȋn considerare. Animalele noi venite ȋn biobazǎ trebuie
aclimatizate pentru aproximativ 3 zile ȋnainte de a fi utilizate în cadrul
modelelor experimentale. Vȃrsta animalelor și greutatea lor trebuie, de
asemenea, luate ȋn considerare. Am stabilit ca regiunea supusă cercetării să
fie calvaria (osul parietal), datorită avantajelor expuse anterior, iar dimensiunea
defectului critic a fost stabilită la 5 mm.
48
Tip Perioada de
Nr proba Tratament efectuat
proba vindecare
Control Defect creat și lăsat să se vindece spontan, timp de
1.1, 1.2
negativ 30 zile
Control Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, timp de vindecare
2.1, 2.2, 2.3 30 zile
pozitiv 30 zile
Tratament Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, căruia i s-a aplicat
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
laser tratament laser pe parcursul celor 30 zile
Control Defect creat și lăsat să se vindece spontan, timp de
4.1, 4.2
negativ 21 zile
Control Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, timp de vindecare
5.1, 5.2, 5.3 21 zile
pozitiv 21 zile
Tratament Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, căruia i s-a aplicat
6.1, 6.2, 6.3
laser tratament laser pe parcursul celor 21 zile
Control Defect creat și lăsat să se vindece spontan, timp de
7.1, 7.2
negativ 14 zile
Control Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, timp de vindecare
8.1, 8.2, 8.3 14 zile
pozitiv 14 zile
Tratament Defect creat și umplut cu biomateriale, căruia i s-a aplicat
9.1, 9.2, 9.3
laser tratament laser pe parcursul celor 14 zile
Fig. 5. Etapele din cadrul intervenției chirurgicale: reflectarea lamboului (a), realizarea defectului
parietal cu ajutorul frezei burghiu de diametru 5 mm (b), aspectul circumferinței defectului în
timpul îndepărtării capacului osos (c, d, e), augumentarea defectului cu xenogrefă (f), plasarea
membranei de colagen (g), sutura plăgii în 2 planuri, profund (h) și superficial (i)
Fig. 6. Aspectul ghidului de plastic realizat intraoperator, cu repere craniene pentru poziționare
corectă a fibrei laser (a), aspect în timpul biomodulării laser (b), aparatul laser utilizat, IRRADIA
Mid-Laser® (c)
53
Fig. 7. Aspectul diferilor tipuri de probe recoltate: grup control negativ, cu defect neaugumentat,
lăsat pentru vindecare spontană (A), grup control pozitiv, cu defect augumentat cu xenogrefă (B),
grup de studiu cu defect augumentat și supus biomodulării laser (C)
55
Capitolul 4.
STUDIUL EȘANTIOANELOR PRELEVATE CU
AJUTORUL MASTER SLAVE OCT
(e) (f)
Fig. 8 a-f. Scanarea eșantioanelor cu ajutorul sistemului dezvoltat intern CMS / SS OCT
56
(upper part)
Xenogrefă
(alb)
Os nou (ii) (i)
format □5.6
(gri)
(iii) (iv)
(A)
Φ5
12
yz B-scan
2.8
(B) y
x
xz B-scan
z
2.8
Imagine confocală (xy) (C)
Fig. 9. Schița defectului analizat (A), schița celor 4 cadrane analizate (B), imaginile obținute cu
ajutorul sistemului dezvoltat intern CMS / SS OCT
57
4.3. REZULTATE
Deși în timp real sunt afișate pe ecran doar nouă imagini en-face, 600
de astfel de imagini pe un interval axial de 1,6 mm sunt produse de software-ul
CMS pentru reconstrucția 3D / volumetrică a probei, așa cum se arată în
exemplele din figura 11, pentru toate cele patru cadrane marcate în figura 9A.
Astfel, figura 11 arată cele 12 imagini din grupul de control negativ (Grupul A), la cel
59
mai scurt interval de timp considerat (adică 14 zile), respectiv cele 12 imagini
pentru defectele tratate cu xenogrefă și biomodulare laser (Grupul C), după cel
mai lung interval considerat, 30 de zile, pentru a se evidenția diferențele dintre o
probă cu cea mai mică și respectiv cea mai mare cantitate de os nou format.
Contrastul dintre cantitățile de os nou formate în aceste două situații extreme
poate fi observat clar atunci când se compară cele două seturi de imagini.
Formarea de țesut osos nou, slab sau în curs de mineralizare, este comparată
între cele trei grupuri, efectuate în trei momente ale timpului: (I) t1 = 14 zile, (II) t2
= 21 zile și (III) t3 = 30 zile (figura 12). Astfel, rezultă afișarea cu 12 imagini
obținută de pe suprafața de 2,8 × 2,8 mm2 a unui cadran - pentru fiecare dintre
probele luate în considerare. Pentru claritate, este prezentat un singur eșantion
pentru fiecare grup și în fiecare moment ti, i = 1,2,3.
60
Fig.11. Vizualizare în 12 imagini pentru o pereche de imagini formate din grupul A și grupul C.
Imaginile grupului A au fost înregistrate după cel mai scurt interval de timp considerat (14 zile) și
imaginile din grupul C au fost înregistrate după cel mai lung interval de timp considerat (30 de
zile). Diferențele dintre un eșantion cu cel mai mic și cea mai mare cantitate de os nou format este
evidențiată. Se arată perechea de imagini pentru fiecare din cele patru cadrane (i) - (iv) conform
notației din figura 9A. Fiecare imagine OCT en-face are o suprafață pătrată (în planul xy) de 2,8 ×
2,8 mm2. Imaginea este cea a perechii de 12 imagini pentru cadran (iii). Prima imagine en-face este
colectată la o adâncime z = 0,4 mm, în timp ce distanța dintre imaginile en-face afișate este de
42,56 µm. Raza axială a celor două imagini cu B-scan este de 1,6 mm. Toate distanțele sunt
măsurate în aer.
61
Grup A
Grup B
Grup C
Fig.12. Monitorizarea procesului de formare a osului nou pentru cele trei grupuri A, B și C - după
(1) t1 = 14 zile, (2) t2 = 21 zile și (3) t3 = 30 zile. Au fost luate în considerare cadranul din stânga sus
(ii) al fiecărui eșantion (a se vedea fig. 9 (a)). Fiecare imagine OCT en-face are o suprafață pătrată
(în planul xy, a se vedea fig. 9) de 2,8 × 2,8 mm2. Prima imagine en-face afișată este colectată la
adâncimea z = 0,4 mm, în timp ce distanța dintre imaginile afișate este de 42,56 µm. Domeniul axial
(în profunzimea probei) din imaginile B-scan este de 1,6 mm.
63
Grup A
Grup B
Grup C
Fig. 14. Corespondența dintre schema defectului osos prezentată anterior (în fig. 4) și diferite tipuri
de os din interiorul defectului, folosind imagini OCT.
Fig. 15. Aspect din timpul prelucrării imaginilor obținute, cu ajutorul software-ului dedicat
dezvoltat in-house
65
Acest tip de țesut osos nou - care este ținta întregului studiu - apare pe
toată perioada celor 30 de zile. Cu toate acestea, atunci când este doar format,
este mai închis (adică mai puțin mineralizat), în timp ce cu trecerea timpului
devine mai luminos - cu cât este din ce în ce mai mineralizat. Prin urmare
trebuie definit un interval de luminozitate (Mmin, Mmax), cu două praguri (Figura
10): limita inferioară Mmin corespunde țesutului osos nou format după 14 zile
(adică t1, cel mai scurt timp considerat), în timp ce limita superioară Mmax
corespunde țesutului osos format după 30 de zile (adică t3, cel mai lung
interval de timp) - iar acest ultim tip are luminozitatea mai mică decât osul nativ
și, de asemenea, decât xenogrefa adăugată în defecte. Folosind pragurile
indicate în figura 10 și programul dezvoltat, fiecare dintre cele N imagini OCT
în față obținute este analizată și produce zona Aj, j = 1 ... N a osului nou
format. Deoarece fiecare imagine en-face are o grosime h ~ 5 μm în probă,
volumul osului nou format poate fi estimat ca:
N
V h Aj
j 1
Fig. 16. Colaj de imagini en-face care prezintă structura osoasă diferită în imaginile obținute cu scanări
OCT: reprezentarea vindecării osoase pentru grupul de control negativ A (a) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de
zile), pentru grupul de control pozitiv B (b) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de zile) și pentru grupul experimental C
(c) (la 14 zile, 21 de zile, 30 de zile). Procentul fiecărui tip de os este indicat pe fiecare imagine OCT.
67
4.4. DISCUȚII
imaginile luate în considerare sunt prezente toate cele trei tipuri de os:
nativ, artificial și os nou format (mai puțin mineralizat). Acest lucru
poate fi observat și din figura 12, dar numai analiza din figura 16
evidențiază diferitele tipuri de os, după utilizarea programului dezvoltat.
Fig. 17 Valori medii și abateri standard pentru reprezentarea (A) a osului nativ, (B) xenogrefă (os
bovin), (C) țesut osos nou format în grupele studiate, numerotate de la I la IX, în funcție de timpul
de vindecare și de tipul a tratamentului aplicat:
(I) control negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 30 de zile (defect vindecat spontan);
(II) control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 30 de zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă de os bovin);
(III) grupul de studiu C, timp de vindecare 30 de zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă; s-a aplicat radiație laser);
(IV) control negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 21 de zile (defect vindecat spontan);
(V) control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 21 de zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă);
(VI) grupul de studiu C, timp de vindecare 21 de zile (defect completat cu xenogrefă; s-a aplicat radiație laser);
(VII) control negativ Grupul A, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect vindecat spontan);
(VIII) control pozitiv Grupul B, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă);
(IX) grupul de studiu C, timp de vindecare 14 zile (defect umplut cu xenogrefă; radiație laser aplicată).
Fig. 18 Comparație între cele trei grupuri de studiu privind osul nou format, cu semnificație din
punct de vedere statistic (P <0,05).
72
B
Fig. 19. Colorația tricromă Masson 10 ×, care demonstrează rezultate diferite pentru (A) grup V
(grup pozitiv de control B, timp de vindecare 21 de zile, defect umplut cu grefă de os bovin) și (B)
grupa VI (studiu de grup C, timp de vindecare 21 de zile, defect umplut cu grefă osoasă bovină; s-a
aplicat radiație laser). Câteva elemente celulare inflamatorii, material eozinofilic omogen încrucișat
cu țesut fibros într-o cantitate mică (aproximativ 2:1) și granuloame din materialul de sutură este
prezentat în (A). Lamele osteoide care tind să lege țesutul osos de materialul eozinofil (care este
reprezentat de grefa osoasă bovină) sunt prezentate în (B), unde unele dintre lamele osoase sunt
delimitate focal de osteoblaste. *, lamele osteoide.
74
4.5. CONCLUZII
Capitolul 5.
STUDIUL HISTOLOGIC AL EȘANTIOANELOR
PRELEVATE
spontane (grup NC, Fig. 20a). Celelalte două grupuri (PC și + LLLT, Fig. 20b
și, respectiv, Fig. 20c) au arătat un material eozinofil omogen, un „corp străin”
cu formare de granulom focal. Fragmentele grupului +LLLT au evidențiat țesut
conjunctiv fibros (tânăr) bine reprezentat și infiltrat inflamator scăzut,
comparativ cu restul grupelor.
Fig. 20(a). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup NC. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-țesut
conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE (stânga), mărire originală:
10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x
77
Fig. 20(b). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup PC. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-țesut
conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x,
Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 20x. Bogat infiltrat inflamator polimorf predominat
granulocitar, arii extinse de necroză fibrinoidă (N), țesut conjunctiv cu benzi subtiri de colagen,
”corp străin” în periferie.
78
Fig. 20(c). Probele după 14 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-
țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală:
10x, Tricroma Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT) ce înglobează
material eozinofil omogen, prezente celule gigante multinucleate (CGM) și infiltrat inflamator.
79
Fig. 21(a). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup NC. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-țesut
conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x,
Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Bogat țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT), arii de
osteoid (Ob), extravazate hematice
80
Fig. 21(b). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup PC. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-țesut
conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală: 10x,
Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Material eozinofil abundent care este disecat de
tesut fibros, prezente celule gigante multinucleate.
81
82
Fig. 21(c). Probele după 21 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-
țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală:
10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Lamele osteoide care tind să facă legătura
între țesutul osos (OT) și materialul eozinofil, unele lamele osoase sunt delimitate focal de
osteoblaste (Ob).
Fig. 22(a). Probele după 30 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-
țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală:
10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Lamele de țesut osos în diferite stadii de
maturare cu țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT) în cantitate scăzută
84
Fig. 22(b). Probele după 30 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-
țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală:
10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 4x. Țesut conjunctiv fibros (CT) ce înglobează
țesut osos (OT) nou format și material eozinofil. Lamele de țesut osos tapetate de osteoblaste,
bogat infiltrat inflamator polimorf cu celule gigante multinucleate (CGM) dispus difuz.
85
Fig. 22(c). Probele după 30 zile de vindecare: grup +LLLT. N- necroză; EM-material eozinofil; CT-
țesut conjunctiv; G-granuloame; Ob-osteoblaste; OT-țesut osos. Colorare HE, mărire originală:
10x, Tricromă Masson (dreapta), mărire originală: 10x. Țesutul conjunctiv fibros(CT) înglobează
materialul omogen eozinofil, se identifică fragment de tesut osos (OT), bogat infiltrat inflamator
dispus difuz, celule gigante multinucleate.
86
Capitolul 6.
STUDIUL EȘANTIOANELOR PRELEVATE CU
AJUTORUL MICROTOMOGRAFIEI SYNCHROTRON
Fig. 23. Fixarea eșantionului în ceară tip Kerr (a) și scanarea cu ajutorul Microtomografiei
Synchrotron (B)
88
6.3. REZULTATE
Fig. 24. Imagini micro-CT ale defectelor în stadii diferite de vindecare, în eșantioane prelevate
reprezentativ. (a-f) Grupa I: probe recoltate după 14 zile: (a-c) Reconstituiri 3D: (a) control negativ (NC);
(b) control pozitiv (PC); (c) tratat cu LLLT; (d-f) secțiuni transversale ale defectului: (d) NC; (e) PC; (f)
tratat cu LLLT. (g-l) Grupa II: probe recoltate după 21 de zile: (g-i) Reconstituiri 3D: (g) NC; (h) PC; (i)
tratat cu LLLT; (j-l) secțiuni transversale ale defectului: (j) NC; (k) PC; (l) tratat cu LLLT. (m-r) Grupul III:
probe recoltate după 30 de zile: (m-o) Reconstrucții 3D: (m) NC; (n) control PC; (o) tratat cu LLLT; (p-r)
secțiuni transversale ale defectului: (p) NC; (q) PC; (r) tratat cu LLLT. În reconstrucțiile 3D țesutul cenușiu
este osul matur; țesutul roșu este osul în curs de remodelare; țesutul alb este biomaterialul adăugat;
săgețile galbene indică osul nou format, la periferia defectelor. În secțiunile transversale ale defectului:
țesutul alb este biomaterial; culorile reprezintă mineralizarea osului proporțional cu harta din partea de jos
(albastru înseamnă densitate de masă scăzută; roșu înseamnă densitate de masă mare).
92
Fig. 25. Analiza morfometrică cantitativă. (a-c) Procentele medii de volum (vol.%) ale diferitelor
faze mineralizate (osul în curs de remodelare, osul matur și biomaterial) raportat la volumul total
mineralizat: (a) grup NC; (b) grup PC; (c) + grup LLLT. (d-f) Analiza volumetrică cantitativă a
țesutului osos în fază de remodelare, după (d) 14 zile, (e) 21 de zile și (f) 30 de zile de la operație.
Barele de eroare sunt indicate.
Fig. 26. Studiul distribuției densității de masă relativă (MDDr). (a) Fragment din histograma unei
probe: vârful din stânga se referă la osul mineralizat total, vârful din dreapta se referă la
biomaterialul (xenogrefă) utilizat pentru umplerea defectului; (b) studiul osului mineralizat: sunt
indicați parametrii investigați cu abordarea Roschger247. Pragul de p = 0.005 a fost selectat, ca un
bun compromis de a menține o sensibilitate bună și de a reduce în același timp potențiale
artefacte datorate efectelor parțiale de volum în evaluarea MDDrlow; (c) parametrii care derivă din
profil sunt indicați.
95
6.4. DISCUȚII
Fig. 27. Imagini micro-CT ale defectelor regenerate în eșantion prelevat reprezentativ, evaluat la 30
de zile postoperator. Periferia defectului nu au fost acoperită cu xenogrefă, fiind astfel expusă
direct radiației laser. O mare cantitate de os nou format poate fi observată la periferia defectului,
așa cum este indicat cu săgețile galbene. A: reconstrucție 3D; B: secțiune transversală. Țesutul gri
este osul matur; țesutul roșu este osul în curs de remodelare; țesutul alb este biomaterial .
6.5. CONCLUZII
Capitolul 7.
STUDIUL RETROSPECTIV AL TOMOGRAFIEI
COMPUTERIZATE CU FASCICUL CONIC ÎN CAZUL
PACIENȚILOR CARE AU URMAT TRATAMENT DE
FOTOBIOMODULARE
Fig. 28. Schema de reprezentare a celor 3 puncte de aplicare a radiației laser: mezial, distal și
apical, în dreptul fiecărui implant dentar inserat
Fig. 29. Aspect CBCT inițial, cu delimitarea zonelor de interes (a); aspect CBCT post-chirurgical și
după tratamentul de fotobiomodulare, la aprox. 12 luni, în aceleași arii de interes anterior definite
(b)
7.3. REZULTATE
Fig. 30. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel cortical, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an după intervenția chirurgicală și
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser (portocaliu)
Fig. 31. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an după intervenția chirurgicală și
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser (portocaliu)
Fig. 32. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an dupa intervenția chirurgicală și
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser (portocaliu)
Fig. 33. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală (albastru) și la aproximativ 1 an după intervenția chirurgicală și
tratamentul de fotobiomodulare laser (portocaliu)
107
Fig. 34. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel cortical, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală și la aproximativ 1 an după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare laser
Fig. 35. Densitatea minerală osoasă medie, măsurată la nivel medular, în unități Hounsfield, înainte
de intervenția chirurgicală și la aproximativ 1 an după intervenția chirurgicală și tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare laser
108
Tabel 6. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de femei
Tabel 7. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de bărbați
Boxplot of Mas_C
1600
1400
1200
1000
Mas_C
800
600
400
200
0
După PBM_c Înainte PBM_c
Gr_C
Fig. 36. Test Tukey aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel cortical, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, p=3,6%
109
Tabel 8. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de femei
Tabel 9. Test Anova aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, pentru grupul de bărbați
Diferenţa Media erorii
P
mediilor standard
Grup 4 – M – medular
284.5 70.0 1.5610-4 < 0.05
Boxplot of Mas_M
1500
1000
Mas_M
500
Fig. 37. Test Tukey aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, p=0%
110
Boxplot of Mas_MixtFMm
1500
1000
Mas_MixtFMm
500
Fig. 38. Test Tukey aplicat indicilor HU măsurați la nivel medular, înainte și după tratamentul de
fotobiomodulare, atât în cazul grupului de pacienți de sex feminin, cât și în cel de sex masculin
7.4. DISCUȚII
derivată din valorile de gri ale CBCT pentru mandibulă și nu au găsit nicio
corelație. Cu toate acestea, aceste studii selectate au folosit diferite
dispozitive CBCT și diferite dimensiuni ale voxelilor, fapt care ne conduce
spre ipoteza deja cunoscută, conform căreia măsurătorile osoase
trabeculare și, în consecință, calitatea imaginii, sunt afectate de parametrii
tehnici, precum dimensiunea Voxel, unitatea în sine, tensiunea și amperajul
tubului și selecția FOV 286. Un studiu similar 152, dar vizând o altă patologie cu
implicații la nivelul țesutului osos, a utilizat CBCT pentru a determina
densitatea osoasă în cazul pacienților cu displazie ectodermală. Aceștia au
considerat ca scală de evaluare unitățile Hounsfield. Studiul raportează
diferențe semnificative din punct de vedere statistic între densitățile osoase
măsurate cu ajutorul unităților Hounsfield în cazul pacienților cu displazie
ectodermală, comparativ cu grupul de control, considerând CBCT un
instrument adecvat pentru aprecierea densității osoase, în vederea realizării
unui plan de tratament adecvat.
În studiul prezentat în această teză, rezultatele obținute confirmă
aceeași ipoteză, demonstrând faptul că CBCT este un instrument util și
adecvat în vederea măsurării densității minerale osoase la nivelul oaselor
maxilare. Mai mult decât atât, în ceea ce privește capacitatea de a detecta
diferențe semnificative din punct de vedere statistic, în cazul pacienților
care au urmat tratament de fotobiomodulare laser după intervențiile
chirurgicale din sfera orală, s-a dovedit că terapia laser a crescut densitatea
osoasă, atât la nivelul osului cortical vestibular, cât și la nivelul osului
medular, independent de sexul pacientului. Acest efect pozitiv a fost
observat și cuantificat atât la nivelul osului maxilar anterior, cât și la nivelul
zonelor laterale, linia de demarcație dintre acestea fiind considerată
tangenta la fața distală a caninilor de fiecare parte. Cuantificarea, cu
ajutorul tomografiei computerizate cu fascicul conic, a efectului radiației
laser asupra densității minerale osoase a permis formularea unor concluzii
clinice, în acord cu cele experimentale, obținute în studiile pe care le-am
efectuat anterior. 235,255
113
7.5. CONCLUZII
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I
II
International Journal of
Molecular Sciences
Article
Osteogenic Potential of Bovine Bone Graft in
Combination with Laser Photobiomodulation:
An Ex Vivo Demonstrative Study in Wistar Rats by
Cross-Linked Studies Based on Synchrotron
Microtomography and Histology
Ruxandra Elena Luca 1 , Alessandra Giuliani 2, * , Adrian Mănescu 2 , Rodica Heredea 3,4 ,
Bogdan Hoinoiu 5 , George Dumitru Constantin 1 , Virgil-Florin Duma 6,7 and
Carmen Darinca Todea 1
1 Department of Oral Rehabilitation and Dental Emergencies, School of Dental Medicine, “Victor Babeş”
University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; luca.ruxandra@umft.ro (R.E.L.);
george.dctin@gmail.com (G.D.C.); todea.darinca@umft.ro (G.C.T.)
2 Department of Clinical Science, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy;
a.manescu@univpm.it
3 Department of Microscopic Morphology/Histology, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy,
300041 Timisoara, Romania; heredea.rodica@yahoo.com
4 Department of Pathology, “Louis Turcanu” Children’s Clinical Emergency Hospital,
300041 Timisoara, Romania
5 Division of Clinical Practical Skills, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara,
Romania; hoinoiu@umft.ro
6 3OM Optomechatronics Group, Faculty of Engineering, “Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad, 310132 Arad,
Romania; duma.virgil@osamember.org
7 Doctoral School, Polytechnic University of Timisoara, 300006 Timisoara, Romania
* Correspondence: a.giuliani@univpm.it; Tel.: +39-071-220-4603
����������
Received: 21 December 2019; Accepted: 23 January 2020; Published: 25 January 2020 �������
Abstract: Background: Alveolar bone defects are usually the main concern when planning implant
treatments for the appropriate oral rehabilitation of patients. To improve local conditions and achieve
implant treatments, there are several methods used for increasing bone volume, among which one
of the most successful, versatile, and effective is considered to be guided bone regeneration. The
aim of this demonstrative study was to propose an innovative analysis protocol for the evaluation
of the effect of photobiomodulation on the bone regeneration process, using rat calvarial defects of
5 mm in diameter, filled with xenograft, covered with collagen membrane, and then exposed to laser
radiation. Methods: The animals were sacrificed at different points in time (i.e., after 14, 21, and
30 days). Samples of identical dimensions were harvested in order to compare the results obtained
after different periods of healing. The analysis was performed by cross-linking the information
obtained using histology and high-resolution synchrotron-based tomography on the same samples.
A comparison was made with both the negative control (NC) group (with a bone defect which
was left for spontaneous healing), and the positive control (PC) group (in which the bone defects
were filled with xenografts and collagen membrane without receiving laser treatment). Results: We
demonstrated that using photobiomodulation provides a better healing effect than when receiving
only the support of the biomaterial. This effect has been evident for short times treatments, i.e., during
the first 14 days after surgery. Conclusion: The proposed analysis protocol was effective in detecting
the presence of higher quantities of bone volumes under remodeling after photobiomodulation with
respect to the exclusive bone regeneration guided by the xenograft.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, dental medicine is confronted with the challenge of solving large edentations
complicated with severe bone loss through the usage of implant prosthetic restorations. To make such
treatments successful and predictable, specific pre-requisites regarding the bone quantity and quality
are required. Alveolar bone defects are usually caused by infections, surgical trauma due to aggressive
extraction, periodontal diseases, or accidental trauma [1–3]. To improve local conditions and to give the
patient the possibility to receive an appropriate implant treatment, several methods and biomaterials
for increasing the bone volume have been tested. Bone grafting is the second most frequent tissue
transplantation after blood, with over two million procedures reported annually worldwide [4].
One of the most successful bone reconstruction methods is guided bone regeneration. This is
considered the most versatile and effective method for alveolar ridge augmentation [5–7], offering the
possibility of over 5 mm bone gain in the vertical and horizontal aspect [5,8–12]. There are publications
that report an increase of even 8.5 mm in height [5,13] by the appropriate usage of this technique.
Regarding the bone graft materials, to harvest autogenous bone graft from the patient donor site is still
considered the gold standard, even though it has clear limitations regarding the possibility of donor
site complications and of subsequent morbidity [1–3]. The need to replace autogenous bone with other
materials led to the development of allografts, xenografts, and alloplasts [14,15].
Independently of the utilized technique and materials, bone augmentation with a biomaterial and
its simultaneous covering with a barrier membrane involve a series of regular biological process of
osteo-induction and osteo-conduction. They also involve several cell types and signaling with specific
timing [16,17], thus combining the potential of the materials used and their mechanical properties [18].
Hitti and Kerns [19] extensively described the need for a barrier membrane, which enhances new bone
formation by preventing the rapid ingrowth of fibroblasts into a bony defect. An important condition
for the migration of the osteogenic cells from the bone edges to the defect is sealing the intrabony
defect with a membrane. In this case, the rate of osteogenesis exceeds the rate of fibrogenesis [20].
Increased interest is nowadays focused not only on biomaterials but also on the development
of methods with stimulatory effects on bone cell proliferation. In this respect, photobiomodulation
has shown promising results in stimulating cell proliferation, especially fibroblasts, macrophages and
lymphocytes. It also promotes angiogenesis and synthesis of collagen [21–24]. Specifically, the use
of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) for wound healing, nerve injury repair, as well as the reduction of
inflammation and pain, was tested shortly after the invention of lasers [25]. Photobiomodulation using
laser technology is often referred to as LLLT because the energy delivered to the tissue is much lower
than for other laser treatments and it does not produce heating of tissue [25]. In this context, Pinheiro
et al. [23] demonstrated that bone irradiated with low-level lasers showed increased osteoblastic and
collagen proliferation, as well as new bone formation in comparison with non-irradiated groups. Bone
cell and tissue sensitivity to laser irradiation were also reviewed by Barber at al. [26], concluding
that laser properties must be carefully chosen to obtain the desired effects. Initially, several in vitro
studies were performed with laser radiation on bone cells in culture; different wavelengths were
used (690, 830, and 632 nm), with different protocols regarding the duration, the frequency and the
dose of radiation [27–30]. Nevertheless, they all concluded that laser therapy increases the number of
more differentiated osteoblastic cells [27,31]. It stimulates cell proliferation, bone nodule formation,
followed by osteogenic markers: alkaline phosphatase (ALP) gene expression [28], osteopontin, and
bone sialoprotein [23,29]. Another similar study concluded that after 96 h the cell proliferation was
obvious, together with higher levels of transforming growth factor-B1, and osteocalcin, whilst ALP
levels were not significantly different between different study groups [30]. The same aspects have
IV
been investigated throughout many in vivo studies, using different animal models, wavelengths, and
irradiation protocols. Most of these studies presented improvements during the early stages of the
healing period [32], with significant differences in the calcium hydroxyapatite concentration, as well as
in the quantity of newly formed bone and of collagen fibers [33]. Other studies [34] observed increased
mineralization in the laser-treated groups and increased levels of calcium, phosphorus, and proteins in
comparison to the untreated groups [30].
As the effect of photobiomodulation on empty defects has been well documented in the literature,
our interest was focused on the biological interaction between photobiomodulation and the guided
bone regeneration technique. In this respect, the Brazilian research group of Pinheiro investigated
protocols for improving the bone repair process using photobiomodulation. They used an infrared
laser (wavelength 830 nm) on bone defects of rats and rabbits, which were treated following different
protocols and using different biomaterials. One of their studies [35] reported an increased amount of
newly formed bone after laser usage in rats’ bone defects. Another study revealed that in the early stages
of the healing period, differences in bone organization and vascularization were detectable, but after
45 days the differences between the irradiated and the non-irradiated groups became insignificant [36].
Later studies of the same research group [37] investigated the concentration of calcium hydroxyapatite
(CHA) around dental implants placed in rabbits’ tibia and concluded that LLLT improved the bone
healing, increasing the CHA concentration. However, photobiomodulation in combination with guided
bone regeneration needs further study, because of different responses from the hosting tissues.
Thus, the aim of this demonstrative study was to test the effectiveness of an innovative protocol
to evaluate the effect of photobiomodulation on bone regeneration process, using rat calvarial defects
filled with xenograft, covered with collagen membrane, and then exposed to laser irradiation. The
analysis was performed by cross-linking the information obtained by histology and high-resolution
synchrotron-based tomography (micro-CT) on the same samples. Comparisons with both the negative
control (NC) group (having a bone defect which was left for spontaneous healing), and positive control
(PC) group (in which the bone defects were filled with xenografts and collage membrane, without
receiving any laser treatment) were made.
2. Results
Figure 1. Micro-CT images of repaired sites in representative retrieved samples. (a–f) Group I: samples
harvested after 14 days: (a–c) 3D reconstructions: (a) negative control (NC); (b) positive control (PC);
(c) treated with low-level laser therapy (LLLT); (d–f) transversal sections of the defect: (d) NC; (e) PC;
(f) treated with LLLT. (g–l) Group II: samples harvested after 21 days: (g–i) 3D reconstructions: (g) NC;
(h) PC; (i) treated with LLLT; (j–l) transversal sections of the defect: (j) NC; (k) PC; (l) treated with
LLLT. (m–r) Group III: samples harvested after 30 days: (m–o) 3D reconstructions: (m) NC; (n) PC
control; (o) treated with LLLT; (p–r) transversal sections of the defect: (p) NC; (q) PC; (r) treated with
LLLT. In 3D reconstructions grey tissue is mature bone; red tissue is bone under remodeling; white
tissue is xenograft biomaterial; yellow arrows point to newly formed bone on defect border. In the
transversal sections of the defect: white tissue is xenograft biomaterial; colors represent mineralization
of the bone proportional to the color map in the bottom. Color map: blue stands for low mass density;
red stands for high mass density.
Indeed, the first step of the study was focused on the investigation of bone microarchitecture
and on the evaluation of volume percentages (vol.%) of the different mineralized phases (bone under
VI
remodeling, mature bone, and xenograft biomaterial) with respect to the overall mineralized volume.
In each harvested sample, a sub-volume fully circumscribing the defect hole was selected, producing
the morphometric data reported in Figure 2. As shown in Figure 2a–c, the volume percentages of
bone under remodeling with respect to the amount of mature bone increased in time. This trend was
observed in all groups except for the laser treated one (+LLLT), where the amount of bone under
remodeling was found to be already quite high after 14 days from the surgery.
Figure 2. Quantitative morphometric analysis. (a–c) Mean volume percentages (vol.%) of the different
mineralized phases (bone under remodeling, mature bone, and xenograft biomaterial) with respect
to the overall mineralized volume: (a) NC group; (b) PC group; (c) +LLLT group. (d–f) Quantitative
volumetric analysis of bone under remodeling portion, after (d) 14 days, (e) 21 days, and (f) 30 days
from the surgery. Error bars are indicated.
As observed considering the red phase in the 3D reconstructions of Figure 1a,g,m and based on
the quantification reported in Figure 2, samples of the NC group present higher percentages of bone
under remodeling than in the other groups, except at the shortest time-point, i.e., 14 days after surgery,
when the amount of bone under remodeling was increased by using LLLT by 50% with respect to
the NC group and by 45% with respect to the PC group. Moreover, as reported in Figure 2 as well,
for more than 14 days from surgery the amount of bone under remodeling was increased by using
LLLT by only 10% in comparison to the PC group. One can see, in this respect, an almost unnoticeable
increase in the 3D reconstructions of Figure 1.
The second step of study was focused on the investigation of the relative bone mineral density
distribution (MDDr ), i.e., on the evaluation of the calcium concentration and distribution (weight%) in
the different groups of study. Thus, the same sub-volumes previously investigated for the calculation of
volume percentages were also investigated for the MDDr mapping. The concept and results referring
to the complete set of indices, derived from the profile fitting, are shown in Figure 3. A sector of the
grey-level histogram for a sampling biopsy is shown in Figure 3 Panel a, with the peak on the left
referring to the mineralized bone and the peak on the right referring to the xenograft filling the defect.
This study was carried out using the Roschger approach [38], which was focused on the mineralized
bone portion. The parameters investigated are indicated in Figure 3b. The results, derived from the
profile fitting, are listed in Figure 3c. In the NC and PC groups, the peak and the mean values followed
a similar trend, which decreases over time. This was not the case for the +LLLT group, where a specific
trend was not present. The opposite behavior was detected when considering the FWHM values—a
specific trend in time was not present in the NC and PC groups, but in the +LLLT group, where there
was a clear decreasing trend over time, with special reference from 14 to 21 days after surgery. Finally,
VII
the high value decreased over time in all the groups. Interestingly, after 14 days, the opposite trend
was detected considering the FWHM values, while the peak, the mean and the low values were at their
maximum in the NC group and minimum in the +LLLT group.
Figure 3. Study of the relative mass density distribution (MDDr ). (a) Portion of the histogram of a
sampling biopsy: the peak on the left refers to the overall mineralized bone, the peak on the right refers
to the biomaterial (xenograft) used to fill the defect; (b) study of the mineralized bone: the parameters
investigated with the Roschger approach [38] are indicated. The threshold of p = 0.005 has been selected,
as a good compromise to maintain a good sensitivity and minimize at the same time potential artifacts
due to partial volume effects in the evaluation of MDDr low ; (c) parameters that derive from the profile
fitting are indicated.
2.2. Histology
The histological examination, as shown in Figure 4, revealed interesting evidence, with different
aspects for groups NC, PC, and +LLLT, depending on the period of healing.
On the examined fragments harvested on Day 14, extensive areas of necrosis and hematic
extravasation were identified in the group left for spontaneous healing (NC group, Figure 4a). The
other two groups (PC and +LLLT, Figure 4b,c, respectively) showed homogeneous eosinophilic
material, a “foreign body” with focal granuloma formation. The +LLLT group fragments revealed
well-represented fibrous (young) connective tissue and low inflammatory infiltration compared to the
rest of the groups.
Fragments harvested at 21 days after surgery showed a reduction in inflammatory infiltration and
foreign body granulomas (Figure 4d–f). These were predominantly located at the periphery, with the
fibrous connective tissue embracing eosinophilic material. The NC group revealed fibrotic connective
tissue that included optically opaque areas and heavier inflammatory infiltrates (Figure 4d). The
+LLLT group showed bone tissue formation, with areas rich in osteoblasts (Figure 4f).
VIII
After 30 days of healing, fibrous connective tissue was shown to incorporate homogeneous
eosinophilic material and newly formed bone lamellas (Figure 4g–i), the osteoblasts were found in
large numbers around the bone lamellae, and the inflammatory process was present, as highlighted by
giant multinuclear cells.
Figure 4. Histologic analysis. (a–c) Samples after 14 days of healing: (a) group NC, (b) group PC,
and (c) group +LLLT. (d–f) Samples after 21 days of healing: (d) NC group, (e) PC group, and (f)
+LLLT group. (g–i) Samples after 30 days of healing: (g) NC group, (h) PC group, and (i) +LLLT
group. N-necrosis; EM-eosinophilic material; CT-connective tissue; G-granulomas; Ob-osteoblasts. HE
staining, original magnification: 10×.
3. Discussion
Despite the increasing success of the use of photobiomodulation in different areas, there are
relatively few reports on their effect on bone repair that are evidence-based. However, due to the
positive effects on bone metabolism, the use of photobiomodulation has been encouraged in clinical
practice [39]. Renno et al. [40] and Stein et al. [29] showed a significant increase in the proliferation of
osteoblasts after laser energy irradiation using an 830 nm diode generating 20 J/cm2 . In addition, the
laser radiation appears to accelerate the process of fracture repair and produce an increase in the volume
of the callus formed and an increase in bone mineral density. Effects related to photobiomodulation
include increased vascularization, increased osteoblastic activity, organization of collagen fibers, and
changes in the mitochondrial and intracellular levels of adenosine triphosphate.
In this context, numerous studies have been also conducted in animal models on the osteogenic
properties of different biomaterials, with different outcomes [41–45]. However, photobiomodulation
effects, in combination with biomaterials in bone defect repair processes, require further study, as
different responses from the host have been found. Most research has been based on animal studies,
the most investigated type of animal being the rat, mainly in the tibia bone [46–48].
IX
In the present study, as well as in a previous one [49], we evaluated the effect of photobiomodulation
on bone regeneration process, using rat calvarial defects filled with xenograft, previously coated with
collagen membrane and then exposed to laser irradiation.
In vitro studies such as those conducted by Soleimani [50] and Saygun [51] showed proliferation,
stimulation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblastic cells in the lased
groups. In the first case, a dose of 4 J/cm2 (810 nm) was delivered, while in the second study the dose
was halved to 2 J/cm2 (685 nm). The effects were also confirmed by Dortbudak [27].
Because bone has limited biological variations to react to stimuli, results may be false or
over-interpreted. For example, fibrosis and bone resorption can be the result of biomechanical instability
as well as missing osteoconductive properties of a scaffold material. They may also be produced by a
rapid material degradation, while biocompatibility is still preserved. Therefore, a step-wise approach
is preferred to answer questions of biocompatibility/suitability of a novel biomaterial. Biocompatibility
issues should be clarified using a biomechanically unchallenged situation [52], whereas the suitability of
a material can be tested in a mechanically challenged defect, modeling long bones after biocompatibility
has already been assessed in previous experiments. For both, the cellular reaction (e.g., the presence
of inflammatory mono- and poly-nuclear cells) as well as the new bone formation at the surface and
within the material are important along with the resorption of the material itself [53]. Reduction of
inflammation due to photobiomodulation is one of the most well-accepted effects of light therapy [54],
its mechanism being evidenced by a decrease in chemical inflammatory mediators, (prostaglandin E2,
leucocytes, tumor necrosis factor TNFα). Photobiomodulation can exert both an anti-inflammatory
effect and a pro-inflammatory one, increasing mRNA expression and the protein concentration of
anti-inflammatory mediators (IL-10, HSP72), similar to anti-inflammatory steroids [55]. An apparent
contradiction has been highlighted between the pro-inflammatory effect of photobiomodulation in
in vitro studies and the anti-inflammatory effect found in most of the clinical studies [56].
In our case, the positive effects of photobiomodulation therapy in the initial stages of the bone
defect healing were also evidenced by histological examination, which revealed significant differences
regarding the presence of inflammatory infiltrate in different study groups: at 14 days, the small
amount of inflammatory infiltrate in +LLLT group permits the organization of the young connective
tissue, which acts as a precursor of the newly formed bone tissue. When analyzing the 21 days healing
period, the reduction of the inflammatory process is more obvious in PC and +LLLT groups. At the
same time, as the formation of bone tissue occurs, the +LLLT group shows areas rich in osteoblasts. As
the healing period increases, the differences between the analyzed groups in terms of inflammation are
reduced, but giant multinuclear cells can still be detected. As a conclusion, it seems that the maximum
effects of photobiomodulation appear in the early stages of the bone injury, when a smaller amount of
inflammatory infiltrate is associated with increased bone formation.
Our present demonstrative study also showed that photobiomodulation healed the defect better
than when only the support of the biomaterial was present. This effect was clearly observed for
short-term treatments, i.e., 14 days after the surgery. For longer periods of treatment, the newly formed
bone volumes became comparable in grafted defects, with or without laser treatment. Indeed, as
shown in Figure 2d–f, the amount of bone under remodeling in defects healed with the xenograft
support sensibly increased in volume percentages after the photobiomodulation only in the 14 days
group, therefore not for longer periods of time. The presence of higher quantities of bone volume
under remodeling in the +LLLT group indicated higher quantities of bone formation, as already
seen in previous in vitro studies. Nicolau et al. [57] and Freitas [46] thus showed higher bone cell
activity when irradiating rat femur and tibiae defects with 660 and 633 nm lasers. Khadra irradiated
calvarial defects with an 830 nm laser and found increased soft and bone tissue in the study group [58].
Weber showed that the healing of autologous bone graft in bone defects was improved through
photobiomodulation [59].
Moreover, as demonstrated using the relative mass density distribution (MDDr ) analysis, after
14 days from surgery the peak, the mean and the low values were at their minimum in the +LLLT group
X
and maximum in the NC group, while the opposite trend was observed for the FWHM values. These
data, collectively considered, indicate a wider distribution of mass density after the laser treatment,
with a preeminent presence of areas with low mineralization, i.e., with a majority of newly formed
bone clusters.
For longer time-points than 14 days (i.e., 21 and 30 days from surgery), when compared with the NC
samples (in which the cavities were left empty for spontaneous healing), defects filled with xenografts,
i.e., both the PC and the +LLLT samples, presented lower or similar volume percentages of bone under
remodeling (i.e., less newly formed bone). This evidence was observed in Figure 1a–c,g–i,m–o, as
well as in Figure 2a–c. This was also confirmed by previous studies [41,42]. For example, Takauti [31]
studied the bone regeneration process in rat calvariae, with defects filled with three different types
of biomaterials: two xenografts (deproteinized bovine bone) and one allograft (biphasic calcium
phosphate). After eight weeks of healing, they found a greater amount of newly formed bone when
using alloplastic materials, while cavities filled with deproteinized bovine bone presented higher
amounts of residual graft, probably due to its slow resorption. When compared with control cavities,
which were left empty for spontaneous healing, they concluded that defects filled only with blood clot
presented more newly formed bone than cavities filled with xenograft, and a similar amount to the
defects filled with alloplastic material. Their results were also confirmed by Rokn [42].
The evidence that defects left for spontaneous healing presented already after three weeks of
healing (21 days group) more newly-formed bone than cavities filled with xenograft could most likely
be caused by a certain delay of the healing process in the presence of biomaterials. We observed this
delay in several of our previous studies; specifically, we observed that regenerative kinetics in in vitro
cultures on different biomaterials showed that the bioresorption of the scaffold is more accentuated up
to the second week of culture, while bone regeneration is delayed in time, most likely because cells
growing onto the scaffold took longer time to adhere and then to begin proliferating [60–62].
Moreover, in the present study, the biomaterial may have exerted a shielding action in respect to
photobiomodulation effects on cells, inhibiting the same regenerative action of the laser treatment,
as shown in Figure 5. In the study carried out by Rokn [42], the 3D analysis based on cone-beam
tomography showed no filling in the center of the spontaneously healed cavities, revealing that newly
formed bone was concentrated only at the edges of the defect. Therefore, it becomes important to favor
osteo-conduction and the migration of cells from the defect border, using as filler a biomaterial that
adheres to the defect walls without carrying out any barrier and shielding action to cell migration or to
the possible regenerating action of laser treatments.
Figure 5. Micro-CT images of repaired sites in representative retrieved sample, evaluated at 30 days
postoperatively. The borders of the defect have not been covered with bovine bone graft, thus being
directly exposed to laser radiation. A great amount of newly-formed bone can be observed at the
periphery of the defect, as indicated with yellow arrows. (A): 3D reconstruction; (B): transversal section.
Grey tissue is mature bone; red tissue is bone under remodeling; white tissue is xenograft biomaterial.
However, in our study, the quantitative volumetric analysis of bone under remodeling at the three
time-points (14, 21 and 30 days from surgery) showed better healing when photobiomodulation was
applied on the grafted defect than in cases where the grafted defect did not receive laser treatment.
XI
This effect was particularly evident for the shortest considered period of time, i.e., 14 days after surgery.
Thus, these observations obtained using our innovative protocol of analysis highlight the positive
effects of laser therapy on bone regeneration process, which increase the quantity of newly formed
bone. It also suggests possible interactions with the grafting materials that could influence our future
experimental follow-ups.
In the present study, we selected 14, 21, and 30 days from surgery as time-points for the analysis.
The rationale behind this choice was motivated by the fact that, when establishing follow-up periods
of bone regeneration in rat calvarial defects, the metabolic rate of the Wistar rat must be considered:
the smaller the animal, the higher the metabolic rate compared to that of a human: 30 days of a man’s
life correspond to one day of rat’s life [63]. This means that shorter observation periods to obtain
data sampling are usually required when small animals are used instead of larger ones, because they
heal faster. Long periods of observation would potentially demonstrate that both test and control
groups reach an advanced/complete healing of the defect, failing to disclose the beneficial potential of
a biomaterial [64,65].
Therefore, considering the short-term laser treatment benefits shown in the present study, we plan
to proceed in future experiments by stopping the +LLLT after 14 days and allowing the regeneration to
occur beyond this period in the absence of +LLLT, checking the results with our experimental protocol.
Moreover, another experimental follow-up will be based on additional +LLLT doses at periods of time
shorter than 14 days, examining bone regeneration beyond this period.
15mg/kg + Gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg) and daily clinical examination with evaluation of the general clinical
status (heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, wound appearance and healing of the incision,
posture and locomotion).
permit the assessors to know neither if the sample received photobiomodulation treatment, nor the
healing period.
4.6. Histology
The tissues obtained were fixed in 10% formalin solution, followed by a moderate descaling agent.
The paraffin blocks resulting from the processing were used to make additional sections (thickness of
4 µm, Thermo Scientific™ HM 355S Automatic Microtome, Waltham, MA 02451 USA ) that were stained
with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and were further on examined under a Leica DM750 microscope
(Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany).
5. Conclusions
We demonstrated that photobiomodulation therapy is effective in short periods; laser doses
administrated to the defects beyond 2 weeks after surgery appeared to be not very effective. A possible
shielding action of the xenograft on the laser action on cells was hypothesized and will be verified
through future studies. This effect may be combined with a bone regeneration delay in the presence of
biomaterials, as already documented in previous studies. Thus, in support of this hypothesis, several
authors suggested the same conclusions [33,70], finding that the positive effects of photobiomodulation
on bone healing are more obvious when applied intraoperatively, directly to the bone defect, prior to
the grafting procedure [33].
In our demonstrative study, micro-CT allowed us to achieve new and relevant information,
although a limited number of rats was included in the study. This sample size would have most
likely not been sufficient in other experimental protocols, exclusively based on histology. The power
of our protocol lies in the 3D nature of micro-CT analysis, based on the stacking of 1000 successive
2D sections (each with a thickness of about 9 µm), mapping the entire sample. This is of paramount
importance, allowing us to minimize the number of rat sacrifices, in full respect to ethical international
rules. Our previous studies, using the same method of evaluation, also showed the capacity of
micro-CT technique to play a fundamental role in the advanced characterization of laser-treated
sites [71]. Another technique which can be successful for such a research strategy is optical coherence
tomography (OCT) [49,72–74]: its advantage is that it can be applied for in vivo assessments, using
handheld scanning probes in the oral cavity [75,76]. Moreover, good agreement between OCT and
micro-CT analyses was found in our previous studies [77].
In general, the interaction between laser radiation and different types of tissues remains a major
concern when establishing clinical protocols. Although numerous studies have been conducted on the
effects of photobiomodulation, their comparison is difficult because of the different biomaterials, the
variations in laser energy, dose, and duration.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.E.L., A.G. and C.D.T.; Data curation, R.E.L. and A.G.; Formal
analysis, R.E.L. and A.G.; Funding acquisition, V.-F.D. and C.D.T.; Investigation, R.E.L., A.G., A.M., R.H. and
G.D.C.; Methodology, R.E.L., A.G. and C.D.T.; Resources, R.E.L., R.H. and B.H.; Supervision, V.-F.D. and C.D.T.;
Writing – original draft, R.E.L., A.G., B.H. and G.D.C.; Writing – review and editing, R.E.L., A.G., A.M., R.H., B.H.,
G.D.C.,V.-F.D. and C.D.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The experiments No. 20155147 were funded by the Program “Support to the Italian Users of ELETTRA”.
V-F. Duma acknowledges the support of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, through
CNDI–UEFISCDI project PN-III-P2-2.1-PTE-2016-0181. No other sources of study funding were used.
Acknowledgments: Authors thank the ELETTRA Synchrotron Facility for allocated beamtime at the SYRMEP
beamline and Giuliana Tromba for technical support during the experiments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
LLLT Low level laser therapy
3D Three-dimensional
MDDr Relative bone mineral density distribution
Micro-CT Microtomography
XV
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
798
XIX
Original Article
Correspondence to: Prof. Dr. Virgil-Florin Duma. 3OM Optomechatronics Group, Faculty of Engineering, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, 77
Revolutiei Ave., Arad 310130, Romania. Email: duma.virgil@osamember.org; Prof. Dr. Carmen Darinca Todea, MD. School of Dental Medicine,
Victor Babeú University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Place, Timisoara 300041, Romania. Email: todea.darinca@umft.ro.
Background: The need for hard and soft tissues in oral implantology determined the development of
methods and techniques to increase bone volume and their quality with different alternative materials used
as substituents of patient’s natural bone. In addition, laser radiation can be used to accelerate the repair of
fractures and to produce an increased volume of formed callus, as well as an increased bone mineral density.
Methods: The aim of this work is to evaluate the capability of an in-house developed multimodal complex
master slave (CMS) enhanced swept source (SS) optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging instrument
to analyze the increase in the quantity and the improvement of the quality of newly-formed bone using low
level laser therapy (LLLT). Bone formation is quantitatively assessed in 5 mm cylindrical defects made in the
calvaria part of the skull of living rats. Samples are divided in three study groups: A, a negative control group,
for which the natural healing process of the defect is investigated; B, a positive control group, for which
bovine graft is used to stimulate bone formation, and C, a study group, in which bovine graft is added to the
DSFBUFEEFGFDUTBOE---5JTBQQMJFEUISPVHIPVUUIFFOUJSFIFBMJOHQFSJPE5IFBOJNBMTBSFTBDSJòDFEBGUFS
14, 21, and 30 days, and the samples are imaged using the multimodal CMS/SS-OCT instrument.
Results: The method allows for the simultaneous monitoring of the bone tissue via two perpendicular
cross-sections and nine en-face images taken at adjustable depths into the sample. A global image with course
BYJBMSFTPMVUJPOBMMPXTGPSUIFQPTJUJPOJOHPGUIFòFMEPGWJFXPGUIFTZTUFNPOUIFBSFBPGJOUFSFTUPOUIF
tissue. The quantitative assessment of the process of bone formation is completed using the differences in
CSJHIUOFTTCFUXFFOUIFOBUJWFCPOF
UIFBSUJòDJBMCPOFHSBGU
BOEUIFOFXMZGPSNFECPOF
Conclusions: Group C is demonstrated to have a higher volume of newly-formed bone than Group B,
which is better from this point of view than Group A. By analyzing the evolution of this volume of new bone
JOUJNF
UIFNPTUTJHOJòDBOUEJGGFSFODFXBTBGUFSEBZT
UIFSFGPSFBQQSPYJNBUFMZBGUFSUXPUIJSETPGUIF
UPUBMUJNFJOUFSWBMBOBMZ[FE"GUFSEBZT
UIFWPMVNFTPGCPOFUFOEUPNPWFDMPTFS
BTUIFZCFHJOUPòMMUIF
available gap. The study demonstrates that OCT can assess quantitatively the positive impact of LLLT on
bone regeneration.
Keywords: Optical coherence tomography (OCT); complex master slave (CMS); oral implantology; bone
formation; low level laser therapy (LLLT); bovine graft; en-face imaging
Submitted Feb 16, 2019. Accepted for publication Apr 25, 2019.
doi: 10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XX
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXI
784 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
in the region of infrared light, there is an activation of capability of a multimodal complex master slave (CMS)
chromophores located in the cellular membrane (23). enhanced swept source (SS) OCT imaging instrument
It is considered that the main effect of LLLT occurs in to provide reliable information on the bone regeneration
mitochondria. Previous studies demonstrated that irradiated process. Due to the importance and potential impact of
fibroblasts produce a greater amount of collagen. On the bone regeneration, as pointed out above, we approach
same reasoning, other studies considered that osteoblasts ex vivo samples of rat calvarial defects which underwent
irradiated with laser are stimulated to osteoid matrix different protocols of bone augmentation, as well as bone
formation. From a clinical point of view, these events augmentation due to LLLT.
USBOTMBUFJOUPNBUVSF
NPSFCPOFEFQPTJU
UIBUTBUJTòFT The remaining of this paper is structured as follows:
the needs of prosthetic implant restorations. Section 2 describes the protocols of bone preparation and
The most frequent methods utilized to evaluate bone the in-house developed CMS/SS OCT instrument. Results
remodeling after LLLT are represented by densitometric are discussed in Section 3, while Section 4 concludes the
analysis (25), histopathological and histomorphometrical study and provides directions of future work, from both
analysis (26), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), plain points of view, of bone regeneration and of the OCT
radiography, and biomechanical analysis. Recently, micro- technique employed for this study.
computed tomography (micro-CT) has been performed to
observe the bone regeneration over an entire defect site.
Using a computer program to convert micro-CT images Methods
to three-dimensional (3D)/volumetric reconstructions, the Preparation of bone samples
entire bone regenerated in the defects can be observed (27).
Despite the variety of instruments listed above, there is The ethical approval for the preparation of bone samples
BOFFEGPSBUPPMTJNVMUBOFPVTMZFGòDJFOUBOEOPOJOWBTJWF
was obtained from the International Animal Care and
and that can present sufficient resolution to evaluate the Use Committee on Ethics at the Experimental Research
bone healing process. Optical coherence tomography Institute of the Victor Babeú University of Medicine and
(OCT) (28,29) is such an investigation technique that is Pharmacy of Timisoara, Romania. Twenty-four Wistar rats
more and more applied in dentistry as a promising tool (30), were randomly distributed into the following three groups:
after being initially developed for ophthalmology (I) Group A (negative control group);
(28,31). Nowadays, OCT has a multitude of biomedical (II) Group B—to be used with bovine graft material
applications, that have expanded to skin (32), oral cavity (positive control group);
(33-36), and endoscopy (37). Whilst in dental medicine (III) Group C—to be used with bovine graft material,
OCT has been used to study both soft and hard tissue, as after the application of LLLT.
well as different dental constructs (35,38), a few studies exist The surgical procedure was preceded by an anesthesia
only, to our knowledge, on using OCT for assessment of with Ketamine (100 mg/kg, Intervet, USA) and Rumpun
bone regeneration. These studies include: (I) evaluation of (10 mg/kg, Bayer, Germany) and the preparation of the
the effects of sterilization through ionizing radiation on the surgical site (i.e., the region around the scalp was shaved
bone matrix from the tissue banks used as allograft (39,40); and antisepticised with betadine). A semilunar incision was
(II) imaging early osteoarthritis, identifying changes prior to performed and a full thickness flap was reflected in the
cartilage thinning both in vitro and in vivo in patients and in anterior direction (Figure 1). To prevent spontaneous bone
osteoarthritis animal models, identifying early rheumatoid healing, a 5 mm calvarial defect was created, by using a
arthritis and guiding tendon repair (41); (III) 3D imaging of trephine burr and a surgical hand piece, under a continuous
the tissue at the implant sites for in vitro investigations, for sterile saline irrigation. To establish the same position of the
XIJDI0$5JNBHFTPCUBJOFEBU
ONTIPXFETJHOJòDBOU defect in the calvarial region of all rats, a plastic positioning
contrast and spatial resolution to study osseointegration of matrix with a circular gap of 5 mm was created; this was
implants in the maxilla at a 200 µm depth inside the bone used as a surgical guide. Special attention was needed to
(42,43). In bone regeneration assessment, we have utilized avoid damaging in any way the dura mater during the
both the capability of OCT and micro-CT to evaluate the surgical procedure.
bone grafting material/bone interface (44). After creating the surgical calvarial defect, Groups B
The aim of the present study is to evaluate the and C received bovine grafting material, whilst Group A
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXII
A B C
D E F
G H I
Figure 1 Steps taken during the surgery phase. (A) Full thickness flap elevated; (B,C,D,E) creation of a 5 mm diameter defect under
continuous cooling; insertion of the (F) bovine bone grafting material and of the (G) collagen membrane; (H,J) suture in two layers manner
VTJOHBCTPSCBCMF GPSUIFòSTUMBZFS
BOEOPOBCTPSCBCMFTVUVSF GPSUIFTFDPOEMBZFS
remained the negative control group, without any grafting of 3,800 Hz, 450 MW, 17 s per point, 18.9 J per treatment
material. Periosteum and scalp were sutured in a two session), which were established and reproduced each time
layers manner using 6/0 Prolene and 5/0 Prolene for the using a plastic positioning matrix manufactured in our
skin. Cefazoline (100 mg) was given to the animals by group. The animals were distributed into groups according
intramuscular injections immediately after the surgery for to three healing periods applied after the surgical procedure.
2 days. After the surgery, the animals were continuously *OUIFòSTUHSPVQ
POFUIJSEPGUIFSBUT
FVUIBOBUJ[FEBGUFS
kept at a 22±5 Ԩ temperature and at a 50%±5% humidity. 14 days were included; another third, euthanatized after 21
Group C was exposed to LLLT with an own developed days were included in the second group, and the rest of rats,
protocol, using a gallium-aluminum-arsenide laser (GaAlAs) euthanatized after 30 days were included in the third group.
(IRRADIA Mid-Laser ® Stockholm, Sweden) emitting at Bone samples were harvested and prepared in such a way
a central wavelength of 808 nm, with an optical power of that they included the defect along with the surrounding
450 MW (Figure 2). tissues.
An energy of 2 J/cm2 was applied immediately after the A first limitation of the study comes from the fact that
intervention, as well as every other day until the established the volume of bone assessed originate from different rats,
TBDSJòDFEBZXBTSFBDIFE---5XBTQFSGPSNFEJOQPJOUT UIFSFGPSFBWBSJBUJPOHJWFOCZUIFTQFDJòDJUZPGUIFIFBMJOH
around the defect and in a central point (with a frequency process of each animal is unavoidable. Considering several
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXIII
786 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
B C D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
cm
Figure 2 Example of LLLT procedure and harvested samples. (A) Group C is exposed to LLLT, using a GaAlAs laser (IRRADIA Mid-
Laser® Stockholm, Sweden), in 4 points around the defect as well as in a central point, which were established and reproduced each time
using a plastic positioning matrix. Examples of harvested samples: (B) control group, (C) negative study group, and (D) positive study group.
LLLT, low level laser therapy; GaAlAs, gallium-aluminum-arsenide laser.
rats in each group and performing an average of the possible limit to avoid distortions of the image when the
results has been a method to decrease errors produced by fast scanner is driven at 250 Hz (46). Therefore, to cover
individual variations. the 5 mm in diameter cylindrical defect situated on the
upper part of the bone sample, four individual OCT images
are collected, each with a square surface of 2.8×2.8 mm2,
OCT system
as shown in Figure 4A. To study the formation of the new
The in-house developed CMS/SS OCT system utilized in bone inside it—with or without the bovine grafting material
the investigations, described in detail in (45) is presented added to the defect, each of the four quadrants of the
in Figure 3A,B, while examples of two rat bone samples defects is imaged separately. The interface with the original
imaged with it are shown in Figure 3C,D. The galvanometer bone is of special interest, in order to study the process of
scanners are driven with a triangular waveform of 2 V formation of new bone in time.
voltage peak-to-peak, which corresponds to a 2.8 mm The sketch in Figure 4B illustrates the positioning of the
MJOFBSTDBOPOUIFTBNQMF5IFTDBOOFEòFME<UIFSFGPSF
UIF four quadrants. Examples of OCT images produced during
òFMEPGWJFX '07
PGUIF0$5TZTUFN>JTTFUBUUIFVQQFS the investigations are presented in Figure 4C. A raster
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXIV
A M2 B C D
Digitizer
MO3
DC2 MO2 M1
BPD
DC1 MO1
Processor
SS GXY
CMS
SL
Sample
Figure 3 OCT investigations of rat calvaria bone samples. (A) Schematic of the in-house developed multimodal CMS/SS OCT system
centered at 1,300 nm; (B) photo of the OCT set-up; (C,D) metal frame for location of the area investigated on the sample. CMS, complex
NBTUFSTMBWF44
TXFQUTPVSDF#1%
CBMBODFEQIPUPEFUFDUPS%$
EJSFDUJPOBMDPVQMFS.0
NJDSPTDPQFPCKFDUJWFT.
óBUNJSSPST(9:
galvo-scanning head; SL, telecentric scanning lens; OCT, optical coherence tomography.
A Defect
Original C xy en face images
(Upper part)
Bone
Additional bone
(Bright)
New (ii) (i)
Bone
5.6
(Gray)
(iii) (iv)
ĭ5
12
yz B-scan
2.8
B y
xz B-scan
Z
2.8
Confocal image (xy)
Figure 4 CMS SS-OCT procedure. (A) Sample to be imaged (i.e., upper part of the skull fragment of the rat—with cylindrical defect)
showing the same notations for the four quadrants considered as in Figure 4; (B) dimensions and orientation of the volumetric OCT
reconstruction; (C) 12-image display of delivered by the CMS SS-OCT software. The size of each en face OCT image and of the confocal
one is 2.8×2.8 mm2. The size of the two orthogonal B-scan images is 1.6×2.8 mm2. The en-face OCT images are separated by 42.56 µm. The
òSTUen-face OCT image corresponds to z=0.4 mm within the specimen. All distances are measured in air. CMS, complex master slave; SS,
swept source; OCT, optical coherence tomography.
scan is obtained by scanning the galvanometers along x- CMS developed system and software:
and y-directions, with the z-axis oriented along the depth (I) A global image (similar to a coarse confocal image),
axis. As it can be observed in Figure 4C, three categories of in the plane xy taken from the top of the sample
images could be analyzed simultaneously using the in-house (situated in the bottom left part of the screen),
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXV
788 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
t3 =30 days
Gray
(Interval of
interest)
t1 =14 days Brightness Mmin of the new formed bone
Figure 5 Thresholds of the brightness M of the different types of bone tissue—considered in order to evaluate the quantity Q of new formed
bone. OCT, optical coherence tomography.
which serves to position the area of interest; images, as they show the tissue at different depths. This is
(II) In this case the interface between the original and another inherent limitation of the method; however, to our
the newly formed bone inside the cylindrical defect knowledge there is no other way to do the assessment using
(as detailed in the following section) in the FOV of OCT, but to involve the assumption that the brightness
the imaging instrument; level is indicative to the bone strength, as already accepted
(III) B-scan/transversal sections into the sample in the in OCT studies of demineralization. OCT shows signal
yz and xz planes (marked with blue and red dashed variations within the bone tissue. We interpret these
lines); they can be selected and moved using the as mineralization differences of trabeculae resulting in
two lines shown (with blue and red, respectively) in different refractive indices causing brighter and darker
the xy confocal image in the bottom left corner; areas in the imaged bone tissue. This information enables
(IV) Nine simultaneously produced xy en-face images a calculation of the average trabecular mineralization and
(C-scans), taken in the xy planes, from different indicates the direction and velocity of past bone growth in
equidistant adjustable axial positions from within analogy to growth rings of plants (47).
the sample. The axial depths of the nine en-face
images are shown on both B-scan images (between
Results
the dashed lines).
Although in real time only nine en-face images are currently
displayed on the screen, 600 such images over an axial
Assessment of bone quantities
range of 1.6 mm are produced by the CMS software for the
To utilize the multimodal CMS/SS OCT system for 3D/volumetric reconstruction of the sample, as shown in
quantitative assessment, the different types of tissue bones the examples in Figure 6. for all the four quadrants marked
have to be distinguished on each en-face slide obtained in Figure 4A. Thus, Figure 6 shows the 12-image display
during the imaging process. Brightness thresholds therefore from the control group (i.e., from Group A) taken after
must be assigned to each type of bones, as shown in Figure 5. the shortest time interval considered (i.e., 14 days) and the
This is easy for the bovine bone particles introduced in 12-image display for the additional bone particles in the
the defect for Group B—as these are highly mineralized, defect and LLLT throughout the healing period (i.e., from
therefore easy to distinguish by the brightest zones in all Group C), after the longest interval considered (i.e., 30 days)
the images. The more difficult assignment of brightness in order to highlight the differences between a sample with
thresholds is for new bone, formed at the margins of the the lowest and the highest quantity of new bone formed,
defect zone for Group A, as well as at the margins and respectively. The contrast between the quantities of the new
around the additional bone particles, for Group B. bone formed in these two extreme situations can be clearly
One may object to the fact that a simple intensity seen when comparing the two sets of images.
threshold is proposed and applied to the en-face OCT The newly bone formation is evaluated by comparison
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXVI
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXVII
790 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
Group A
Group B
Group C
Figure 7 Monitoring the process of new bone formation for the three Groups A, B, and C—after (I) t1=14 days; (II) t2=21 days and
(III) t3=30 days. The upper left quadrant (ii) of each sample has been considered (Figure 4A). Each en-face OCT image has a square surface
(in the xy plane, see Figure 4) of 2.8×2.8 mm25IFòSTUen-face displayed is collected at a depth z=0.4 mm, while the distance between the
displayed en-face images is 42.56 µm. The axial range in the B-scan images is 1.6 mm. OCT,optical coherence tomography.
the scheme presented in Figure 9A for the healing of the images in the second row has the brightness within the
artificially created defect. The correspondence between range of values adjustable via the two cursors at the top of
the types of bones schematically presented in the sketch in each image.
Figure 9A and a real en-face OCT image, for a positive and This new bone—which is the target of the entire study—
negative control of the sample is shown in Figure 9B. appears throughout the entire 30 days period. However,
To quantify the newly-formed bone, a dedicated software when it is just formed it is darker (i.e., less mineralized),
was developed. Its main attribute is to establish ranges for while as time passes it becomes brighter—as it is more
the brightness of different types of bone, and to generate and more mineralized. A brightness interval (Mmin, Mmax)
the specific percentage for every category. The use of UIFSFGPSFIBTUPCFEFòOFE
XJUIUXPUISFTIPMET Figure 5):
this program is exemplified in the supplemental material the lower limit Mmin corresponds to the new bone formed
(Figure 10). The cursor on the top left image selects an en-face after 14 days (i.e., t1, the shortest time considered), while
OCT image from a specific axial position. Each of the 4 the upper limit Mmax corresponds to the new bone formed
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXVIII
Group A
Group B
Group C
Figure 8 The same study as in Figure 7, showing OCT 3D reconstructions of the upper left quadrant of the samples for each group, A, B
and C after (I) t1=14 days, (II) t2=21 days, and (III) t3=30 days. OCT, optical coherence tomography; 3D, three-dimensional.
A
Calvaria, the native bone
Newly formed bone
ii i
iii iv Artificial bone particles
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXIX
792 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
14
30
after 30 days (i.e., t2, the longest time interval)—and this 20.63 20.07 31.31 t (days)
latter tissue has the brightness lower than the native bone
and also than the bovine bone grafting material. 14
Using the thresholds pointed out in Figure 5 and the 32.08 13.39 13.16
new formed bone. As each en-face image has a thickness h~5 25.02 19.25 10.36
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXX
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXXI
794 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
0 0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
Figure 12 Mean values and standard deviations for the (A) representation of native bone, (B) bovine bone, (C) newly formed bone graft in
UIFTUVEJFEHSPVQT
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(VII) negative control Group A, time of healing 14 days (defect healed spontaneously); (VIII) positive control Group B, time of healing
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radiation applied).
Comparison between study groups regarding that the images shown in Figure 11 represent the claimed
the newly formed bone where P<0.05
tissue types. Proximity of particles of artificial bone to
18 native bone or newly formed bone represents a normal
16 healing process, which is well-known and demonstrated
14 in the literature. This comes from the fact that particles of
12 BSUJòDJBMCPOFBSFVUJMJ[FEJOCPOFBVHNFOUBUJPO
OPUPOMZ
10 to compensate for the loss of bone tissue, but also in order
8
to form a topographic structure on which the process of
bone growth can occur; this is essential for large defects.
6
The results obtained in our study suggest that positive
4
effects of LLLT on the bone repair processes are time
2
dependent, having a higher impact during the initial
0
phases of the healing (Figures 12,13). This conclusion is
VI vs. V IV vs. I VII vs. I VIII vs. I VIII vs. V VI vs. III IX vs. III
also supported by the findings of other research groups,
Mean difference (%) which have used other investigation methods than OCT
Figure 13 Comparison between the three study groups regarding (22-24). Qualitative histological analysis and histometric
UIFOFXMZGPSNFECPOF
XJUITJHOJòDBODFGSPNBTUBUJTUJDBMQPJOUPG analysis showed that LLLT can improve bone formation
view (P<0.05). QSPDFTTJOSBUDBMWBSJBMEFGFDUTòMMFEPSOPUXJUICPWJOFCPOF
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXXII
A B
Figure 14 Masson trichrome staining 10×, demonstrating different results for (A) group V (positive control Group B, time of healing
EBZT
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BOE #
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amount (about 2:1 ratio) and suture material granulomas is presented in (A). Osteoid lamellae that tend to bind bone tissue to eosinophilic
material (which is represented by the bovine bone graft) are presented in (B), where some of the bone lamellae are focally delimited by
osteoblasts. *, osteoid lamellae.
graft, but it is not able to accelerate particles resorption of Multimodal CMS/SS OCT was applied to image and
this material in the interior of bone defect (50). Levels of analyze the different groups considered in order to assess
calcium, phosphorus, and protein can also be determined the new bone formation process: negative control Group A,
by using atomic absorption spectrometry, colorimetry, and positive control Group B (with additional bone), and Group
photometry when investigating possible effects of LLLT on C (with additional bone and LLLT). Imaging the bone
bone formation (51). defect on quadrants and using C-scans/en-face images (as
In another study, the histological evaluation showed a well as B-scans and confocal images), statistically consistent
statistically significant increase in new bone formation of conclusions were extracted from the study. Essentially,
LLLT group relative to the control (P<0.05). In addition, Group C was demonstrated to have more new formed bone
JOóBNNBUJPOXBTTJHOJòDBOUMZSFEVDFEJOUIF---5HSPVQ than Group B, which has more new bone than Group A. By
compared to the control (52). The histological evaluation analyzing the evolution of the quantity of new bone in time
still represents the gold standard, being relevant in assessing (by performing the euthanasia of the rats after three-time
JOóBNNBUPSZJOòMUSBUJPO
USBCFDVMBSCPOFNBUSJY
QFSJPTUFBM
JOUFSWBMT
JF
BGUFS
BOEEBZT
UIFNPTUTJHOJòDBOU
BOEOFXCPOFGPSNBUJPO
"MUIPVHIJUIBTBTJHOJòDBOU difference between these quantities of new bone was after
importance, the histological assessment is invasive, which 21 days, therefore approximately after two thirds of the total
does not allow any further examinations on the same time interval analyzed. After the longer time considered,
samples. In contrast to using these other methods, the the quantities of bone tend to move closer, which is logical,
present study demonstrates the capability of OCT to assess BTUIFZCFHJOUPòMMUIFBWBJMBCMFHBQ)JTUPMPHJDBMJNBHFT
newly formed bone, both qualitatively and quantitatively, were included in the study, to demonstrate the validity of
while the histological analysis has confirmed the findings the assumptions made regarding the different types of bone
obtained using OCT. JEFOUJòFEJOUIFTUVEZ
5PPVSLOPXMFEHF
UIJTJTUIFòSTUUJNFXIFO0$5IBT
been employed as a tool to assess the effects of laser photo-
Conclusions
biomodulation on bone regeneration. Despite inherent
A quantitative analysis of the process of bone formation limitations of the method, the results obtained and the
in rat calvaria was achieved using OCT. Such studies are statistics performed using OCT were in good agreement
FTTFOUJBMUPBTTFTTUIFFGòDJFODZPGEJGGFSFOUUFDIOJRVFTUIBU with previous studies that approached new bone formation
can be used in bone regeneration, especially taking into using other methods, including histology. As such, we
consideration the complexity of the wound healing process believe that this work represents a progress towards bone
BOEUIFMBSHFOVNCFSPGGBDUPSTJOóVFODJOHJU formation studies using en-face imaging.
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXXIII
796 Luca et al. Quantitative assessment of rat bone regeneration using complex master-slave OCT
Future work includes the application of LLLT to 2. Toscano N, Shumaker N, Holzclaw D. The art of
enhance the bone regeneration using different protocols block grafting - A review of the surgical protocol for
and parameters. All the data available in the literature reveal SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGBMWFPMBSSJEHFEFòDJFODZ+*NQMBOU"EW
UIBUUIFFGòDJFODZPGUIFUIFSBQZJTBGGFDUFECZUIFEPTBHF
Clin Dent 2010;2:45-66.
irradiation time, and mode. Regarding measurable effects, 3. Chiapasco M, Zaniboni M. Bone augmentation procedures
it seems that LLLT is more effective when applied in the in implant dentistry. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants
early stages of the wound healing, probably due to the high 2009;24:237-59.
cellular proliferation rate. The increase in vascularity and 4. Boyce T, Edwards J, Scarborough N. Allograft bone:the
the response of the osteoblasts remain important aspects to JOóVFODFPGQSPDFTTJOHPOTBGFUZBOEQFSGPSNBODF0SUIPQ
be taken into consideration when assessing LLLT effects. Clin North Am 1999;30:571-81.
Similar future studies may be considered to target the effect 5. Giannoudis PV, Dinopoulos H, Tsiridis E. Bone
of LLLT on cellular differentiation and growth, especially substitutes: an update. Injury 2005;36 Suppl 3:S20-7.
regarding mesenchymal stem cells and mesenchymal 6. Karageorgiou V and Kaplan D. Porosity of 3D biomaterial
stromal cells therapies, during what nowadays is known as scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials 2005;26:5474-91.
regenerative medicine. 7. Thaller SR, Hoyt J, Dart A, Borjeson K, Tesluk H. Repair
of experimental calvarial defects with Bio-Oss particles
and colagen sponges in a rabbit model. J Craniofac Surg
Acknowledgments
1994;5:242-6.
Funding: Romanian National Authority for Scientific 8. Accorsi-Mendonça T, Conz MB, Barros TC, de Sena
Research (CNDI–UEFISCDI) (PN-III-P2-2.1- LA, Soares Gde A, Granjeiro JM. Physicochemical
BG-2016-0297, http://3om-group-optomechatronics. characterization of two deproteinized bovine xenografts.
ro/); European Union through the European Regional Braz Oral Res 2008;22:5-10.
Development Fund, the Competitiveness Operational 9. Simion M, Fontana F, Rasperini G, Maiorana C. Vertical
Program (BioCell-NanoART, Grant POC-A1-A1.1.4-E nr. SJEHFBVHNFOUBUJPOCZFYQBOEFEQPMZUFUSBóVPSPFUIZMFOF
30/2016). A Bradu and AG Podoleanu also acknowledge the membrane and a combination of intraoral autogenous
support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research bone graft and deproteinized anorganic bovine bone (Bio
Council (EPSRC) (‘REBOT’, EP/N019229/1). Oss). Clin Oral Implants Res 2007;18:620-9.
10. Renno ACM, McDonnell PA, Parizotto NA, Laakso
EL. The effects of laser irradiation on osteoblast and
Footnote
osteosarcoma cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro.
Conflicts of Interest: AG Podoleanu is supported by the Photomed Laser Surg 2007;25:275-80.
National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research 11. Stein A, Benayahu D, Maltz L, Oron U. Low-level laser
$FOUSFBU.PPSòFMET&ZF)PTQJUBM/)4'PVOEBUJPO5SVTU irradiation promotes proliferation and differentiation
(NIHR) and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University of human osteoblasts in vitro. Photomed Laser Surg
College London, the Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit 2005;23:161-6.
Award. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to #BSCPTB%
EF4PV[B3"
9BWJFS.
EB4JMWB''
"SJTBXB
declare. EA, Villaverde AGJB. Effects of low-level laser therapy
(LLLT) on bone repair in rats:optical densitometry
Ethical Statement: The ethical approval for the preparation analysis. Lasers Med Sci 2013;28:651-6.
of bone samples was obtained from the International Animal 13. Cunha MJ, Esper LA, Sbrana MC, de Oliveira PG, do
Care and Use Committee on Ethics at the Experimental Valle AL, de Almeida AL. Effect of low-level laser on
Research Institute of the Victor Babeú University of bone defects treated with bovine or autogenous bone
Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara, Romania. grafts: in vivo study in rat calvaria. Biomed Res Int
2014;2014:104230.
14. da Silva RV, Camilli JA. Repair of bone defects treated with
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Cite this article as: Luca RE, Todea CD, Duma VF, Bradu
A, Podoleanu AG. Quantitative assessment of rat bone
regeneration using complex master-slave optical coherence
tomography. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798.
10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
© Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery. All rights reserved. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019;9(5):782-798 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/qims.2019.05.03
XXXVI
PROCEEDINGS OF SPIE
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XXXVII
Organized by
Romanian Society for Lasers in Dentistry (Romania)
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Victor Babes Timisoara (Romania)
Sponsored by
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Published by
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Volume 10831
Proceedings of SPIE, 1605-7422, V. 10831
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XXXVIII
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allows articles to be fully citable as soon as they are published online, and connects the same
identifier to all online and print versions of the publication. SPIE uses a seven-digit CID article
numbering system structured as follows:
The first five digits correspond to the SPIE volume number.
The last two digits indicate publication order within the volume using a Base 36 numbering
system employing both numerals and letters. These two-number sets start with 00, 01, 02, 03, 04,
05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 0A, 0B … 0Z, followed by 10-1Z, 20-2Z, etc. The CID Number appears on each
page of the manuscript.
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XXXIX
Contents
v Authors
ix Introduction
SESSION 1 LASERS IN DENTISTRY
10831 05 Marginal fit of CAD CAM all ceramic inlays: preliminary study [10831-6]
10831 06 The effect of the abutment occlusal convergence angles on the accuracy of digital and
conventional impressions [10831-7]
10831 0A Animal models in guided bone regeneration using photobiomodulation: general aspects and
particularities influencing the studies outcome - a review [10831-33]
10831 0C Comparative study of the efficiency of optical diagnostics in residual caries determination: in
vivo study [10831-39]
10831 0E Current capabilities and challenges for optical coherence tomography as a high impact non-
destructive imaging modality (Invited Paper) [10831-11]
10831 0F Design considerations for ease of access and maneuverability of OCT imaging platforms in the
oral cavity (Invited Paper) [10831-22]
LLL
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10831 0K Quantitative compressional OCE: obviating pitfalls in using pre-calibrated compliant layers
and some other practical obstacles [10831-8]
10831 0L Aspects of vignetting in a polygon mirror-based spectral filter for swept source optical
coherence tomography (SS-OCT) [10831-17]
10831 0M Biomimetic Tizian 'table tops' analyzed with swept source optical coherence tomography
[10831-18]
10831 0N Confocal laser scanning microscopy versus digital microscopy in the analysis of the marginal
adaptation of Tizian overlays [10831-19]
10831 0P Optical coherence tomography study regarding the enamel structure before and after
debonding [10831-24]
10831 0Q Evaluation of biodentine: tooth structures interfaces using laser scanning confocal microscopy
[10831-25]
10831 0T Modern evaluation of the quality of the techniques of root canal dental obturation [10831-47]
LY
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XLI
Authors
Numbers in the index correspond to the last two digits of the seven-digit citation identifier (CID) article
numbering system used in Proceedings of SPIE. The first five digits reflect the volume number. Base 36
numbering is employed for the last two digits and indicates the order of articles within the volume.
Numbers start with 00, 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 0A, 0B...0Z, followed by 10-1Z, 20-2Z, etc.
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