GROUND TREATEMENT

.
Vibro/ Dynamic/ Impact Compaction are methods of
densifying granular soils using a depth or surface vibrator/
impact. The effect is enhanced shear strength and stiffness. –
Use in loose sands, wind blown sands, cavities, fill material,
reclaimation.

Vibro Replacement is the installation of stone or concrete

columns in clayey or silty soils using a depth vibrator. The
improved soil matrix has higher shear strength and stiffness.
In addition, the stone columns may function as large diameter
drains for rapid consolidation. (Form of piling typically
achieving bearing capacities of 150kPa for SCC ).

Deep Soil Mixing involves the mixing of soft soils with a

binder, typically cement and/or lime, by mechanical means to
modify its properties. This treatment results in higher shear
strength and stiffness. These may be thought of a modified
modulus columns.

Compaction Grouting is a technique that creates grout bulbs

by injecting a stiff grout (under 1 – 7MPa 1000psi, pressure)
into the soil. This grout bulb displaces and compacts the in-
situ soil. Low slump grout maintains a homogenous mass
densifying the soil.

Jet Grouting utilizes a fluid jet (air, water and/or grout) to

erode and mix the in-situ soft or loose soils with grout slurry
(up to 11,000psi pressures). The result is significantly
increased shear strength and stiffness. In sandy soils,
permeability can be reduced to control water flow.
1. Vibro – Dynamic Compaction

The objective in Vibro Compaction (sand compaction)is to achieve

densification of coarse grained soils with less than 10-15% silt using a
‘vibrofloat’

The effect of the process is based on the fact that particles of non-
cohesive soil can be rearranged by means of vibration.

Effect of vibro compaction on soil density

The angle of friction is increased resulting in much higher shear

resistance. (see N spt - φ relationship charts).

The modulus of deformation (E) is also increased, resulting in reduced

settlements (see settlements of foundations influence charts and
equations).

The Vibro Compaction process may be described as follows:

1. Penetration. Water jets are fully opened to allow speedy penetration

to design depth. The vibrator penetrates the ground under its own self
weight.

2. Compaction & Backfilling. Upon reaching design depth, the vibrator

is held at that level to compact the soil. The vibrator is then lifted a
specified distance and held at that position. This is carried out until the
required zone of soil is treated. As the vibrator is being lifted stepwise,
sand is filled into the developing crater.
Dynamic/ Impact Compaction
This is a widely used soil improvement technique that involves the
dropping of large weights onto the soil, or the towing of "square" rolling
compactors. The success of dynamic compaction depends on soil type,
moisture content, compaction energy, but the depth and extent of the
soil improvement is often difficult to predict.

During the late 1940’s in South Africa, a young civil engineer by the
name of Aubrey Berrangé, was watching a fleet of equipment build an
embankment on a remote road building project. The soil was being
placed in thin layers and compacted with multiple passes of a vibratory
roller. As he watched, he was struck by the fact that, of all the
processes happening on the site, the compaction of the newly placed
soil was both the most critical to the success of the project and at the
same time, the least efficient. He began to wonder what it would take to
enable soil to be compacted in much thicker layers. Little did he know
at the time that his thinking was about to lead him into a study that
would last a lifetime and lead to the only real revolutionary advance in
soil compaction since the invention of the steam roller

Between the years of 1949 and 1953, Aubrey Berrangé worked on the
development of a “square wheel” roller. The principle was to provide a
large compactive force on a large contact area similar to a “stamper” or
a “rammer” but on a continuous basis. There were many development
challenges as the forces were enormous and it wasn’t as simple as one
might imagine at first. Nonetheless he persevered and through the
development of a series of trial machines, he was able to produce a
machine that effectively compacted soil to far greater depths than was
possible using the conventional vibratory equipment. Despite the
effectiveness of the “square rollers” the idea seemed to be a little
“ahead of it’s time” since the real need for deep compaction was not
clearly apparent to most people in the industry.

Some 20 years later, during the 1970’s, conditions for the use of “deep
compaction equipment” became more favourable. Roads were having
to withstand the strain of carrying larger truck loads, airports were
having to cater for much larger aircraft [747’s etc] and many places
around the world were looking at reclaiming land from the sea. With a
renewed interest in the requirement for deep compaction becoming
apparent, Aubrey Berrangé dug his old machine out of mothballs and
went in search of industrial development partners. What followed was a
twenty year development story that was filled with much intrigue and
interesting developments. Many collaborations were undertaken
including a lot of work done under the auspices of the South African
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research [CSIR]. During this twenty
year development period, the impact compactor became widely
accepted in Southern Africa and Australia. As the design was refined, a
twin mass [split-mass] configuration was adopted. This proved to
overcome some of the constraints of the single mass machines.
Different shapes of masses were also developed within the twin mass
range of equipment to better suit different applications.

One recent development was the introduction of Continuous Impact

Response [CIR] measurement to enable the effective control and
“certification” of the compaction performed by Landpac Impact
Compactors. This system is now being used as a quality control tool
and further development is taking place to enhance the capabilities of
this new technology

High energy impact compaction (HEIC) involves the transfer of

compaction energy into the soil by means of the lifting and falling
motion of non-circular rotating masses. The rotation of such masses to
their highest point results in an effective potential energy build-up.
Further rotation of these masses results in the conversion of this
potential energy into a falling kinetic energy, which is transferred to the
soil upon the impact of the lowest point of the masses with the surface
of the soil. The amount of energy transferred, in the form of compactive
effort, is closely related to the amount of potential energy generated in
the lifting process.
The high energy impact compaction equipment is towed along the
ground by a tractor at a relatively high speed of 10-13 km/h. The non-
circular masses are thus caused to rotate and generate a series of high
impact and high amplitude blows that are delivered to the surface of the
soil at a relatively low frequency of 90 to 130 blows per minute. The
energy per blow varies between 10kJ and 25kJ depending on the type
of compactor being utilised. Because the energy is transferred in the
form of a “dynamic load” it is possible to generate very high compaction
forces when utilising high energy impact compaction equipment. The
main features of this high energy impact compaction process include
the following:

Compaction Loads
The high energy and dynamic compaction action of the Landpac HEIC
equipment leads to typical compaction loads of between 1200kN and
2500kN being generated depending upon the type and condition of the
material being compacted.

Moisture Content
The high energy of the Landpac HEIC equipment leads to the ability to
compact material to a higher maximum dry density than is achievable
with conventional roller type of compaction equipment.
This high energy also allows for the compaction of material over a wider
range of moisture conditions particularly dry of optimum moisture
content.
Depth of Influence
The high compaction loads that are generated by the Landpac HEIC
equipment lead to high surface contact pressure on the soil. This
coupled to the relatively large contact area over which the compaction
energy transfer takes place, leads to a vastly increased depth of
influence of the compaction. Ground improvement is typically measured
to effective depths of 2m-3m with depths of up to 5m being recorded in
some applications.

Soil Compressibility
The shape of the non-circular masses allows for the high energy
parcels to be transferred in the form of a “rolling impact”. This means
that the load duration of the Landpac HEIC process is relatively long
[typically 0.12s]. This extended load transfer duration in turn leads to a
softer soil response to the load and hence an enhanced soil
compressibility is achievable.

Compaction Productivity
The relatively high operating speed and depth of influence of the
Landpac HEIC process leads to very high productivity of compaction.
The HEIC process can typically cover 15,000m² per hour per surface
coverage. The productivity of the Landpac HEIC process can be
between 2 and 5 times higher than that of conventional shallow
compaction equipment when performing fill works and many times
more productive than that when it comes to the improvement of in-situ
materials.

Landpac high energy impact compaction equipment thus provides a

process that allows for a wide range of applications from fill works
compaction through to deep in-situ ground improvement. In all of the
appropriate applications of this equipment it is possible to ensure
project cost savings whilst at the same time enhancing the quality

assurance of the works relative to the “in service” performance of the

materials that have been treated using this equipment.

A solid steel tamping weight is dropped onto the ground from a

sufficiently great height to achieve the necessary compaction. The
resulting high energy impact transmits shock waves through the treated
ground. This reduces voids between soil particles resulting in enforced
settlement, thus reducing long term settlement.

The treatment is carried out in a series of impact positions on various

grid patterns which are arranged so that compacted zones beneath the
weights overlap to ensure the whole area has been treated. As a result,
foundation loads can be supported without shear failure or excessive
settlement. This technique is used in conjunction with good control and
insitu testing procedures.

This treatment technique is not as widely used as stone columns due to

three main factors:

The range of soil types suitable for improvement is less wide than
that for stone columns e.g. soft clays and silts or sites with a high
water table are unsuitable
Dynamic compaction sets up much higher levels of vibrations
than stone column installation. Typically dynamic compaction can be
 carried out within 15m from existing services and 30m of existing
buildings

L Lower cost per square metre than stone columns

Sites where dynamic compaction would have a cost advantage over

stone columns include:

Large greenfield/brownfield sites

Sites where there are a significant amount of underground
obstructions. These would require extensive preparatory earthworks
by the Main Contractor to prepare the site for the stone columns or
piles

Summary: Vibro Compaction

Applicable soil(s) • Coarse grained soils with
silt/clay content less than 10-
15%

Principle • Densification by vibration

Effect(s) • Increased shear strength

• Increased stiffness
• Reduced liquefaction potential

Common applications • Buildings

• Chemical plants
• Storage tanks & silos
• Pipelines
• Wharf structures
• Embankments
• Roads

Maximum depth • 60 m vibro piling technique

•
• (2-4m rolling dynamic
compaction)

Land / offshore • Both

application
2. Vibro Replacement

Vibro Replacement is a technique of constructing stone/ concrete

columns through fill material and weak soils to improve their load
bearing and settlement characteristics. Unlike clean granular soils, fine
grained soils (such as clays and silts) do not densify effectively under
vibrations. Hence, the necessity to form stone columns to reinforce and
improve fill materials, weak cohesive and mixed soils.

Principle of Vibro Replacement

The stone columns and intervening soil form and integrated foundation
support system having low compressibility and improved load bearing
capacity. In cohesive soils, excess pore water pressure is readily
dissipated by the stone columns and for this reason, reduced
settlements occur at a faster rate than is normally the case with
cohesive soils.
There are different types of installation methods which can be broadly
classified in the following manner:
• Wet top feed method
• Dry bottom feed method
• Offshore bottom feed method

The installation process may be described as follows: .

1. Penetration The depth vibrator is used to penetrate the ground to be

treated by a combination of vibrations, self weight, push down force
(the Vibrocat method) or water jetting (wet method). Depth sensors
allow the operator to know when design depth has been reached.

2. Stone feeding & Compaction Stone is feed into the hole either from
the surface via a wheel loader (topfeed method) or through a stone
tube to the tip of the vibrator (bottom feed method).

This single charge of stone is then compacted by the vibrator. The

stone is forced downward and outward leaving a short length of
compacted stone, with a diameter larger than the diameter of the hole
created by the vibrator.

Once this stage is completed, another charge of stone is introduced

and compacted. This process is repeated upwards till the desired
length is achieved.

The VCCs technique is most appropriate when there is a limited

thickness of particularly soft/weak soils. It is applicable for soil strata
with a shear strength of greater than 15kPa, up to around 60kPa, under
specific conditions and can be utilised for soils with shear strengths in
the range of 8kPa to 15kPa - providing these are generally not thicker
than 1.0m.

Ideally the soil to be penetrated should be of constant strength or

increasing strength with depth, to eliminate the risk of ‘necking’.

UUse of VCC Light to medium loaded structures such as industrial units,

offices and low rise housing. They are principally designed to take
vertical axial loads and can only accommodate low horizontal loads or
tensile forces.
 To support foundation loads and slabs, but slabs must be
sufficiently reinforced to prevent ‘punching’ of the concrete columns
through the slab.

Summary: Vibro Replacement

Principle • Reinforcement
• Drainage

Applicable soil(s) • Mixed deposits of clay, silt and

sand
• Soft and ultra soft silts (slimes)
• Soft and ultra soft clays
• Garbage fills

Effect(s) • Increased shear strength

• Increased stiffness
• Reduced liquefaction potential

Common applications • Airport taxiways and runways

• Chemical plants
• Storage tanks & silos
• Pipelines
• Bridge abutments and approaches
• Offshore bridge abutments
• Road and railway embankments

Maximum depth • 20-40 m

Land / offshore application • Both

Deep Soil Mixing

Dry mixing is a highly effective ground treatment system used to

improve the load performance of soft clays, peat and other weak soils.
By varying the proportion of lime, cement and admixtures, a range of
strength gains can be achieved. The greatest improvements can be
achieved in inorganic soils with low moisture content. Extremely good
results can also be achieved in sensitive clays. This constructs a
modified modulus soil column, similar to pile element.
The mixing rig and shuttle

The Deep Mixing Method can be performed in most soft soils. Mixing in
the soil is performed through:

• Rotating a mixing tool, drilling the tool into the soil

• Reverse drilling rotation, extracting it again at the same time as the
dry binder is blown out and mixed into the soil.

Through the rotating movement, the soil is mixed with the binder and an
immediate reaction starts. The improved soil acquires the share of a
column. Soil mix column diameters of 500mm to 1000mm and lengths
of up to 25m can be constructed to a controlled height and depth. The
columns can also be interlocked to provide cellular structure of in-situ
wall or the entire mass cab be stabilized.
Summary: Dry Deep Soil Mixing
Principle • Chemical stabilization

Applicable soil(s) • Clayey silt

• Clays
• Marine clay
• Sensitive clay
• Mud
• Peat

Effect(s) • Increased shear strength

• Increased stiffness

Common applications • Deep excavation

• Road and railway embankment
• Quay walls

Maximum depth • 25 m

Land / offshore • Land

application
Compaction Grouting

Compaction grouting is a technique in which a stiff to plastic grout is

injected into the soil under pressure. It expands in the soil as a
relatively homogenous mass and at the same time forming almost ball-
shaped grout bulbs. The soil surrounding the grouted area is displaced
and at the same time compacted. Compared to other grouting
techniques, the grout material neither penetrates into the pores of the
in-situ soil (as is the case with classical injection) nor are local cracks
formed (as is the case with the Soilfrac® technique). During the
compaction grouting process, the following are monitored:

Pressure
• Grout quantity
• Ground surface deformation
• Heave of structures

Depending on the design requirements, the compaction grouting

process will be terminated either when reaching a maximum pressure,
a maximum grout volume, when achieving the desired uplift of the
structure of in case of grout material flowing out on the site surface.
The compaction grouting method may be used for the improvement of
non-cohesive soil, especially in cases where soils of loose to medium
density are encountered.

This method is also used in fine-grained soils in order to install

elements of higher strength and bearing capacity in soils of low bearing
capacity. This improves the load bearing behaviour of such soils. When
using this technique in saturated clayey soil, a temporary increase of
pore water pressure can be observed. (Due to the fact that fine-grained
soils cannot be compacted from the soil mechanics point of view- by
applying the same technique- strictly speaking, “consolidation grouting”
is carried out.)

The degree of compaction can be controlled by the following

parameters:
• Evaluation of the automatically recorded process parameters by
means of software
• Deformation measurements at ground surface or structures
• Soundings (CPT, SPT) before and after the compaction grouting
process
Summary: Compaction Grouting
Principle • Reinforcement
• Compaction

Applicable soil(s) • Loose to medium dense sands

• Fine-grained soils

Effect(s) • Increased shear strength

• Increased stiffness

Common applications • Ground improvement

• Foundation rehabilitation
• Cavity grouting

Maximum depth • 40 m

Land / offshore • Land

application
Jet Grouting

The jet grouting process is known as Soilcrete ® is a recognized

method for cement soil stabilization. With the aid of high pressure
cutting jets of either water or cement suspension, the soil around the
borehole is eroded. The process uses nozzle velocities greater than or
equals to 100 m/s and also has the possibility of air-shrouding.

The eroded soil is rearranged and mixed with the cement suspension.
The soil-cement mix is partly flushed out to the top of the borehole
through the annular space between the jet grouting rods and the
borehole. Different geometrical configurations of Soilcrete elements can
be produced. The erosion distance of the jet varies according to the soil
type to be treated, the kind of Soilcrete process and the jetting fluid
being used.
Basic forms of Solicrete® elements

There are two broad categories of main Soilcrete applications-

stabilization and sealing. Underpinning work for adjacent construction
pits is one of the main applications of soil stabilization, followed by
foundation modifications and restoration. The techniques opens news
ways for tunnel construction in loose soil. Excavation pits constructed
with waterproof Soilcrete elements in the walls, combined with low
permeability slabs enables the execution of deep excavations without
large-scale ground water lowering. Environmentally safe binder
materials are used for Soilcrete.

Drilling rigs manufactured by Keller have masts ranging from 2m to

35m to enable work with low headroom as well as optimal work rate in
open spaces. The process may be summarized as follows.

1. Drilling Drill rods equipped with jet nozzle holder and drill bit are used
to drill the jet grouting hole down to the required depth. Normally the jet
grout mixture is used as drill flushing to stabilize the borehole during the
drilling operation. In masonry and concrete, special drilling bits are
used.

2. Jetting The dissolution of the grain texture with a powerfulfluid jet

starts at the lower end of the Soilcrete element. The excess water-soil-
cement mixture is removed to the surface through the annular space
between drill rod and borehole wall. The pre-selected production
parameters are constantly monitored.
3. Grouting For all Soilcrete variations, cement suspension is injected
under pressure simultaneously with the erosion of the soil. The
turbulences caused by the jetting technique results in the uniform
mixing of the grout with the soil within the treatment zone.

4. Extension Soilcrete elements of each type may be constructed fresh-

on-fresh as well as fresh-against-firm and combined in a variety of
ways. The working sequence follows the technical requirements and
the conditions of the structure to be treated.

Summary: Soilcrete(®- Keller GE) Jet Grouting

Principle • Chemical stabilization
• Reinforcement

Applicable soil(s) • Clay

• Silt
• Sand

Effect(s) • Increased shear strength

• Increased stiffness

Common applications • Underpinning & foundation

rehabilitation
• Tunnel protection
• Horizontal grouting
• Shaft support
• Earth pressure relief
• Watertight sealing slab
• Joint sealing between pile
• Vault slabs
• Dam sealing
• Panel walls

Maximum depth • 35 m

Land / offshore • Land

application