Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
May 2009
by
Verdell Walker
This Thesis won the 2009 Kenneth S. Grossman Senior Research Prize for Global Studies,
administered by the Center for Urban and Global Studies. The Kenneth S. Grossman ’78
Global Studies Fund was established in honor of Professor Eugene Leach in support of
student investigations of global issues that will confront mankind collectively in the 21st
century.
2
ABSTRACT
The objective of this thesis is to analyze the performance of Islamic equity funds versus
their conventional, interest-based counterparts. This was accomplished by calculating and
comparing the returns for four Islamic equity funds and two conventional funds for specified
time periods. Chapter one will provide a brief historical background on the evolution of Islamic
law (“Sharia”). Chapter two will provide a quick review of the literature surrounding portfolio
theory, as developed by Markowitz, Tobin, Sharpe and others, and its application to “real world”
portfolios. Chapter three will treat the constraints Sharia imposes on investing, which include
prohibitions on certain lines of business, restrictions on allowable amounts of debt, and
inhibitions to the development of Islamic investment management funds. Chapter four will
examine the performance of Islamic funds. Chapter five will deal with other investment options
for Muslim investors. Chapter six will discuss the dangers of Sharia arbitrage and the prospects
for greater expression of Muslim principles in Islamic finance. The findings presented in chapter
five indicate that Muslims may not necessarily have to pay an opportunity cost for adhering to
their faith in their financial affairs. While of course longer time horizons are needed to make
more certain judgments, the Islamic funds have charted excellent performance over the time
horizons considered and have performed well versus their conventional counterparts. Indeed, the
superior returns of the Amana funds have attracted the attention and funds of non-Muslim
investors as well.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis could not have happened without the guidance, support, and expertise of the
following:
My mother
Rachel Barlow
Marlene Barzana
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
VIII. Conclusions
X. Appendices
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Good Money Industrial Average vs the Dow Jones Industrial Average, 1976-2000
....................................................................................................................................................... 90
Table 2. The Good Money Utility Average vs The Dow Jones Utility Average, 1976-2000 ...... 91
Table 3. AMAGX During Last Stock Market Downturn ........................................................... 109
Table 4. AMANX During the Last Stock Market Downturn ..................................................... 110
Table 5. IMANX During the Last Stock Market Downturn ....................................................... 111
Table 6. Number of Securities - Islamic Portfolios .................................................................... 112
Table 7. Industry Allocation - Highest Percentages ................................................................... 113
LIST OF FIGURES
Special Note: References to individual hadith and/or hadith collections in this thesis will be
found in footnotes.
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CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
Since 2001, the Islamic finance industry has grown by an astonishing 20% to 30%,
making it the fastest growing segment of the global financial industry (Carruthers and Colangelo,
2008). Islamic finance has long had a foothold in the Middle East and other countries with large
Muslim populations, and now it is expanding in the United States and Europe. The rise of this
industry has tracked the concurrent growth in the western Muslim population. Particularly in the
US and the UK, immigration and conversion to Islam are fueling the growth of the Muslim
demographic. These Muslims tend to be well-educated and middle class, and many of them are
demanding more Islamic financial products. Western financial institutions, such as HSBC and
Citibank, have been striving to acquiesce to this new source of customers. The growing demand
for Islamic financial products and services as well as the recent increased focus upon the Islamic
world highlights the rising influence of Islam and Muslims in global political, economic, and
social arenas.
The contracts used today in the industry are based on the intellectual and juristic efforts of some
of Islam’s greatest scholars and jurists. Taking the contracts those jurists devised as a foundation,
industry practitioners construct contracts and instruments to meet the financial needs of Muslims
seeking liquidity and financing, as well as enabling them to conform to the letter and spirit of
their religious obligations. Contrary to popular belief, Islamic law is not a rigid system of rules
and regulations devised in the 8th Century C.E. In practice, Sharia is dynamic, fluid, and open to
interpretations by Muslim jurists who strive constantly to adapt Islamic law to meet new
challenges to the Muslim way of life. Guided by the Quran, Muhammad’s example, these jurists
exercise a certain degree of independent reason but always do so within the boundaries set down
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by their faith. Their objective is to refine and expand the law and, by extension, Islam itself, as a
The development of the Islamic financial industry holds great promise for Muslims and
non-Muslims alike. Muslims will gain an industry dedicated to meeting their business and
financial needs while at the same time affording them the opportunity to adhere to their religious
beliefs if they so choose. And since Islamic finance and investment shares many of the same
standards and principles as the modern ethical investment movement, non-Muslim investors will
gain an avenue through which they can find expression for their ethical and social values while
also pursuing and protecting their own financial wealth and gain. Moreover, it seems that
Muslims may not necessarily have to sacrifice financial gain for their principles. One of the
central aims of this thesis is to investigate and analyze the performance of Islamic equity
portfolios relative to conventional (i.e. not subject to the restrictions and guidelines of Islamic
law) equity portfolios. The results indicate that Islamic funds perform better or at least as well as
conventional funds. This is a positive validation for the Islamic financial industry in particular
However, in order to move forward, the Islamic financial industry must overcome
significant challenges. The most serious obstacle the industry currently faces is its present
reliance on prohibitions, the most famous of which is the prohibition on paying and receiving
interest. The Islamic financial industry is now a prohibition driven industry. Unfortunately, many
Islamic financial institutions focus on crafting products and services that simply mimic
conventional financial products. These “Islamic” products differ from their conventional
counterparts only in name. The mechanisms through which they are created, such as adding
degrees of separation and incorporating special purpose entities, only impose added costs and
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economic inefficiencies on a captive market of Muslims who wish to follow the precepts of their
faith. This phenomenon is known as Sharia arbitrage, and as we shall see in the following
chapters it has the potential to cause serious and lasting damage to the nascent Islamic financial
The prohibition-focused nature of the industry as it currently is poses the danger that
practitioners will become more focused on adhering to religio-legal form rather than on
promoting the moral substance of the Sharia. Helping Muslims avoid those actions that are
impermissible in Islam is only half the battle. The industry should also strive to allow Muslims to
further the aim of Islam itself: to promote and protect the welfare of humankind while bringing it
closer to God. Furthermore, the same intellectual vitality that characterizes other spheres of
Islamic law must be applied with the same vigor in Islamic finance. While there is nothing
wrong with using medieval contracts as a starting point for formulating new financial
instruments – indeed, modern Islamic bankers would be remiss if they did not take advantage of
the rich legacy and achievements left behind by the brilliant scholar-jurists of old – the industry
should endeavor to reduce their reliance on religious forms and instead find new ways to meet
contemporary financial challenges. This is precisely how jurists of the classical and medieval
periods of Islamic history formulated these contracts in the first place! If the industry continues
along its current path, it risks losing the innovative quality so characteristic of Islamic
jurisprudence itself, falling into stagnation, and worst of all, failing to realize its full potential.
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The main purpose of this work is to examine a subset of Islamic finance, namely Islamic
investing. However, Islamic investing and finance cannot be fully understood without a working
knowledge of the broader canopy under which it rests – Islamic law. The rules that govern
Islamic finance and contractual obligations as they relate to business and commerce are an
important component of the wider body of Islamic law. Muslims believe that in order to direct
their business and financial dealings God has laid down guidelines to which they must adhere.
Some are explicit, while others require elucidation from qualified religio-legal specialists. To
help the reader better understand these religious requirements, this chapter is devoted to offering
a brief sketch of the history and evolution of this body of legal thought.
Joseph Schacht (1964) describes Islamic law as the “epitome of Islamic thought, the most
typical manifestation of the Islamic way of life, the core and kernel of Islam itself” (p. 1). Islamic
law is aimed at guiding the footsteps of Muslims in this world and the next, regulating their
religious and secular conduct. One of its key goals is to educate humans in how to maintain the
correct relationship with both God and other human beings. Islamic law is often equated with the
Arabic word “Sharia.” In its narrowest sense, Islamic law comprises legal rules. But the term
Sharia connotes more than legal rules; it refers to the method of conduct that Muslims must
employ in their lives, religiously, ethically, and legally (Zahraa, 2000, p. 169; Mahmassani, 1961,
pp.10-11). Many Muslims believe that the Sharia has a defined set of objectives, known as the
maqasid al-Sharia. These objectives center on protecting and preserving a set of key elements:
2. Religion
3. Wealth
4. Intellect
5. Progeny/lineage (taking care of widows, orphans, and the elderly falls into this
6. Honor (debated by scholars) (Marwa Aly, personal communication, January 29, 2009;
Anything that promotes or protects these elements should be supported and/or allowed. The
Islamic legal system that can be seen as the articulation of the Sharia and its aforementioned
goals can be divided into two main spheres: ibadat and muamalat. Ibadat, which means
“rituals,” refers to matters of religion, such as prayers, the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), paying
zakat (charitable donations), and other obligations incumbent upon Muslims. Muamalat, which
means “transactions,” describes social, political, and economic practices and issues that are most
akin to the subject matter of other legal systems. This second part is further divided into three
spheres: criminal law, family law, and transactions (the purview of Islamic finance) (Badr, 1978,
p. 188).
So how do Muslim jurists (the fuqaha) derive the rules and regulations that make up the
Sharia? This is achieved through the science of fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence. Meaning
“knowledge,” fiqh is the methodological process through which qualified individuals have
shaped the development, interpretation and derivation of the Sharia throughout history. Islamic
law is not static, even in this present age. Through the methodologies of fiqh, jurists continue to
respond to the legal questions that arise and shape daily life for Muslims. The Sharia and its
attendant legal rules are based upon a set of both primary (i.e. divine and passed from God to
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humankind through the prophets) and secondary sources, discussed in the next chapter.
To deduce the substance of Islamic law, Muslim jurists rely on two primary sources: the
Quran and the Sunna. The Quran is the holy book of Islam, while the Sunna can best be
described as the example of Muhammad to which Muslims can look for guidance as to how to
live the most pious and authentically Islamic life possible. Whenever a jurist is trying to find the
answer to some religious or legal question, it is to these sources that he looks first.
The Quran
Without a doubt, the Quran is the most important source of Islamic law. For all Muslim
jurists past and present, regardless of their differences in opinion on innumerable legal issues, the
Quran is the backbone of Islamic law. Muslims believe that the Quran was revealed to
Muhammad by God over a period of approximately twenty years in the cities of Mecca and
Medina. The Meccan chapters, or suras as they are known in Arabic, are typically shorter,
emotionally powerful, and deal with matters of religion and faith. The Medinan suras are usually
longer and provide the most detailed legal guidelines. The Quran was not written down during
Muhammad’s lifetime. After his death his companions began the process of transcribing the holy
book. During his reign from 644 to 656, the third caliph Uthman ordered that the Quran be
compiled into one definitive version and distributed to the provinces of the growing Muslim
The subject matter of Islamic law is ubiquitously Quranic in origin; all works of fiqh
throughout Islamic history touch on the same subjects – such as prayer, divorce, making alms,
the hajj, etc. – because these subjects were initially raised in the Quran. If a subject is not
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directly dealt with in the Quran, it usually has some Quranic inspiration. For instance, the Quran
makes no mention of many of the various business contracts used in Islamic finance. However,
when formulating these contracts, jurists were expressly concerned with structuring the contract
in such a way that Muslims could avoid riba and gharar, both expressly forbidden in the Quran
(and discussed in the next chapter). 1 The verses that deal with licit and illicit acts and behaviors,
as opposed to those concerned with ritual duties, are few in number in proportion to the Quran’s
total verses, usually 6236 in most modern editions. However, as opposed to other verses, the
legal verses are often longer in length and rarely repeated (Dutton, 1999, pp.157-161). The
Quran offers the most comprehensive legal rulings in personal law, such as issues of divorce,
Muslim jurists are convinced of the primacy of the holy book, especially in light of such
verses as Quran 6:38 (“…Nothing have we omitted from the book….,” )and Quran 16:89 (“…We
have sent down to thee a Book explaining all things, a guide, a mercy and glad tidings to
Muslims”). These verses led many Muslim jurists to believe that the Quran is a complete guide
to the proper Islamic life and the answer to every possible question, and thus it was up to them to
research the Quran and identify the answers contained therein, the real intentions of God, and the
proof to support their legal arguments. Yet as mentioned above the Quran contains very few
explicit legal rulings, so many scholars divide the Quran’s verses into two classes. First, there are
verses which have clear meanings, and second, there are verses whose subtle nuances of meaning
and connotation must be extracted by rational deduction and subject to interpretation (Zahraa,
2000, p.190). For this reason, jurists rely on the second most important source for the Sharia: the
Sunna.
1
Riba is unjustified enrichment through the exploitation of others or through the appropriation of other’s property
for one’s own use without a legitimate reason. It is dealt with numerous times in the Quran. Gharar is excessive risk
and uncertainty in business and finance. Riba and gharar will be treated extensively in chapter III.
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The Sunna
To the adherents of Islam, Muhammad is considered the perfect Muslim, the embodiment
of all that is good in man and an infallible example. Muslims attach great importance to his
words, deeds, and personal attributes, as well his acceptance of others’ actions, both tacit and
explicit. The sayings and actions of Muhammad are collectively known as the Sunna of the
Prophet (Mahmassani, 1961, pp. 71-73). The Sunna can be viewed as a natural extension of the
Quran; the dictates contained within the Book, according to early jurists, were personified and
put into action by Muhammad. Muhammad created a model for living the proper Muslim
lifestyle by demonstrating to his disciples, through his own life, how to fulfill the obligations laid
down in the Quran, such as prayer, paying zakat, and so forth. Symbolically the Sunna will never
usurp the primacy of the Quran, but it is undoubtedly a necessary complement to the Book itself
(Dutton, 1999, pp. 161-164). In practice, it is referred to much more often than the Quran in fiqh.
Throughout the centuries, the prophetic Sunna has been recorded in collections of the
traditions of Muhammad, the Hadith. A hadith is essentially a report from one or more of the
Companions of what Muhammad said or did. The Companions were those early Muslims who
saw or spoke with Muhammad, the most prominent of which were his close associates. The
reports of the Companion(s) were passed down through time through a chain of narrators, or
isnad. The credibility of the isnad was of vital importance, as only the reports of the most
trustworthy narrators were accepted by Muslims. In the eighth century, hadiths began to be
collected, authenticated, and compiled into complete collections. Thus hadiths can be considered
the textual building blocks of the Sunna. There have been numerous compilations of hadith
throughout Islamic history, but the two best known collections are referred to as the Sahih
(Arabic for ‘authentic’) books, written by Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari (d.
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870) and Abu al-Husayn Muslim al-Nisaburi (d. 875). Both Bukhari and Muslim searched
throughout the Muslim provinces for their traditions, painstakingly asserting the accuracy and
authenticity of the narratives and their isnads (Mahmassani, 1961, pp. 71-72).
As mentioned earlier, the revealed sources of the Quran and the Sunna are the foundation
of Islamic law. While they do provide specific rulings on some legal issues, for the most part,
jurists must engage in the processes of deduction to derive the law from these sources. This is
done using the two secondary sources: ijma (consensus of opinion) and ijtihad (deductive
reasoning).
Ijma
Ijma, the consensus of the Muslim community on a hukm (regulation of God), is regarded
as the third most important source of Islamic law. In practice it is often thought of as the
unanimous opinion of jurists at a specific time about a particular legal question. Its primary
function was to determine whether a jurist’s opinion was valid or weak. This doctrine is based on
the well known prophetic hadith, “My people shall not agree in error” (Saleh, 1998, p. 260). In
the early days of Islam, consensus referred to the unanimous agreement of the Muslim
community. Later, as Islam spread from the Hijaz across the Near East and the Mediterranean,
consensus came to be thought of as the agreement in opinion of Muslim jurists in any particular
point in time, which represented the Muslim public, or those who were involved in the
tacit acquiescence on the part of jurists. Shiite jurists held different views on ijma than Sunnis.
Shiites only accept the consensus of Muhammad’s family, Ahl al-Bayt, or an endorsement by one
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of Shiite Islam’s infallible Imams, instead of the mere consensus of the ulama (the community of
legal/religious scholars who were well versed in Islam and the Sharia) (Kamali, 1996, p. 24;
Despite a vast treatment in works of fiqh, as yet there is no generally accepted view about
what ijma truly is. Scholars have debated the scope, form, and proper application of ijma since
the 8th century, when it became formalized along with the other methodologies of fiqh. Some
scholars, like Hanafis (adherents to one of the major schools of Islamic law discussed later), felt
that ijma should include all Muslims in order to be valid, while others, such as eleventh century
scholar Ibn Hazm, believed that only the consensus of the Companions mattered. In addition,
there is wide disagreement on the authority of tacit ijma. Some schools of law (again the Hanafis)
allowed tacit ijma, other schools did not (like the now extinct Zahiri school), and still others trod
a middle road like the Shafiis, who only allowed tacit ijma if certain guidelines were met (for
example, there must be indications of approval by the silent parties). Scholars even disagreed on
what types of questions ijma could answer. The great Islamic scholar al-Ghazzali (d. 1111) felt
ijma could answer all questions, while others felt that ijma could only be used for questions that
had not already been answered in the Quran (“Idjma,” 1971, pp. 1023-1026).
jurists, also exists. Al-jamhur is attained when a majority of jurists agrees on a specific ruling,
thus lending the ruling a higher degree of probability of being truly Islamic. The individual
opinion of a jurist is challengeable until it is supported by other jurists, through either ijma or
jamhur (Zahraa, 2000, p. 183). Before this occurs, a ruling is considered to be probable. The
approval of other jurists transforms the ruling into one of certainty. Furthermore, the case
establishes a precedent that can be followed by later jurists in similar cases. In its capacity as a
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precedent-forming process, consensus has been a powerful force in the development of Islamic
law, and it has important implications for the rise of taqlid, or imitation, which will be discussed
dramatically waned as the Muslim world grew. If it exists at all today, it is usually on minor
points of legal detail. Some have even gone so far as to suggest that in modern times ijma should
not be limited to Muslim jurists but should consist of all Muslims (Weiss, 1978, p. 209; Kamali,
1996, pp. 23-24). This is obviously impractical in modern times where Muslims reside in every
corner of the inhabited world and obtaining the opinion of each one of them is at the height of
infeasibility.
Ijtihad
Ijtihad is perhaps one of the most – if not the most – important concepts in the study of
Islamic jurisprudence. Simply put, ijtihad is the process in which a mujtahid (one who practices
ijtihad) uses his own reasoning to deduce the answer to a legal question; he extracts this answer
from the Quran and Sunna, his source material. Ijtihad, which literally means “endeavor” or
“self-exertion,” is the opposite of taqlid, or imitation. Taqlid is the acceptance of a rule based on
the authority of past jurists and/or previously settled legal cases. In general, Muslims do not
believe that a mujtahid creates Islamic law; rather he “discovers” that which was already
implicitly present in the Quran and the Sunna (Weiss, 1978, pp. 200-206).
Muhammad describes the rewards awaiting the jurist who practices ijtihad in the next life. Even
if his judgment is incorrect, he would still receive a reward. If the jurist had reasoned correctly
he would be doubly rewarded. In ijtihad, the jurist must apply himself to the utmost and
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sincerely seek God’s pleasure to receive the favor; if not, he is doomed to burn in hellfire
(Zahraa, 2000, pp. 192-193; Makdisi, 1979, p.1). Theoretically the opinions of a jurist should be
objective, not subjective. If personal preferences or other subjective whims infiltrate a juristic
decision, it is rejected as bida, or improper innovation (Weiss, 1978, p. 206). Keep in mind bida
does not mean innovation in the sense that we now know it; indeed ijtihad is used precisely to
Ijtihad has numerous sub-varieties, each geared toward applying the general guidelines of
Islamic law to new legal cases (Kamali, 1996, p. 21). One of the most widely used modes of
ijtihad is qiyas (analogy). Qiyas is used to discover the solution to a new legal quandary, except
if that case has already been addressed in the Quran and the Sunna. Analogy consists of two
The more prevalent of the two, the analogy of similarities, is used when a case in
question bears marked similarities to a case that has already been decided. Muslim jurists
developed this doctrine on the premise that rules are made to fulfill various objectives and
interests. These objectives and interests are the impetus for the rules. Thus, they could apply the
same rule to another problem which shared the same cause (illa) (Mahmassani, 1961, p. 79;
Hallaq, 1986, p. 427). Once a new case is found to share the same illa with a previous case, the
judgment of the original case is transferred to the new, ensuring consistency and continuity in
Islamic law. Scholars of fiqh have laid down strict parameters for the isolation of the illa, since
the illa was the key factor in analogies of similarities. Misusing the illa was tantamount to
The analogy of opposites was slightly more straightforward, if not used so often as its
counterpart. Jurists simply did not apply a rule that had been established in an earlier case to a
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new case if it was determined that the new case did not share the same illa with the old. Hence, a
new rule would have to be developed through some other mode of ijtihad (Mahmassani, 1961, p.
79).
In order to qualify as a mujtahid, a Muslim jurist first had to acquire a lofty set of
prerequisites and qualifications. Besides a deep understanding of the Quran and the Sunna, a
mujtahid must also have a firm grasp of Quranic Arabic language and grammar, the
circumstances of the revelation of the Quran (asbab al-nuzul), the wording of verses, the
multiple meanings of different words, and al-naskh, the doctrine of abrogation (discussed briefly
later in the chapter) (Zahraa, 2000, p. 190). These rigorous standards have led some to believe
that not everyone is qualified to perform ijtihad. Therefore, most Muslims are simply taught to
The authority of the results of a jurist’s ijtihad rests only in the fact that what he has
derived is based upon the Quran and the Sunna, not on his personal merit, however great it may
be. Even if the ruling is issued by a learned and talented jurist, it is still an opinion (unless of
course it is corroborated by ijma or jamhur) (Weiss, 1978, p. 203). It is the pursuit of this ilm, or
knowledge, in which jurists are so entangled. Since each ruling is by nature fallible opinion
created by humans, Sunni jurists acknowledge the possibility of error, which is evidenced in the
obey even erroneous rulings, provided that jurists derived them from the texts in good faith and
sincerity.
The Quran, Sunna, ijma, and ijtihad are the four main sources of Islamic law. They are
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widely accepted and applied by nearly all Muslim jurists. While disputes over the authenticity of
hadith, the conditions for ijma, and the methods of qiyas did arise, greater differences also arose
among groups of jurists who favored other strategies for adapting Islamic law to new situations.
Some jurists accepted new methods while others rejected them. These controversies were some
of the main points of division among the madhhabs, or “schools” of Islamic law, which emerged
in the tenth and eleventh centuries. This chapter will deal with a few of these principles.
Maslaha is the Islamic concept of public interest or welfare. It is the direct opposite of
madarra and mafsada, which both denote “injury.” Anything which prevents or mitigates
mafsada and promotes the overall welfare of humanity can be termed maslaha. Legally, maslaha
is to be distinguished from istislah, which is a mode of legal reasoning that uses maslaha as
grounds for making a legal decision. The great eighth- century scholar Malik ibn Anas is
traditionally thought to be the first jurist to have used maslaha as a basis for legal reasoning, and
it is accepted as a valid legal source by the madhhab, or school of jurisprudence, that bears his
name. Other jurists and madhhabs typically reject it. 2 Istislah was developed by later jurists who
claimed Malik had been first to use the method. Before Malik, the concept of public welfare had
been used to decide numerous legal matters during the time of the seventh century even though
It was not until the time of the esteemed eleventh century scholar Abd al-Hamid al-
Ghazzali that maslaha emerged as a mature principle. Al-Ghazzali insisted that maslaha was
about more than just averting mafsada; instead, it was actually the ultimate purpose of the Sharia
itself. Al-Ghazzali reasoned that maslaha was anything that furthered the aims of the Sharia,
2
However, no indisputable evidence has demonstrated that Malik ever used maslaha as a basis of reasoning, and
other jurists have also been said to be the first to consider it.
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namely the maqasid al-Sharia. Anything that hampered this goal was mafsada. According to al-
Ghazzali, the achievement of maslaha was paramount and necessary, and qiyas was the
appropriate tool to use to reach that end. To al-Ghazzali, maslaha is divided into al-darurat
(necessities), al-hajiyyat (needs), and al-tahsinat (improvements). The second and third
categories require a textual reference from the Quran, the Sunna, or the precedent of ijma be
found through qiyas. Alternatively, al-Ghazzali considered the al-darurat to be enough for a
legal decision, even without employing qiyas on the first three sources of the law, because al-
darurat constitutes the ultimate aim of the Sharia itself. Essentially al-Ghazzali argued that
maslaha was a source of law unto itself, irrespective of the other sources.
The thirteenth-century jurist Nadim al-Din al-Tawfi took al-Ghazzali’s reasoning a step
further. He believed that if maslaha contradicted one of the primary sources, it should overrule
the source because maslaha was God’s primary goal, and the Sharia was meant to promote it. He
cites passages from the Quran and the prophetic traditions to support his argument, particularly
the hadith la darar wa-la dirar (“no injury should be imposed nor an injury to be inflicted as a
penalty for another injury”). Al-Tawfi thus promoted the principle of maslaha in all aspects of
legal transactions (muamalat) but not in religious matters (ibadat). Underlying both al-
Ghazzali’s and al-Tawfi’s reasoning are the overarching objectives of the maqasid al-Sharia i.e.
the need to promote and protect life, religion, wealth, intellect, and progeny. Today, the principle
of maslaha has been enjoying renewed interest from Muslim jurists, including those involved in
Islamic finance, where it is used to argue that in order to prevent undue hardship Muslims should
be allowed to pursue certain modern financial instruments and processes that may not be strictly
Al-Naskh
As we have seen, maslaha can be used as a justification for allowing Muslims to engage
in activities that may not have a basis in the Quran, Sunna or precedents of ijma, or that might
even contravene these texts, provided that compelling evidence of the need to do so exists.
Maslaha, as envisioned by al-Tawfi and others, is itself related to al-naskh, the concept of
abrogation. It means that one Sharia rule can supplant an earlier one in order to enable the Sharia
to adapt to changing times. There are several brands of naskh, the primary three being the Quran
being supplanted by itself, the Sunna being superseded by it, and the supplanting of the Quran by
the Sunna (Schacht, 1964, p. 115). Needless to say, naskh has always been a controversial
subject in Islamic jurisprudence. While the majority of jurists recognized the supersession of the
Quran by itself (e.g. a later verse of the Quran superseding an earlier one), it was usually only
accepted in regards to those Medinan verses which discussed transactions and not the Meccan
verses which tended to deal with matters of religion. In addition, instances of the Sunna
supplanting the Sunna occurred often, i.e. a later hadith contradicted an earlier one.
However, it was the supersession of the Quran by the Sunna that raised the most
disagreement among jurists. While jurists generally agreed on the authority of a prophetic
tradition when it supported the Quran or elucidated it, many jurists found it impossible to accept
that the Sunna could contradict and overrule the holy book of Islam. The foremost among these
were al-Shafii and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the revered eponyms of two of the extant madhhabs,
active in the eighth and ninth centuries respectively. They cited several Quranic verses and
Some jurists who felt that the Sunna could supersede the Quran, including Malik, some
jurists from the extinct Zahiri madhhab, and the disciples of Abu Hanifa, another great jurist and
22
madhhab namesake. They reached this conclusion through reason and actual historical precedent.
“It is prescribed for you when one of you approacheth death, if he leaves wealth, that he
bequeath unto parents and near relatives in kindness. This is the duty of the devout.”
However, these jurists felt that this verse was supplanted by a saying attributed to Muhammad:
Today, most jurists fall into the camp of Ibn Hanbal and al-Shafii and hold that a law can
only be repealed by the authority that made it (Mahmassani, 1961, pp. 64-66). Essentially, only
Muhammad can repeal himself, and even Muhammad cannot repeal God.
The rulings of the Sharia, drawn from the primary sources using the methods described
above, are intended to guide the behavior of Muslims in the temporal world. They are divided
into five categories, based on whether performing an action or not performing it are rewarded,
1. Deeds that are incumbent upon Muslims to perform are wajib. Making the hajj,
performing prayers (salat), and paying alms (zakat) fall into this category.
2. Deeds that are recommended but not mandatory are mandub. The remembrance of
3. Deeds that are permissible but neither rewarded nor punished are mubah.
4. Deeds that are frowned upon but not expressly prohibited and punished are makruh.
5. Deeds that are expressly forbidden are considered to be haram. Like makruh deeds, a
Another important term is halal, which simply refers to something that is permissible under
Islamic law. The system above is a perfect example of the flexibility of Islamic law. Jurists can
and do disagree about the nuances between each of the categories. Furthermore, Muslim jurists
recognize the broad range of human behavior and the complexities of the human condition. Thus,
we see yet again that different human actions seldom can be classified as unequivocally bad or
Jahiliyya
Muslim historians refer to the period before the advent of Islam as Jahiliyya, or the Time
of Ignorance, meaning that humankind was ignorant of God’s true religion and His law before
Muhammad’s revelations. Despite this designation, the legal institutions, traditions, and
structures of pre-Islamic Arabia had a profound influence on the development of Islamic law.
The early inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula, the Bedouin, had a very complex system of law
that was rigorous in the application of its rules. The cities of Mecca and Medina, which were
destined to play a key role in the coming religion, were already bustling centers of commerce
and trade, as were other cities and towns in the area. The people of this region, therefore, had a
well developed system of commercial law with which Muhammad was no doubt familiar in his
position as a caravan leader for his wife Khadija’s Mecca-based mercantile business.
Family law, criminal law, and laws of personal status were also well developed in the
Arabian Peninsula before the advent of Islam. These laws were dominated by the tribal system,
24
a social force that still wields much power and influence in the Arab world today. The individual
was only understood in terms of his or her tribe; the tribe provided legitimacy and protection to
its members. The features of tribal law were affected in no small way by Islam, but they have
The Arabs of this period relied extensively on mediation through arbitrators known as
hakam. The importance of the hakams lied in the fact that whatever judgments they issued in
legal disputes became an authoritative explanation of what the law was or ought to be. Thus, the
hakam’s role as arbitrator also developed into that of a lawmaker. Through his statements, the
hakam explained what constituted the sunna, or normative custom (to be distinguished from the
prophetic Sunna of Muhammad). The hakams applied and developed this sunna, which became
one of the most important concepts in what would become Islamic law (Schacht, 1964, pp. 6-8).
Due to his status as the Messenger of God and a man of unblemished character,
Muhammad was considered by his followers to be a hakam. Moreover, his military and political
successes extended his influence beyond that of a mere arbitrator. As a prophet, Muhammad was
concerned with laying down a moral code by which man could lead a life that was most pleasing
to God. Nevertheless, Muhammad had to work within and apply Islam’s religious and ethical
guidelines to the legal institutions of his day. The legal rules and prohibitions that are found in
the Quran and the Sunna do not exist solely for their own sake. Instead, they can be seen as
establishing, upholding and maintaining the moral norms that characterize a proper Islamic
lifestyle. For instance, the Quranic prohibitions of riba and gharar were meant to further the
ends of Islamic justice, such as preventing the exploitation of the poor. Though these
prohibitions concern certain kinds of commercial and legal transactions, the Quran does not
25
concern itself with regulating the form and substance of these transactions (Schacht, 1964, pp.
11-12).
After the death of Muhammad in 632 and the reign of the Medinan caliphs between 632
and 661, the rule of the Muslim community was transferred into the hands of the Damascus-
based Umayyad dynasty. While the Umayyads tended to focus more on temporal matters of state
and administration, Islamic law, justice, and jurisprudence began to solidify and emerge during
their rule. As the Umayyads concentrated on the territorial expansion of the Muslim empire,
Umayyad governors also took steps that advanced the development of Islamic fiqh. As the
empire grew, the system of arbitration that prevailed in the era of Jahiliyya and the first decades
of Islam no longer met the legal needs of Muslims. The governors met these needs by appointing
qadis, Islamic judges. The qadis used their own reasoning to reach their decisions, thus forming
the base from which Islamic law would spring. Under the qadis, a trend toward greater
Toward the beginning of the eighth century, more and more ‘specialists’ were appointed
to the post of qadi. A specialist was not someone who was trained in a dedicated educational
institution. Rather he was one who spent time studying the injunctions and legal directives of the
Quran. These individuals were not merely concerned with legal points, but with the wider
application and implementation of Islam in the lives of Muslims. Thus it is during the Umayyad
period that we see the emergence of the ulama, the body of religious/legal scholars which
responded to the prevailing practice of adopting local laws in the acquired territories of the
26
Islamic empire. The ulama came to dominate the qadis and coalesced into a separate,
After the Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Umayyads in the middle of the eighth century,
the Islamicization of the law proceeded even further. The Abbasids maintained that Islamic law
was the only legitimate law and elevated the status of the ulama, with whom they consulted on a
variety of issues. The early Abbasid rulers sought to shape the articulation of Islamic law from
theory into practice, but later rulers were less assiduous in their commitment to this goal and
were more concerned with preserving and extending their own power.
Thus, gradually during the Abbasid period, the Sharia and its interpretation became the
exclusive domain of the ulama. Although in theory the ulama operated outside of the influence
of the government, in practice they were far less independent, especially those employed as qadis
who were subject to dismissal and dependent upon executive power to enforce their rulings
Thanks to their newfound independence, the ulama were free to immerse themselves in
the articulation of Islamic law, and jurists actively began to develop a rich corpus of legal
thought. During the 9th-11th centuries, fiqh reached its apex, as did so many other sciences in the
capable hands of Muslim scholars. It was also during this time that one of the most important
features of Islamic law began to emerge – the madhhabs, or ‘schools’ of law (Mahmassani, 1961,
p. 17). These madhhabs and the scholars who inspired them hold great significance in the history
The term “school” is often used in the literature for the lack of a better word. Throughout
the history of Islamic law, there were numerous such schools, only four of which survive to the
27
present day. The madhhabs were not formal educational institutions. They were merely groups
of jurists who adhered to certain legal doctrines that can be traced back to a pioneer in Muslim
law for which the school was named. Even so, a strict conformity to said doctrines did not exist
in each madhhab, as jurists who belonged to the school were free to differ in opinion from the
‘official’ line. Many often did. Even though a jurist may identify himself as belonging to a
specific madhhab, he is by no means bound by that school’s doctrines. He is free to pick and
choose the doctrines that he feels are best in formulating his legal opinion. It is highly likely that
this freedom of choice has always existed for jurists (Hallaq, 2001, p. 21).
There were hundreds of schools that did not survive the test of time. Only four madhhabs
survive to this day in Sunni Islam: the Hanafi school, the Maliki school, the Hanbali school, and
the Shafii school. The scholars for whom these madhhabs were named did not “found” a school
in any sense of the word; rather their followers and students retroactively applied their names to
the madhhabs that were established around their teachings and doctrines (Hallaq, 2001, p. 25).
In the Arabian Peninsula, the city of Medina became a seat of Islamic jurisprudence. As
Medina was the destination of Muhammad’s flight from Mecca in 622 and the site from where
he regulated the affairs of the community for the last decade of his life, it is no small wonder
then that the school of Medina came to be associated with those who placed great importance on
the traditions of Muhammad. A number of jurists emerged in Medina who received renown
across the Muslim world for their brilliance. The most famous is Malik ibn Anas al-Asbahi (b.
711 – d. 795). Malik was considered to be a leading authority on prophetic traditions because of
the meticulous diligence he displayed in finding and authenticating hadith. Malik was also a
major proponent of ijma; he relied extensively on the consensus of the scholar-jurists of Medina
28
when he could find no answer to a legal question in the Quran or the Sunna (Dutton, 1999, p. 13;
Mahmassani, 1961, pp. 24-25). Malik was clear in his assertion of the superiority of the Medinan
rulings over those of other cities’ ulama. He cites the Medinese jurists’ greater experience and
knowledge of Islam due to their city being the City of the Prophet (Dutton, 1999, p. 38). Only in
the absence of the Quran, Sunna, and the ijma of the Medinan jurists did Malik employ his
From its home in Medina, the Maliki madhhab spread through the rest of the Hijaz, the
Maghrib (North Africa), and Andalusia (Muslim Spain). The school also reached Upper Egypt,
Sudan, Bahrain, Kuwait, and other Islamic nations. It also spread across Muslim Central and
The eponym of the Hanafi school, Abu Hanifa Numan ibn Thabit of Kufa, Iraq, was
known for his scholarly and legal brilliance. His school was established around 805, at the time
of the death of his famous student al-Shaybani, approximately forty years after Abu Hanifa’s
death. A significant characteristic of Abu Hanifa’s juristic work is his willingness to develop and
extend the Sharia through personal reasoning. Along with the Quran, Sunna, and the opinions of
the Companions, Abu Hanifa considered personal opinion, obtained through the rigorous use of
ijtihad, an important source of the law. This confidence in personal opinion characterized his
school and his followers. Abu Hanifa was also a diligent analyst of the hadith (Mahmassani,
From its home in Iraq, the Hanafi school spread wide across the Muslim world. One
third of the world’s Muslims are adherents of the Hanafi school. Hanafi jurisprudence was the
basis for the Majallah, the official legal code of the Ottoman Empire. Besides being the official
29
school of Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt, it is also widely accepted in Turkey, the Balkans, the
Caucasus, China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (Schacht, 1964, p. 65; Mahmassani, 1961, p.
24).
The Shafii school revolves around the teachings of the great jurist Muhammad ibn Idris
al-Shafii. Al-Shafii was well traveled, and his sophistication, intellect, oral and written eloquence,
and proficiency in jurisprudence made him a scholar of exceptional ability. These personal
qualities allowed him to create the foundations of his own madhhab, which synchronized the
Maliki school and the Hanafi school. Al-Shafii was heavily influenced by Abu Hanifa and his
teacher Malik; thus his madhhab is an effective melding of the characteristics of these two
influences: reliance on opinion and reliance on tradition, respectively. Thus, the importance of
al-Shafii’s synthesis in the history and evolution of Islamic law cannot be overestimated
traditionally regarded as the founder of fiqh. Other scholars had contemplated issues of
jurisprudence long before his time, but al-Shafii laid the foundations for the basic structures of a
methodology.
Egypt is home to many adherents of the madhhab, especially in rural areas. Palestine,
Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Pakistan, and India have many adherents as well. Nearly all the
Muslims of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia and Malaysia, follow the Shafii madhhab. The
school also has followers among the Sunni Muslims of Iran and Yemen (Mahmassani, 1961, p.
The smallest of the madhhabs, the Hanbali school began around 855, the date of the
death of its namesake, the Baghdadi jurist Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Ibn Hanbal disliked the use of
personal reasoning even more so than Malik. He advocated the strict adherence to a literal
understanding of the primary sources of the Quran and the Sunna. Ibn Hanbal was said to be
unyielding in his own personal faith and his unwillingness to compromise on his views of true
Throughout its history, the Hanbali madhhab has seen two periods of rejuvenation. The
first came during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with the advent of Ibn Taymiyya and his
student Ibn Qayyim ibn Jawziyya. Ibn Taymiyya consistently denounced what he considered to
be bida, or improper innovation, such as cults of saints, some prevalent Sufi doctrines such as
esotericism, and certain rituals he observed during his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1292. Like Ibn
Hanbal, Ibn Taymiyya was totally committed to the primacy of the textual sources of the Quran
and Hadith. Ibn Taymiyya, and indeed most if not all Hanbalis, attached relatively little
importance to ijma. Also like most Hanbalis, qiyas never took precedence over the text for him.
Nevertheless, he supported the disciplined use of ijtihad, believing that ijtihad was an integral
component of the continual interpretation of the Law (“Ibn Taymiyya,” 1971, pp.951-955).
Ibn Taymiyya’s teachings and legacy directly inspired the second renewal of Hanbalism
that occurred during the eighteenth century in the person of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. His
fiery, puritanical form of reformism, today known as Wahhabism, swept through the central
Arabian Peninsula. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab rejected the blind imitation of ancestors and argued for a
return to the pure Islam of the time of Muhammad. By the same token, he too rejected what he
The Hanbali school is the official madhhab of Saudi Arabia and has adherents in other
parts of the Arabian Peninsula, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and other Islamic nations (Mahmassani,
1964, pp. 30-33).The school is often called the most conservative of the madhhabs. However,
this is erroneous. For one, the Hanbalis reject ijma; the schools which accept and rely extensively
on ijma tend to be the most conservative since they are thus more prone to adhere to the
precedents set by earlier scholars. In addition, Hanbali jurists have been some of the most
frequent users of ijtihad, such as Ibn Taymiyya (whose work on gharar has important
implications for modern Islamic finance, as we shall see) (Z. Antrim, personal communication,
February 2, 2009).
The madhhabs can be seen as the intellectual and structural basis of Islamic law. But it
would be a mistake to think that the madhhabs became rigid entities after the deaths of their
eponyms. The madhhabs evolved and changed to respond to the needs of Muslims in each and
every age. Indeed, although the disciples of the four scholars preserved their work and legacies
and referred to them often, later jurists also used their own intellect and ijtihad to further refine
and develop fiqh and each madhhab’s legal corpus. In short, at no point in time did Islamic law
become stagnant.
In 1950, Joseph Schacht published his landmark work The Origins of Muhammadan
Jurisprudence. One of the key points of this book is that the madhhabs began their existence in
the eighth century when jurists began to cluster around geographical centers. Jurists were thus
identified by their regional affiliations. Schacht called these geographical centers the ‘ancient
schools of law’ (Hallaq, 2001, p.1), the most important of which were Kufa and Basra (the Iraqi
school), Mecca and Medina (the Hijaz school), and Syria. In the early Abbasid period, these
32
geographical schools transformed themselves into personal schools that focused on the doctrine
of an individual master-jurist, whose work and teachings disciples carried forward. According to
Schacht, this process was completed by the middle of the ninth century. Schacht maintains that
this transformation was largely due to the efforts of al-Shafii. Since al-Shafii’s teachings and
rulings were an amalgamation of Maliki and Hanafi doctrine, al-Shafii thus created a new
personal doctrine all his own. Thus, Schacht asserts, anyone who adhered to al-Shafii’s teachings
became a follower of al-Shafii. Because of this, Schacht contends that al-Shafii was the founder
of the first truly personal school, and his actions were the catalyst that led to the creation of other
personal schools, including the other three orthodox madhhabs and those which eventually died
The historian Wael Hallaq disagrees with this thesis, however. According to his theory,
the madhhabs did undergo a transformation, but they evolved from personal schools based on
individual doctrines to doctrinal schools; the geographical schools never existed. Hallaq (2001)
argues that all madhhabs in Islamic history developed a regional character, but this regional
variation was due to the environment in which a particular corpus of law developed, and was not
representative of a distinct geographical doctrine (p. 19). He cites examples in works of fiqh and
history of certain jurists having followings of their own during the period of the geographical
schools, as well as instances of jurists being classified as members of geographical schools even
after 870 CE, the date which Schacht specified as the end of the transformation from
geographical to personal schools (Hallaq, 2001, p.15). Hallaq also finds instances of
geographically defined schools from much later periods of Islamic history, even as late as the
thirteenth century. In addition, there is evidence that the later schools also developed a distinctive
regional character for their doctrine; Hallaq cites Andalusian Malikism, Transoxanian Hanafism,
33
and Syrian Shafiism as examples (Hallaq, 2001, p.18). Furthermore, Hallaq maintains that jurists
who worked in the same geographical area, such as Iraq, did not necessarily share a uniform
doctrine; it was merely convenient for historians to designate jurists by their location (Hallaq,
2001, p.16). Hallaq points to the schools of al-Shafii and the Damascene scholar al-Awzai (d.
774) as examples of scholars considered to be jurists of their own accord and with their own
personal madhhabs that had no association with a particular geographic location before the end
As for the transformation from personal to doctrinal schools, Hallaq cites the emergence
of taqlid in the latter half of the ninth century and the tenth century. Taqlid, meaning “imitation,”
is characteristic of a madhhab reaching the final stages of its evolutional maturity. It refers to the
fact that jurists of each madhhab looked to past jurists, especially the four eponyms, for guidance
as to their legal decisions. The prevalence of taqlid, according to Hallaq’s theory, allowed
madhhab jurists to develop a cohesive and substantive body of doctrine and legal theory for their
particular school. Thus, on the macro-level, the later madhhabs were well-integrated entities, and
possessed an organized unity in their doctrinal orientation. Due to the highly individualistic
nature of ijtihad, each jurist within a madhhab had the right to form his own opinions. So on the
micro level, jurists had to control the vast assortment of opinions. To address this need, jurists
developed what Hallaq calls the madhhab-opinion, which was the authoritative doctrine of a
scholar or scholars), and determined by the agreement of the madhhab’s jurists. The madhhab-
opinion also need not be that of the eponym of the school (Hallaq, 2001, pp. 21-24).
Due to the many instances that Hallaq presents of madhhabs not following the trajectory
espoused by Schacht, Hallaq’s arguments are more compelling than the Schachtian theory. The
34
importance of the madhhabs in the history and evolution of Islamic law is undeniable. In its final
form, the madhhab is the representative of a corpus of legal doctrine of its founder. Later jurists
both refined and elaborated that doctrine through their own reasoning. From the very beginning,
Islamic law has been a highly individualistic discipline. The madhhab at its developmental
height was intended to control this individualistic spirit, not curb it. Ijtihad is highly revered in
Islam for a reason. Islamic law owes its dynamic character, and indeed its very development, to
those efforts.
Ijtihad is the lifeblood and catalyst of Islamic law. For centuries, Muslim jurists have
developed the law and addressed the issues that affected the temporal and spiritual lives of
Muslims. A long held theory, again advanced by Joseph Schacht, was that the so-called “gate of
ijtihad” closed forever in the tenth century. Schacht and other scholars hold that during the early
Abbasid period, scholars began to feel that Islamic law had reached its ultimate maturity; all the
questions that mankind could ever raise had been answered through the Quran, Sunna, and the
ijtihad of brilliant jurists of old. Furthermore, the infallibility of ijma also led to the solidification
of doctrine and later to the restriction of jurists’ ability to exercise ijtihad. The question arose as
to who was qualified to practice ijtihad and who was not qualified to do so. Schacht posited that
jurists of the ninth century began to feel that no contemporary jurist had the qualifications that
the earlier scholars had possessed, and thus were not fit to exercise independent reasoning. From
that point on, scholars felt that jurists should limit themselves to the explanation and
interpretation of the doctrine laid down by their forebears. In short, this was a call for the era of
taqlid to begin. After this point, Schacht argues that Islamic law became rigid and extremely
conservative, and despite the opposition of a number of independent jurists and collective
35
movements, taqlid became the guiding principle of the law (Schacht, 1964, pp. 69-75; Weiss,
1978, p. 208).
However, later scholars have challenged Schacht’s theory and argued that no such
closure of the gate of ijtihad ever occurred. Bernard Weiss points out that there was never a point
in time in which a permanent barrier to ijtihad was formally erected, and disagrees with
Schacht’s proposition that ijma is the primary reason behind the conservatism of Islamic law
Again, it is Wael Hallaq who offers a compelling argument against the prevailing
Schachtian theory. Hallaq (1986) contends that scholars did not debate the necessity of ijtihad;
rather they raised questions about whether or not any era could persist without mujtahids. On one
side, the Hanbalis and a significant number of Shafiis held that mujtahids must exist at all times.
The Hanafis and other Shafiis believed that the mujtahids would eventually cease to exist
(pp.129-130). Hallaq bolsters his argument by pointing out that the search for ilm, or knowledge,
is a fundamental concept of Islamic culture. To Sunni jurists, ilm signified the knowledge of
what would please God. Ilm and fiqh are often equated by Muslim jurists in that fiqh is the
knowledge of God’s law. Ijtihad, along with other methods treated in works on fiqh, is meant to
extract and interpret God’s law from the primary sources. Consequently, it is only through ijtihad
that the Sharia can survive and flourish; closing the gate of ijtihad would prevent the continual
search for ilm and thus render the Sharia and Islam incomplete (Hallaq, 1986, pp. 131-132).
Thus jurists did not question whether the gate of ijtihad should be closed; rather they
were concerned with the existence or nonexistence of mujtahids. The ulama played a key role in
Islamic society, and the mujtahids were at the pinnacle of ulama hierarchy, regarded as the
guardians and expounders of the Sharia. Nevertheless around the tenth and eleventh centuries,
36
the dearth of highly gifted mujtahids like al-Shafii and Abu Hanifa led many Muslims to believe
that mujtahids were a dying breed and were being replaced by lesser mujtahids who could only
operate within the confines of the madhhabs. This belief led many to consider the possible future
extinction of the mujtahids (Hallaq (1986) pp. 135-136). The debate over the existence and
the disappearance of ilm is a sign of the Day of Judgment. Ilm could only disappear if the
mujtahids did as well. Thus, the decreasing number of mujtahids was a sign of the coming Day
Conclusion
Islamic law is a product of both revelation and reason. These two forces have had a
complex relationship throughout the entirety of Islamic history. After reading this chapter, it
should be clear to the reader that Islamic law is not a static thing. Rather, it is a dynamic, mutable
entity that benefits from and encourages the active participation of Muslim jurists and scholars. It
legal issues. What is halal (permissible) for one jurist is not necessarily so for others. This point
is especially relevant for the study of modern Islamic finance. One will find a wide range of
opinions on what is Islamic or un-Islamic. However, the same kind of debate and rigorous
intellectual grappling that has shaped, defined, and developed Islamic law over the centuries is
still very much at work in modern Islamic finance, and will continue to be so far into the future.
Furthermore, it is important to study the medieval era of Islamic history because it was in this
37
epoch that the contracts on which modern Islamic finance is based were first created and
developed. 3
3
This chapter has dealt with the dominant Sunni tradition. While much of the material also applies to the Shiite
tradition, there are many differences and a full study of Shiite law is beyond the scope of this thesis. Indeed, even a
broad study of Shiite legal traditions would constitute a thesis on its own. For those interested in Shiite law, the
writer recommends that they should start with pages 35-39 of the Mahmassani’s Falsafat al-Tashri fi al-Islam, cited
in this chapter. For an excellent summary of the Shiite traditions of ijtihad, see Weiss pp. 210-212.
38
Introduction
We have just explored the history and evolution of Islamic fiqh, or jurisprudence. The
reader should now have a clear picture of how Islamic legal theory has developed, and how it
continues to be employed to this day. Later we will discuss how the contracts developed in the
classical and medieval periods of Islamic history provided the foundation for modern Islamic
finance. We will also examine the unique considerations that confront Muslim investors as they
make their investment decisions. But it is important to remember that Muslims, like all investors,
must make those decisions based on their individual risk profiles and expected/desired rates of
return. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief review of modern portfolio theory as it
Portfolio theory as we know it began with the work of Harry Markowitz, who developed
the basic portfolio model during the 1950s. Markowitz derived a model that could yield the
expected holding period return for a portfolio. He also identified an appropriate measure of risk
for the holding period by showing that the standard deviation/variance, a well known statistical
measure, was an excellent way to quantify the measure of risk for a portfolio. At the same time,
his portfolio variance formula demonstrated the importance of diversification in order to reduce
the total risk of a portfolio. By diversification, it is meant that an investor can invest in a number
of asset classes, from stocks and bonds to art and real estate. Markowitz also stressed that
diversification could not eliminate all variance from a portfolio, and that a portfolio with the
maximum expected return will not always be the one with minimum variance. In terms of the
39
variance and standard deviation, it is important to remember that investors do not want
Markowitz argued that having a high number of securities in a portfolio does not imply
adequate diversification. Rather, it is important for investors to diversify their asset holdings
across a wide range of industries, simply because firms in the same industry are more likely to
post concurrent poor performances than are firms in different industries. Investing in many
securities also is not guaranteed to ensure a small variance. The standard deviation/variance of
portfolio is a function of the standard deviations of individual securities and of the covariance of
rates of return for all pairs of assets in the portfolio. It is this covariance that is the most
significant determinant of adequate diversification and management of risk. The returns of two
firms in different industries will have a lower covariance than two firms that are in the same
industry. The concept of covariance applies equally to all asset classes, be they stocks, bonds,
real estate, etc. These simple yet profound observations form the basis of modern portfolio
theory, and are employed by portfolio managers and knowledgeable individual investors to this
day (Markowitz, 1952, pp. 77-91; Reilly and Brown, 2006, p. 202).
If one examined all of the two asset combinations that exist in a typical portfolio, we
would derive a multitude of curves that represent those combinations. The envelope curve that
contains the best of those possible combinations is referred to as the efficient frontier. Every
portfolio that has the maximum rate of return for a given level of risk or the minimum amount of
risk for every return is represented along the efficient frontier (see Figure 1). Every portfolio on
the frontier has higher return for equal risk than some portfolio beneath the frontier, or it can
have equal return for lower risk. For example, both portfolio A and B dominate portfolio C
because they lie on the efficient frontier. Portfolio A is preferable to portfolio C because it offers
40
the same rate of return as portfolio C but contains less risk. Portfolio B is preferable to C because
it offers a higher rate of return for the same level of risk. Risk and return are intimately related;
an investor can be rewarded with a higher return for accepting higher risk.
E(R)
E(σport)
Figure 1. The Efficient Frontier
It is important to keep in mind that neither portfolio A nor B is better than the other is. An
investor will choose either portfolio A or B based on their individual risk/reward preference. All
investors seek to find a suitable location on the efficient frontier based on their utility function,
which captures their risk tolerance. For instance, an investor that has an appetite for risk will
choose portfolio B over portfolio A. Conversely, a risk-averse investor will choose A. Based on
his or her utility function, an investor will seek to find the optimal portfolio, a combination of
2. Investors seek to maximize their expected utility. Their individual utility curves show
3. Investors estimate the risk of a portfolio based on the variability of expected returns,
4. Investors’ investment decisions are solely a function of expected return and expected
5. For a given level of risk, investors expect higher returns. For a given rate of expected
Keeping these assumptions in mind, the optimal portfolio for any investor is one that offers the
maximum expected rate of return for the same or lower level of risk, or one that offers lower risk
for the same or higher expected rate of return, relative to another portfolio(s) (Reilly and Brown,
tackle the issue of valuing risky assets. Two major theories developed for this purpose are the
capital asset pricing model (CAPM) and the arbitrage pricing theory (APT).
A major innovation in the development of capital market theory is the concept of a risk
free asset. Such an asset would have zero variance, as well as zero correlation with other assets
in the portfolio. Thus, the risk free asset provides the pivotal risk free rate of return. It also
allows us to see how capital assets can be priced under conditions of uncertainty. Thanks to the
development of the risk free asset, James Tobin was able to take Markowitz’s work one step
42
further and derive the capital market line. The riskless asset’s expected rate of return was the
E(Rport)
CML
Point of
Tangency
Efficient
Frontier
M
RFR
σport
At this pure rate of interest, investors can either lend or borrow. At point M in Figure 2,
the capital market line is tangent to the efficient frontier. Point M represents the risky market
portfolio. Below point M, an investor will be investing in the market portfolio and lending at the
risk free rate (i.e. investing part of your portfolio in the risk free asset). In addition to investing in
a portfolio beyond M on the efficient frontier, an investor may also add leverage to his or her
portfolio under the assumption that one can borrow money at the RFR and invest in risky
securities. 4 As seen in Figure 2, both risk and return increase in a linear fashion along the capital
market line. This simple linear relationship between the expected return and the standard
deviation of the portfolio represents equilibrium (Sharpe, 1964, pp.425-442). It was Tobin who
4
It should be noted by the reader that the lending and borrowing rates may differ, which would lead to a
discontinuity in the capital market line.
43
carried the CML to the market portfolio; others, especially John Lintner, extended the concept to
Tobin’s separation theorem, which describes the separation of the investment decision from the
financing decision. Since the market portfolio represents the best investment opportunity, all
investors will want to invest their money in it. Investors differ only in the position that they
desire on the capital market line, which depends on their risk preferences. How an investor
obtains the desired position on the CML is a function of their investment decision based on their
risk tolerance, i.e. whether they want to lend (for more risk averse investors) or borrow (for more
risk tolerant investors) at the risk free rate (Tobin, 1958, pp. 65-86).
E(Rport)
Borrowing
Point of CML
Tangency
Lending
RFR
σport
Figure 3. The Capital Market Line with Lending or Borrowing at the Risk Free Rate
44
The market portfolio includes all risky assets, such as stocks, bonds, foreign securities,
art, real estate, antiques, etc. Because of the tremendous diversity of its holdings, the market
portfolio is regarded as completely diversified, meaning that all of its diversifiable risk is no
longer present. Specifically, this diversifiable risk is unique to each individual asset; it is known
as unsystematic risk. The unsystematic risk of each asset is offset by the variability of all other
assets in the market portfolio. After all the unsystematic risk has been diversified away, only
systematic risk is left. Systematic or market risk, measured by the standard deviation of a
inflation, the money supply, and variability in factors like industrial production. To eliminate
unsystematic risk through diversification, one must add securities to the portfolio. A study by
Statman (1987) showed that a well diversified stock portfolio should contain at least 30 stocks
for a borrowing investor and 40 for a lending investor, after transactions costs. While adding
stocks with low correlations to each other will diversify away the unsystematic risk in a portfolio,
it will not eliminate the systematic risk (Reilly and Brown, 2006, pp.236-237).
Developed by William Sharpe, John Lintner, and Jack Treynor, the traditional capital
asset pricing model (CAPM) determines what should be the expected rate of return on a risky
In the equation,
In addition, if an analyst or investor has already determined the expected rate of return on an
asset, he/she can use the CAPM to calculate a required rate of return. By comparing the expected
rate of return to the rate indicated by the CAPM, one can determine if an asset is properly valued,
overvalued, or undervalued.
market line (SML) for that asset, which represents the relationship between an asset’s expected
E(Ri)
SML
RM
RFR
CoviM
σ2 M
Figure 4 presents a security market line for an asset i, depicting its risk/return profile. In terms of
the CAPM and the SML, the most important variable is the beta, which measures systematic risk
(the type that cannot be diversified away). The beta measures a risky asset’s covariance with the
βi = CoviM/ σ
2
M
Here,
The market portfolio’s beta is 1. If an asset has a beta that is higher than 1, this signifies that the
asset has a higher systematic risk than the market. In other words, it is more volatile than the
market portfolio. Conversely, if an asset has a beta less than 1, this signifies that it has lower
As shown in the equation for the CAPM, the expected rate of return for a risky asset is
calculated by adding the RFR and the risk premium. The risk premium itself is calculated by
multiplying the beta and the market risk premium (Reilly and Brown, 2006, pp. 239-241).
While the CAPM has been one of the most useful and revolutionary concepts developed
in financial economics, it also has a number of shortcomings. Many academicians were not
convinced of a perfectly linear relationship between risk and return. Others questioned the
CAPM’s dependence on a market portfolio not currently available and thus its usefulness in
portfolio evaluation. Anomalies such as the small firm effect – where small capitalization stocks
tended to outperform large capitalization stocks on a risk-adjusted basis – also cast a shadow on
the efficacy of the CAPM and other single factor models. Thus financial economists began to
47
search for a model that overcame these deficiencies and permitted multiple expressions of risk.
Arbitrage pricing theory, developed by Stephen Ross during the 1970s, was the result of this
search. APT is a multifactor model that allows investors and analysts to quantify and identify
risk factors in the valuation of an asset (Reilly and Brown, 2006, pp. 270-271).
In the equation,
δk = common factor or indexes with a zero mean that affect returns on all assets
(macroeconomic variables like interest rates, GDP growth, and political events)
εi = a random error term with a mean of zero and that is completely diversifiable in a
large portfolio
n = number of assets
The bij terms measure the magnitude of how an asset reaches to a specific factor. For instance,
export-oriented firms will be more sensitive to changes in exchange rates than firms who conduct
most or all of their business domestically. So the export-oriented firm may have a bij of 5, while
In the APT, when unique factors – εi – are diversified away, the return on a zero beta
portfolio is zero. Thus, the expected return on an asset is found through the equation:
Where:
48
Through this equation, the investor can calculate the expected rate of return on a risky asset
The CAPM and APT are both static linear models that attempt to represent the investor’s
investing activity – risking capital to obtain a financial reward. The key difference between the
two models is how they represent systematic risk. The CAPM relies on a single representation of
that systematic risk, namely beta. The APT on the other hand employs multiple factors to express
and capture market-wide systematic risk (Reilly and Brown, 2006, pp. 270-272).
While the ability to choose multiple common risk factors in the valuation of a security is
a definite advantage of the APT, the theory unfortunately does not indicate what those factors are
or how many factors there are. Some financial economists have recommended and employed
with success common macroeconomic variables that affect all securities to be used as factors in
the APT model – inflation rates, interest rates, changes in real GDP, etc. These are generally
known as macroeconomic risk factor models. Others have suggested using microeconomic risk
factor models, which use the characteristics of the securities themselves to define the relationship
between risk and return. An example of this approach is the Fama and French model which used
2. the return differential associated with firm size (i.e. large capitalization vs. small
capitalization)
49
3. the return differential associated with book-to-market valuation (i.e. “value” stocks vs.
Ethical Investment
Ethical investment, also called conscience investing, can be defined as the use of ethical
and social parameters of selecting and managing a portfolio. It has its roots in the efforts of
religious institutions to avoid investing in morally dubious industries. Some of the earliest
examples of ethical investing in the US were church groups that found it morally repugnant to
invest in the so called “sin” stocks of companies that were engaged in producing alcohol and
tobacco and gambling. The Pioneer Fund, launched in 1928, was the first mutual fund created to
serve the social interest of these religious groups. Later, several social movements in the United
States, including the women’s rights movement, the civil rights movement, the environmental
movement, and national/international issues, such as the Vietnam War and apartheid in South
Africa, compelled more investors to combine their moral/ethical beliefs with their investment
strategies. The most visible example of ethical investing came during the 1980s as anti-apartheid
activists led a campaign against investing in South African companies in an effort to show their
displeasure with a racist regime and to encourage the end of apartheid. College endowments and
pension funds (most notably TIAA-CREF and the California Public Employees’ Retirement
System) led the way in divestment of South Africa related investments. The boycott received a
great deal of international publicity and a wave of portfolio managers rushed to accommodate the
wishes of their clients who wished to rid their portfolios of companies that had any South
African operations (Judd, 1990, pp. 9-11). The recent move to divest from Chinese companies
that have operations in the Darfur region of the Sudan is a modern day equivalent of the South
Africa boycott.
50
The ethical investing sector can be subdivided into four broad categories: environmental,
political, social, and religious. The demand for ethical investing has grown steadily over the past
few years and the trend is projected to continue (Atta, 2000, p. 10). In their landmark guide,
Ethical Investing, Amy Domini and Peter Kinder (1984) identified three approaches to ethical
investing (here, “institution” can be substituted for “investor” to account for institutional
ethical sensibilities (modern Islamic finance most frequently uses this approach).
2. Positive choice – an investor places his or her funds with companies that meet
their social/ethical goals, such as companies that hire and promote minorities,
make products and services that improve the environment, treat their workers well,
etc.
Domini, a leader in the field of socially responsible/ethical investment, believes that while
avoidance and positive choice complement each other, activism requires a greater degree of
dedication by an investor (not to mention enough capital to buy and hold blocks of shares large
There are several key traits that ethical funds 5 share in common. First, most ethical unit
trusts utilize some type of screening criteria to select investments. While these screens can be
positive or negative, negative screens tend to be more widely used due to the ease with which
5
An ethical fund is a fund that consists of investments that are chosen in regard to a specific set of ethical guidelines
and standards established by an investor and/or an asset manager.
51
they can be described and monitored. Negative screens also tend to be less subjective than
positive screens. On the whole, the process of deciding what is an ethical investment is
subjective and by no means universal. The disparity in the ethical definitions of different ethical
funds can make comparison and evaluation difficult to attribute to any common ethical
standard(s).
Ethical investment units have also been found to have a bias toward small capitalization
stocks. Studies conducted on ethical funds in the UK have demonstrated this bias. This may have
important implications for the returns of ethical funds, including Islamic funds. There is a well
documented stock market phenomenon called the small company effect; over long periods of
time, small cap stocks tend to have higher returns than large cap stocks. To be sure, the level of
risk involved in investing in small cap stocks is larger than for large cap stocks. This effect has
Ethical unit trusts also tend to differ in terms of the international exposures of their
holdings. Choosing ethical companies may lead to the exclusion of certain nations. Global asset
allocation may become more a function of ethical standards than that of evaluations of market
fundamentals. As aforementioned, during the era of apartheid many investors did not invest in
South Africa. 6 More recently, many investors withdrew money from Chinese oil companies that
did business in the Darfur region of the Sudan. International diversification has been shown to
have positive effects for a portfolio’s returns because foreign stocks tend to have historically low
or negative correlations with US stocks. Many foreign securities also offer higher risk-adjusted
6
The impact of this boycott on South African financial markets has been debated. A 1999 study by Teoh, Welch,
and Wazzan found that divestment had little to no significant impact on its targets. The team found that total
corporate participation in South Africa was so limited that in spite of the large number of divesting companies and
pressure from legislators and investors, the boycott had little noticeable effect on South African financial markets or
the valuations of South African firms. (Please see Teoh, Siew Hong, Ivo Welch, & C. Paul Wazzan. (1999). The
Effect of Socially Activist Investment Policies on the Financial Markets: Evidence from the South African Boycotts.
Journal of Business, 72, pp. 35-89.)
52
returns than US securities (Reilly and Brown, 2006, p. 97). If an ethical fund is circumvented
from investing in foreign securities, its returns may be negatively impacted (Atta, 2000, pp.9-13).
In everyday parlance, “ethical investing” and “socially responsible investing” are terms
that are used interchangeably to describe investing money with a conscience. However, ethical
responsibility proponent Ritchie P. Lowry. Under the broad umbrella of SRI, Lowry (1991)
identifies three distinct types of SRI. Ethical investing, which is a passive approach to social
responsibility, is the simplest form of SRI; individual and institutional investors make their
investment decisions using their own subjective ethical judgment. Domini’s avoidance and
positive choice approaches are most commonly used in this type of SRI. Social investing
involves using the activist approach; social investors use their position as shareholders in
company to influence and coerce management to change their policies. Alternative investing is
the process of investing in ventures that contribute to the public good, such as land trusts and low
Ethics and morality are highly subjective issues, open to the interpretation of the
individual. With such divergent views on what constitutes ethical behavior, there is no consensus
on what role, if any, social responsibility should play in investment management (not unlike the
debates over which Islamic financial contracts are permissible under the Sharia and which ones
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have reviewed the history and evolution of modern portfolio theory
and, briefly, ethical investing. The question of risk and return is one that every investor,
53
regardless of his or her religious persuasion, must face when making their investment decisions.
But for Muslims who choose to adhere to the Sharia, there are other, spiritual considerations as
well. For these Muslims, the Sharia does not stop at the door of the mosque. As we have seen in
chapter II, the Sharia is a way of life and a code of conduct. It has as much influence on earthly
matters like investing as it does on spiritual and religious obligations. We will now turn our
attention toward one of the most prominent forms of ethical investing – Islamic investment.
54
Introduction
We have just reviewed the history and evolution of modern portfolio theory. As we have
seen, every investor follows (or at least should) the profit maximization-loss minimization rule
taught in every introductory economics course and adapted to portfolio selections. Every investor,
from conservative individuals with low risk appetites who seek to build and protect their wealth
to hedge fund managers who are willing to accept high risk for the possibility of huge return,
wants to achieve the maximum return for the least amount of risk. In other words, investors
optimize between risk and return based on their individual preferences. Muslim investors are no
exception.
However, beyond these considerations some Muslims choose to answer to the strictures
of their faith. Indeed, the investment requirements imposed by the Quran and the Sharia
constitute one of the earliest examples of what is now called socially responsible investing. The
Muslim investor has the same goal as any other investor – to maximize returns relative to risk –
but he or she also has the religious obligation to put his or her money into business ventures and
firms that are compatible with Islam and the Sharia. For the pious, not to do so entails a worse
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the restrictions that the Sharia imposes on
Muslim investors. It will detail accepted and prohibited lines of business, as well as the financial
gharar, and maysir will also be examined. The chapter will also look at the development of
Islamic investment funds, and the issues that they face. (Islamic equity funds will be the key
focus of this chapter and the next; other investment alternatives for Muslims will be discussed in
55
a later chapter.) The issues explored in this chapter are integral for understanding the
considerations and obligations that pious Muslim investors face every day, and for understanding
Omer Ahmed (2000), president of Crescent Capital Management, detailed five key
These five guidelines provide a useful framework for understanding the philosophy of Islamic
As referred to in chapter II, Islam, through its sacred text, the Quran, provides, at least in
theory, a comprehensive set of principles and requirements for the daily lives of Muslims. Islam
is thus deeply involved in social, political, cultural, and economic matters. The ideal Islamic
economic and financial system differs markedly from the Western interest-based model. It is
important to appreciate that this system is defined and best understood in the context of an
Islamic society.
Ahmed reminds us that in Islam, justice, equality, and fairness are the ends to which all
Muslims must strive. Those involved in business, trade, and finance are no exception and must
endeavor to reach these goals in addition to making a profit or achieving a high rate of return.
Most Muslims do not regard the presence or absence of wealth as vice or virtue.
56
Muslims believe that all wealth belongs to God, and that man only serves as a steward
over whatsoever portion of wealth that God has allotted to him. The Quran places great
significance on how Muslims create, use, and consume their wealth. According to Ahmed,
wealth in Islam is defined in terms of assets, not monetary value. Money is seen as merely a
medium of exchange, with no intrinsic value of its own. The commoditization of money is not an
accepted concept in Islamic economics. Money is at best a potential asset. It only attains a
Islam stresses modesty, the avoidance of wasteful consumption, and self-reliance, and
enjoins Muslims to deploy their wealth productively. The hoarding of wealth is expressly
forbidden (Quran 9:33-34). Taking advantage of one’s wealth is also haram. In the context of
business and financial dealings, wealthy owners of capital should not supersede or enjoy any
advantage over the possessors of other factors of production, such as labor. This would violate
Ahmed stresses that profit and loss sharing, or equity based, financing is the most favored
way to conduct financial and business transactions in Islam. Providers of capital and providers of
labor are considered to be equal partners in any contract or transaction; therefore both have the
right to enjoy the fruits of any venture, in addition to bearing the weight of any losses. Providers
of capital cannot protect their capital or demand forms of guarantees for a pre-specified capital
return. This would be a form of the forbidden riba (discussed below). This condition reflects
The Three Major Prohibitions of Islamic Finance: Riba, Gharar, and Maysir
Modern Islamic finance is a prohibition driven industry. Namely, there is a great deal of
time spent elucidating what Muslims cannot do, or what is haram. While that list is a long one,
57
three main prohibitions must be highlighted in order for the reader to understand the key
Riba
Those who charge riba are in the same position as those controlled by the devil's
influence. This is because they claim that riba is the same as commerce. However, God permits
commerce, and prohibits riba. Thus, whoever heeds this commandment from his Lord, and
refrains from riba, he may keep his past earnings, and his judgment rests with God. As for those
who persist in riba, they incur Hell, wherein they abide forever.
-Quran 2:275
O you who believe, you shall observe God and refrain from all kinds of riba, if you are
believers. If you do not, then expect a war from God and His messenger. But if you repent, you
may keep your capitals, without inflicting injustice, or incurring injustice. If the debtor is unable
to pay, wait for a better time. If you give up the loan as a charity, it would be better for you, if
you only knew.
-Quran 2:277-280
Probably the most distinguishing (or at least the most widely known among non-Muslims)
feature of Islamic finance is the prohibition of the payment and receipt of interest. This
prohibition is known by the Arabic word riba, which literally means “increase.” Generally, riba
constitutes any increase in capital for which no compensation is given. Islam forbids the lending
of credit for profit. The Quran fervently denounces riba, and both it and the Sunna list riba as
one of the most grievous sins. The least of the forms of riba are equated with incest, for instance.
All who take part in riba are accursed, both in this world and in the next, where they are
threatened with hellfire. The Quran regards it as a practice of true unbelievers. Indeed, as a test
of Muslims’ belief, it demands that riba should be abandoned, and threatens dire punishment if it
is not abandoned (Schacht, 1995, pp. 491-493). Despite the rancor with which the Quran regards
riba, it provides little explanation of what the term means. This has led to wide misconceptions
7
See Vogel p. 73, footnote 7.
58
of what riba truly is. In English, riba is most commonly translated as “interest” or “usury,” but
The one explicit example of riba comes from the Quran and is known as riba al-jahiliyya,
so known because it was practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia. When a debtor could not repay a loan
(of money or goods) with the accompanying interest, the creditor granted a time extension.
However, the principal was increased concurrently, often by fifty percent. This practice is
referred to in Quran 3:130 and 30:39. This form of riba also includes assigning a penalty to a
debtor for failing to pay at the loan maturity date (analogous to modern late payment fees)
(Schacht, 1995, pp. 491-493; Vogel and Hayes, 1998, pp. 72-73). However, the Quranic verses
and the hadith mentioned above indicate that the nature of riba is much more expansive than the
As mentioned earlier, the prohibition of interest is the most famous feature of Islamic
jurists have defined riba as “trading two goods of the same kind in different quantities.”
Numerous studies have shown that premodern and contemporary Islamic jurists have expanded
riba’s definition beyond its original demarcations (i.e. riba al-jahiliyya) (El-Gamal, 2006, p. 49).
This is precisely the type of articulation of legal thought described in chapter II. However, no
one can argue that charging interest on a loan is not a form of riba, as shown by the “loan”
hadith above.
There are also forms of modern “interest” in the Western sense that Islamic jurists have
allowed. Take for instance the murabaha contract, or a cost-plus or credit sale. Suppose that a
Muslim landscaper wishes to buy a lawnmower for his business. He does not currently have the
funds to do so, but he wishes to conduct this transaction in the Islamic fashion. He then
59
approaches a Muslim financial institution who buys the lawnmower on his behalf. The institution
then sells the lawnmower to the landscaper; the total (deferred) price that the landscaper will end
up paying is a combination of the retail price of the lawnmower, plus a profit markup for the
Islamic financial institution. Clearly, an implicit interest rate can be calculated in this transaction.
However, this transaction is considered halal because the institution is compensated for the cost
of deferring the landscaper’s payment, the risk of destruction of the good prior to its delivery,
and the risk that the lawnmower may be returned if a defect is found therein, as well as credit
risk. In his research, one scholar, Mahmoud El-Gamal, has defined riba as “the sale of credit”
Today, Islamic scholars recognize and prohibit two types of riba. The first is riba al-
qurud, or interest on loans. The second is riba al-buyu, or interest in trade. For riba al-qurud, no
amount over and above the loan may be given or received by the borrower and lender. Riba al-
jahiliyya falls into this category. This prohibition is not only limited to giving additional money;
Riba al-buyu, interest in trade, is further divided into categories. The first is riba al-nasa,
the interest in forward transactions. If two parties engage in a forward transaction for the delivery
of same type of commodity, neither side can defer delivery of the commodity. The second type is
referred to as riba al-fadl, or the interest in inequality; it occurs when two parties exchange the
It is hard to conceive of such transactions that could lead to either riba al-nasa or riba al-
fadl occurring in the present day. They can arise quite easily in barter, however. The prohibitions
thus discourage barter and encourage cash transactions, which are more efficient (Hardie and
a. While this assertion is partly true, it does not tell the complete story. Many
scholars insist that the prohibition was put in place to prevent rich creditors from
taking advantage of poor debtors. However the Muslim scholar Ibn Rushd (a
regards to the prohibition of riba; rather, the focus is on the lent sum. Examine
Quran 2:278-279 (reproduced above). Some Muslim scholars hold that the
meaning of verse 279 (If you do not…incurring injustice) is best explained as “if
you repent, then you should collect your principal, without increase or
diminution.” This refers to the fact that both an increase and a decrease in the sum
of money that is returned to the creditor relative to the amount lent is considered
an injustice.
transaction, not all forms of interest constitute the forbidden riba. Jurists maintain
that it is perfectly permissible for a deferred price of an asset to be higher than the
spot price. The “interest” is embedded in the credit price of the sale. Another
8
Ijara means lease, rent or wage. In general, it refers to selling benefit, use, or service for a fixed price or wage. An
Islamic financial institution leases to a customer an asset/piece of equipment for a fixed price and period. The fixed
price generally includes the principal amount plus a profit markup for the Islamic financial institution.
61
Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (may peace
be upon him) as saying: Gold is to be paid for by gold, silver by silver, wheat by wheat,
barley by barley, dates by dates, salt by salt, like by like, payment being made hand to
hand. He who made an addition to it, or asked for an addition, in fact dealt in usury. The
receiver and the giver are equally guilty. 9
a. This is one of the most famous and oft-quoted hadiths concerning riba. In
particular, it prohibits riba al-fadl. All sales within a genus with inequality with or
without a time factor constitute riba al-fadl. As per this hadith, it is impermissible
to trade goods of the same genus and kind in different quantities. Jurists have
agreed that prohibition is not limited to the six goods listed in the hadith, called
ribawi goods. Hanafi jurists also include all fungible goods measured by weight
a. The return on a permissible credit sale carries the same risk as the return on a loan
with interest – credit risk. In both transactions, the lender faces the risk that the
5. Riba is “usury.”
a. This fallacy is due to the faulty yet unfortunately common translation of riba as
or 20% (Vogel and Hayes, 2006, pp. 72-77; El-Gamal, 1999; El-Gamal, 2000).
Gharar
The Messenger of God forbade the ‘sale of the pebble’ (hasah, the sales of an object
determined by throwing a pebble), and the sale of gharar. 10
9
Muslim. Book 10 – The Book of Transactions (Kitab al-Buyu), Number 3854.
10
Muslim. Quoted in Vogel and Hayes p. 87
62
The Messenger of God forbade the sale of the copulation of the stallion. 11
Whoever buys foodstuffs, let him not sell them until he has possession of them. 12
In English, gharar can be translated as “risk” or “uncertainty.” Islamic jurists know that
all financial contracts and transactions entail a certain degree of risk and uncertainty that is
unavoidable. Jurists seek to determine whether the risk present in a contract is major or excessive
gharar, which would invalidate a contract, or minor gharar, which is tolerated. It is important to
keep in mind that risk and uncertainty are not haram in and of themselves. Instead, it is the sale
of gharar (bay al-gharar in Arabic) that has been expressly forbidden by Muhammad. Another
important point is that unbundled risk is also forbidden (El-Gamal, 2000, pp. 148-149). Suppose
that a customer buys an expensive crystal vase for $500. As she is paying for the vase, the
impermissible for her to buy the plan, because this is the sale of risk through insurance, which is
prohibited. However, if the vase were offered for $575, the price of the vase and the cost of the
warranty plan bundled together, it would be perfectly acceptable for her to purchase the vase.
Jurists allow risk sharing by bundling the insurance cost with the purchase price.
In order for a sale to be valid (i.e. binding on both parties), jurists agree that all parties
must have full knowledge of all aspects of the contract, and that the object of the contract must
be in existence at the time of the contract (however, the Malikis and Hanbalis allow sales of
absent/nonexistent goods provided that they are described in minute detail in the contract). The
absence of one does not compensate for the presence of the other, and price is not considered to
be sufficient for the absence of either knowledge or existence. Generally, gharar is considered to
11
Bukhari. Quoted in Vogel and Hayes p. 88
12
Bukhari. Quoted in Vogel and Hayes p. 88
63
be present when there is incomplete information and/or fraud, as well as uncertainty about the
intrinsic nature of the objects in question in a contract (Vogel and Hayes, 2006, p. 90).
There are four instances of transactions that involve unacceptable risk to some extent, all
1. Pure speculation. A few examples of this type of transaction are forms of gambling
that pre-Islamic merchants engaged in, such as selling for a fixed price whatever
unexamined goods that a buyer touched. Little is known of these contracts besides
2. Uncertain outcome. This includes contracts where the object has an uncertain value
and may not be realized at all. Examples include selling fish that have not yet been
caught. The sale of goods not yet in one’s possession also falls into this category.
(Notice the implications that this has for the short selling of stocks, and indeed all
options.)
3. Unknowable future benefit. This encompasses contracts in which the benefits to the
buyer are known, but the future benefits are unknown. An example of this is buying a
pregnant cow. Such transactions can feature considerable gharar, especially if the
buyer paid too much for the object of sale or had false hopes as to its benefits.
4. Inexactitude. These hadiths are concerned with inexactitude, such as selling someone
There are four conditions that must be met if gharar is to invalidate a contract:
gharar, such as if the exact weight of the object of sale is not known to the nearest
2. The contract must be one in which property changes hands (e.g. a sale). Gifts are
thereby excluded from the rules of gharar. A majority of jurists permit uncertainty in
a gift contract. But selling an item that has major gharar is not permissible.
3. The present gharar must affect the principal components of a contract, namely price
and object of sale. For example, it is permissible to sell a pregnant mare, but it is
haram to sell the unborn foal due to the risk that it may be stillborn.
4. If a contract with major gharar meets a need that cannot otherwise be fulfilled, then it
advance payment is made for goods to be delivered later. Without this contract,
financing for various agricultural and industrial activities could not be completed.
gharar (El-Gamal, 2006, pp. 58-59). This is an example of the application of maslaha.
As seen above, the limits on gharar can be quite restrictive on some contracts. The four
major madhhabs feature a number of such restrictions that can hamper some transactions. It is
for this reason that modern practitioners of Islamic finance often turn to the rulings of the
medieval Hanbali jurist Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328). Ibn Taymiyya sought to return the meaning of
gharar to “risk” and believed that the rules prohibiting lack of knowledge and non-existence
were detrimental to the effective utilization of contracts. As we have seen above, traditional rules
of gharar are antithetical to modern forms of finance, such as short selling. However, even Ibn
Taymiyya’s views would regard modern developments such as derivatives and commercial
Maysir
65
Maysir is actually the severest form of gharar – gambling. The Quran prohibits maysir in
no uncertain terms in verse 5:90, calling it an “abomination,” and “Satan’s handiwork.” The
verse goes further in claiming that maysir, as well as alcohol, were tools that the Devil uses to
“sow enmity and hatred” among Muslims, and prevent them “from the remembrance of God and
prayer.”
Of the three major prohibitions, riba and gharar are the most frequently encountered.
Mahmoud El-Gamal characterizes riba and gharar as the trading in unbundled credit and risk,
respectively. In their bundled forms, which classical jurists strove to develop, both credit and risk
can be made acceptable under traditional Islamic protocol. El-Gamal offers two economic
The prohibition on gharar can be interpreted as Islam’s attempt to protect its followers
from exposure to excessive financial risk and the payment of inefficiently priced premiums to
reduce or eliminate risk. The aforementioned human tendencies drive people to take too much
risk in their financial and commercial dealings, and then pay too much for insurance to protect
them as a result. Return to the previous example of the woman buying a vase who is offered an
extended warranty plan. The salesperson offers the plan at the point of purchase, when the
woman has begun to consider the vase her own. This tactic is used to exploit her tendency for
loss-aversion. If the insurance was bundled into the total price of the vase, she would probably
have thought twice before purchasing. Yet since the warranty was offered after she had bought
the vase (when she considered it her own property) the instinct to protect that property was
triggered. The human tendency of loss aversion compelled her to pay more for insurance than
66
she otherwise would have. Thus El-Gamal argues that the Islamic prohibition of gharar can help
insulate consumers from the detrimental effects of this behavior (El-Gamal, 2000, pp. 60-61).
The economic substance of the prohibition of riba was first articulated centuries ago by
Ibn Rushd. Even though he was of the Maliki school, Ibn Rushd adopted the Hanafi line of
thought in his discussion of the underlying economic basis of the riba prohibition. Hanafis
generally extend the rules of riba dictated for the six ribawi goods to all fungible commodities.
Ibn Rushd felt that the Hanafis’ reasoning for the prohibition of riba was the most compelling:
It is thus apparent from the law that what is targeted by the prohibition of riba is the
excessive inequity that it entails. In this regard, equity in certain transactions is achieved
through equality. Since the attainment of equality in exchange of items of different kinds is
difficult, we use their values in monetary terms. Thus, equity may be ensured through
proportionality of value for goods that are not measured by weight and volume. Thus, the ratio
of exchanged quantities will be determined by the ratio of the values of the different types of
goods traded. For example, if a person sells a horse in exchange for clothes…if the value of the
horse is fifty, then value of the clothes should be fifty. If the value of each piece of clothing is five,
As for fungible goods measured by weight or volume, equity requires equality, since they
are relatively homogenous, and thus have similar benefits. Since it is not necessary for a person
owning one of the those goods to exchange it for goods of the same type, justice in this case is
achieved by equating volume or weight, since the benefits are very similar. 13
It is easy to recognize the conditions for efficiency of exchange in the previous selection.
Even though he wrote centuries before the advent of calculus and modern economic theory, Ibn
13
This is the translation of El-Gamal 2006 pp.52-53
67
Rushd articulated one of the key concepts of modern economics. Efficiency in exchange is
achieved when the ratio of the prices are equal to the ratio of marginal utilities. Justice is
Another key example of this notion is found in a well known hadith. One day an
Muhammad. He had with him some dates he had brought from Khaybar. Muhammad inquired
where the governor had obtained the dates. The governor responded that he had traded two
volumes of lower quality dates for one volume of the high quality variety. Muhammad replied
angrily that his actions constituted the forbidden riba. Instead, Muhammad declared, he should
have sold the lower quality dates and used the proceeds to buy the high quality dates. 14
This too is yet another example of economic efficiency. By selling the low quality dates
(at the highest possible market price) and buying the high quality dates (at the lowest possible
market price), exchange occurs at the ratio dictated by market prices. As the law of diminishing
utility will be at work, buyers and sellers of the dates will trade until the ratio of the marginal
utilities is equated to the ratio of market prices. Efficiency in exchange is then achieved. Thus it
can be argued that the aim of the prohibition of riba is to ensure equity in exchange in markets.
This logic can also be extended to credit sales and leases, the classical contracts used to
avoid riba in financing. Here, the appropriate “price” would be the market determined interest
rate. Ironically, conventional finance does a service to Islamic finance in that it determines the
appropriate interest rate for borrowers based on their creditworthiness and the security of the
collateral. Some argue that benchmarking the implicit interest rate in Islamic credit sales to
conventional interest rate tables is appropriate. Suppose that the market interest rate is 6% for a
particular borrower and his or her collateral, but an Islamic financial institution charges this same
14
Bukhari. Volume 3, Book 34 – Sales and Trade, Number 404.
68
borrower 10% implied interest. This is clearly inefficient and contravenes the Islamic spirit of
equity and fairness, even if it uses an accepted Islamic financial contract (Vogel and Hayes, 2006,
A common misconception about Islamic finance is that Islam does not recognize the time
value of money. This is a falsehood that is no doubt derived from the promulgation of the
improper translation of riba as “interest” or “usury.” Jurists not only accept the concept of the
time value of money, but also consider it to be a natural and completely permissible tendency
among humans, who after all tend to exhibit a positive time preference. We can see this in the
case of murabaha, or credit sales. Nearly all scholars agree that the credit price of a commodity
or good can and should be more than its cash or spot price, so long as the credit price is settled
beforehand in a binding contract between the two parties. Jurists accept that both time and place
have an influence on price. A good that is worth $100 in the morning can be worth $10 at night.
Similarly, a good that is worth $500 in New York can be worth $100 in Hatchechubbee,
Alabama. This is acceptable provided that these differences in price arise due to market forces
Islamic equity investment funds began as simple mutual funds that invested in a limited
guidelines. Islamic investment funds generally revolve around equity investment. The reason for
this is obvious; since Islam forbids the payment and receipt of interest, Muslim investors cannot
buy the conventional bonds and other debt-based securities of companies. Likewise, Muslim
69
investors are prohibited from investing in preferred shares of stock. Preferred shares give holders
priority claims to assets in the event of a bankruptcy, a guaranteed rate of profit, and so on.
Therefore, common stocks are the preferred and permissible way to invest in companies.
Islamic finance values equity partnership as the ideal method of investment. Various jurists have
ruled that it is permissible to invest in and trade common stocks of companies that operate
acceptable primary businesses that conform to Islamic protocol. Owning shares of a company’s
stock is deemed to be equivalent to being a silent partner who has partial ownership of that
company’s assets. Jurists also view mutual funds as permissible modes of investment. The
mutual fund manager is seen as the agent of the fund’s shareholders, who are seen as investors in
Islamic equity funds have experienced tremendous growth. In 1996, there were 29 such
funds with $800 million in assets. By 2000, this number had increased to 98, with nearly $5
billion in assets. Today there are over 100 Islamic equity funds catering to a large variety of
investors.
Fund management is most often carried out by investment banks and specialized fund
providers in Islamic finance. Most Islamic funds are operated in Saudi Arabia, UAE, Britain, UK,
USA, Canada, Bahrain, Kuwait, Pakistan, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore. The steadily rising
demand for Islamic investing options is now spurring growth across the globe. Managers of
Islamic equity funds select stocks based on their lines of business and their financial
characteristics. An Islamic equity fund must carry a pro rata profit actually earned by the fund.
Based on investor risk profiles and management strategy, these equity funds are divided into four
subcategories:
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2. Capital gain funds – objective is to earn profits from the capital gains
accumulated through the frequent purchase and sale of Sharia compliant equities
profits to investors from dividends and capital gains (Ayub, 2007, p. 201)
Equity investment is the most common form of investment in Islamic finance. However,
there are other Sharia compliant products that are available to Muslim investors. Sheikh
Muhammad Taqi Usmani, a preeminent Hanafi jurist from Pakistan, has identified five
1. Equity funds
2. Ijara funds (funds from subscribers are used to finance the purchase of assets
through ijara or Islamic leases. Rentals from the user of the asset are distributed
3. Commodity funds (funds are used to purchase commodities that are later resold at
4. Murabaha funds (funds are used to finance murabahas; proceeds from these
5. Hybrid, or mixed funds (funds are used in different types of investing, such as in
One of the most distinguishing characteristics of Islamic equity funds are professional
Sharia advisory boards. While not all funds retain such boards, having a Sharia advisory board is
a sign of legitimacy to many investors. The presence of a Sharia board is a comfort for many
Muslim investors; they are assured that their money is being invested in a manner that conforms
to the rigid standards of traditional Islamic business practice; this is all because the board is there
to ensure that outcome. A Sharia board serves many functions. It is primarily responsible for
certifying the permissibility of the stocks that comprise an Islamic equity fund. Besides
monitoring the portfolio, the Sharia board also is responsible for monitoring the management of
the fund to ensure that the managers always act in accordance with the Sharia. This is especially
important when fund managers are not Muslims. The board is also expected to help management
prepare investor reports and SEC filings. Those who serve on Sharia boards must be well versed
An important caveat to keep in mind is that Islamic funds have different Sharia boards.
As seen in chapter II, rulings on a given financial topic may differ jurist to jurist and board to
board. Sharia boards are often hired and compensated by the financial institutions for which they
consult. Thus, these boards may suffer from a lack of independence in their rulings. On a wider
scale, the industry currently lacks a broad regulatory framework. While there are a number of
influential bodies in Islamic finance, such as the Fiqh Council of the Organization of the Islamic
Conference, there is no single, universal Sharia supervisory board, nor has there ever been. The
call for such a board has arisen numerous times in the past. It has been argued that a central
Sharia board would be impractical because it could not perform all the functions required for
Sharia supervision for the hundreds of Islamic financial institutions in existence. Another reason
put forward is that since there are a wide variety of Islamic financial institutions, from mutual
72
funds to commercial banks, a central Sharia board could not possibly provide the specialized
consultation and advisory services for each subsector of the Islamic financial industry
(DeLorenzo, 2000). The various schools of law and their different interpretations no doubt also
play a role.
Creating a central body to regulate Islamic finance would be a daunting task. But in order
for the Islamic financial industry to move forward, to attract new customers, and to retain current
customers, it needs some sort of regulatory framework. The credit crisis has demonstrated
unequivocally what can happen when the market is allowed to run freely with inadequate
supervision. While the industry’s built-in adherence to the theoretically fair and equitable system
of Islamic financial law is a definite advantage, this does not exempt the industry from the need
enact a standard set of regulations for the industry. To counter the arguments presented above,
the agency could have numerous internal departments dedicated to regulating different sectors of
the industry. To fund its operations, a fee could be charged to Islamic financial institutions who
apply for membership in the organization. Membership in the organization could be seen as a
seal of approval and sign of legitimacy in the eyes of Muslim investors. A conference of Muslim
jurists, scholars, and Islamic finance professionals could be convened to choose the governors
who would run such an organization, as well as hammer out other details. Representation from
each madhhab would be paramount. Such an organization would also be in the best interest of
Muslim investors, who would then have greater assurance that the financial products they use are
15
In addition, there would probably have to be another organization for Shiites. While Sunni and Shiite doctrine on
some financial and business issues overlap, many others do not.
73
Fortunately, there have been steps in the right direction. There are a number of different
bodies that attempt to provide regulatory standards for members and the industry. The three most
important are the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions
(AAOIFI), the Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB), and the Organization of the Islamic
The AAOIFI, founded February 26, 1990 in Algiers, is a nonprofit organization whose
mission it is to formulate accounting, auditing, governance, ethical, and Sharia guidelines for the
Islamic finance industry. The organization is supported by 155 institutional members, such as
Islamic financial institutions (IFIs) and other players in the Islamic finance industry. The
AAOIFI has also garnered the support of national governments. Some countries, such as Bahrain,
Jordan, and Sudan, have implemented its standards, while others like Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
Malaysia (the leader in Islamic finance), and Australia have issued regulatory guidelines based
on AAOIFI standards for IFIs in their jurisdiction. Most notably, AAOIFI also issues
professional certifications for participants in Islamic finance; these are the Certified Islamic
Professional Accountant (CIPA) and Certified Sharia Adviser and Auditor (CSAA) designations
(Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions, 2009). The AAOIFI
can effectively be thought of as a combination of the Financial Accounting Standards Board and
Based in Kuala Lumpur, the Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) also issues
standards for the Islamic finance industry, including Islamic insurance companies. The IFSB
conducts research and facilitates the discussion of issues that affect the industry as a whole by
organizing conferences and seminars. The IFSB currently has 178 members, including the
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International Monetary Fund, World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, and Saudi Arabia
September 25, 1969, the OIC, the second largest inter-governmental organization after the
United Nations, is comprised of 57 member nations from across the Muslim world (Organization
of the Islamic Conference, 2009). Muslim scholars from across the world, primarily scholars of
fiqh but also including experts in other fields, constitute the membership of the Fiqh Academy.
The goal of the Academy is to investigate and find solutions to the problems that confront
Muslims in the modern era. To this end, the Academy issues fatwas on a number of subjects,
including questions concerning Islamic finance and the economic lives of Muslims (Islamic Fiqh
Academy, 2009).
Sovereign nations have also made concerted efforts to regulate Islamic finance and
banking within their borders. Bahrain has a detailed set of guidelines for listing, offering, and
issuing debt securities, including Islamic bonds, or sukuk. Malaysia has set forth more stringent
requirements for Islamic bonds, such as mandating more frequent/detailed financial reports and
disclosures and requiring financiers involved in Islamic finance to be Sharia literate. However,
Islamic banks have encountered opposition from some governments, particularly those of North
Africa. The governments of countries like Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria are very leery of Islamic
financial institutions (IFIs), believing them to be linked to Islamic political parties. Some of these
countries allow Islamic banks to exist but provide little regulatory support, while others ban IFIs
outright (Modi, 2007). This is probably due to the history of political struggle between more
secular Middle Eastern governments and Islamist movements that has been waged in the region
for decades. Other nations that have experienced tension and conflict between Muslims and non-
75
Muslims also outlaw IFIs (Modi, 2007). At any rate, the varying levels of governmental support
for IFIs presents a hurdle in the way of greater integration and regulation of the industry.
By the very nature of Islamic law, a wide diversity of opinion concerning the
acceptability of Islamic financial products will always exist. As seen in chapter II, the
geographically decentralized and highly personal nature of fiqh may preclude the establishment
of a single regulatory body which can definitively rule on products’ adherence to Sharia
guidelines. However, it is imperative that regulators ensure that Muslim customers have
unfettered access to full disclosures about the risks of Islamic financial products, and that the
possible.
Other pressing regulatory challenges also confront the Islamic investment funds and the
Islamic finance industry. First, Islamic financial firms should and must continually monitor their
products for Sharia compliance before and after launch to maintain investor confidence and firm
reputation. Second, the shortage of qualified Sharia scholars often means that scholars hold
positions at multiple firms. This obviously can result in numerous conflicts of interest, plus a
possible decline in quality of oversight as scholars are stretched thin across many firms. Third, a
simultaneous dearth of professionals versed in both finance and the Sharia means that the
industry will lack the qualified personnel it needs to sustain its growth. Education, training and
development programs, and time are all needed to allow a large enough pool of Sharia scholars
The issue of regulation of the Islamic finance industry will be taken up and further
In the development of Islamic funds, particularly equity funds, the problem of finding a
suitable benchmark against which managers and investors could measure performance arose.
Millions of Muslims were determined to adhere to their religious principles in their financial and
economic dealings, and fund managers were eager to acquiesce to this new demand. The Dow
Jones Company, sensing an opportunity, stepped in to create an index that would become the
The Dow Jones Islamic Market (DJIM) Indexes were introduced in 1999 as the first
benchmarks to represent Islamic-compliant portfolios. Today the series encompasses more than
70 indexes and is arguably the most comprehensive family of Islamic market measures. The
company has put together a Sharia board to guide its operations, and to judge the Sharia
compliance of the components of its indexes. The board consists of some of the most respected
and well known names in Islamic finance today, including Yusuf Talal DeLorenzo, Nizam
Yaquby, and Dr. Mohamed Elgari. This board was instrumental in developing the screening
parameters that Dow Jones uses to select stocks for its universe.
Over time, the company has launched several subindexes, such as the DJ Islamic US
Index, which covers US companies only, the DJ Europe Index, which is dedicated solely to
European stocks, and even the DJ Islamic BRIC Index, which features companies from Brazil,
Russia, India, and China. The company expects to launch more subindexes in the future.
The Dow Jones Islamic Market Indexes include only easily accessible, actively traded
stocks. The selection universe for the family is the Dow Jones World Index. The components of
DJIM Indexes represent a broad range of stocks from different countries, regions, market cap
ranges and Sharia-compliant industries. Subindexes allow the individual tracking of these
various market segments. Stocks are only selected for membership in the DJIM Indexes if they
77
pass a rigorous set of quantitative and qualitative measures. These screens are developed and
continuously evaluated by the Sharia board. The composition of each subindex is reviewed
quarterly every March, June, September and December. The indexes also are reviewed on an
ongoing basis to evaluate for corporate actions such as mergers and acquisitions, de-listings or
In the never-ending quest for superior portfolio returns and performance, most
contemporary investors are limited only by their tolerance for risk and supply of personal capital.
Some investors, as mentioned above, choose to place their money into firms whose operations
closely match their own personal guidelines and ethics. However, the only restraint that most
investors face on investment decisions is derived from their own self-imposed constraints.
This is not so for the Muslim investor. Muslim investors who choose to conduct their
business and financial dealings according to their religion not only must consider the expected
return of an investment, but also how that investment affects his or her standing in the eyes of
God.
The Sharia forbids Muslims from participating in several activities; thus it is also
forbidden for Muslims to invest in firms engaged in these activities. Fund managers and
individual investors who are concerned with remaining true to the precepts of Islam steer clear of
providing startup financing to companies whose primary business activities fall within the
forbidden categories and purchasing the equity of such firms. Sharia boards have identified
several lines of prohibited business for Muslim investors. The standards that have been
incorporated into the industry screen of the Dow Jones Islamic Market index are as follows 16:
16
Keep in mind that all Islamic funds may not adhere to these same business screens. However, the screens used in
the DJIM are often referred to and used by Islamic funds.
78
1. Alcohol. Alcohol and other intoxicants are strongly opposed in Islam, just as they are
in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The basis of this is the following verse of the Quran:
They ask you concerning alcohol and gambling. Say: "In them is a great sin, and
some benefits for men, but the sin is far greater than the benefit." (Quran 2:219)
2. Tobacco. There is no explicit ban on tobacco in the Quran. Nevertheless due to the
good (even though smoking is very popular throughout many nations in the Islamic
cites Quranic commands against suicide and willfully harming the body (Quran 4:29,
3. Pork related products. One of the most well known prohibitions in Islam is the
injunction against the consumption of pork products. This prohibition is based upon
Quran 5:4: Forbidden to you for food are: dead meat, blood, and the flesh of swine….
4. Financial services. Since most financial services companies having dealings with
interest – both paying and receiving – it is forbidden for Muslims to invest in them.
world (for example, Egypt has a successful and influential film industry), many
17
Conventional commercial insurance as we know here in the West is deemed haram by many Islamic legal experts.
This stance was formally decided at the second session of the Fiqh Academy of the Organization of Islamic
Conference. The Academy felt that paying a fixed insurance premium contains substantial gharar, invalidating the
contract. Most jurists lean towards the forms of mutual insurance and social (state-organized) insurance. A viable
and Islamically permissible mode of insurance known as takaful has been approved by many jurists in that it is
based on the cooperative insurance model (with variations from mutual insurance as it is known here in the West).
However, there are also scholars who deem commercial insurance to be permissible under the Sharia. The debate on
the permissibility of insurance continues, but it is beyond the scope of this paper.
79
scholars agree that it is haram to invest in companies that produce such products.
These forbidden items include films, music, and other recreational products. Casinos
are also off limits due to the prohibition, noted above, of gambling (which is known
in Arabic as maysir). Hotels also generally fall into this category, as many serve
7. Food wholesalers and retailers. Many such companies offer non-halal foodstuffs,
against include companies who treat their workers poorly, cause negative environmental effects,
and biotech companies that are involved in projects that use aborted embryos and pursue human
cloning. It is important to keep in mind that not all activities associated with these industries are
unequivocally haram; some jurists may classify them as makruh or even mubah (see chapter II),
but even then some would still argue against investing in companies that engage in them.
If a company is engaged in any of these industries, then Muslim investors tend to shy
away from them. However, for many companies, even though their primary line of business is
acceptable, part of their operations are involved in haram activities. Still more have subsidiaries
Sharia scholars differ in their approaches to investments in these types of companies. The
most conservative scholars hold that investing in the equity of a company that is engaged in a
haram activity in any degree is impermissible. Clearly, this narrow view vastly restricts the
number of equities in which Muslims can invest, especially as regards to companies that pay or
receive interest; debt financing is prevalent among companies in all areas of the world. It is
80
nearly impossible for most firms to maintain and grow their operations without accessing short
term credit at the very least. In the case of such companies, some jurists invoke the Maliki
principle of maslaha, or public interest. In this context, it is held that requiring Muslims to
adhere to the strictest forms of Sharia compliance (i.e. investing in companies that are not
involved in haram activities to any extent and that have no short or long term debt) would cause
undue hardship on the faithful. This is especially true for Muslims living in the West, where few
companies completely fit the stringent guidelines of Islamic jurisprudence. Some scholars permit
Muslims to invest in such companies provided that the illicit ventures are not their main line of
business. Others have relaxed the guidelines on the level of financial leverage that a company
may have (discussed in the next chapter). In general, the principle of maslaha allows some
Purification
In a perfect world, Sharia scholars’ ideal publicly traded company would exist; all of its
operations would be halal and it would be free from every questionable source of income,
including borrowing and lending at interest. Since this ideal is rarely encountered in the
contemporary world, the issue of purification of returns (covering both dividends and capital
gains) arises. Generally, purification is deducting from total investment gains earnings obtained
through means that are in violation of the dictates of Islam. For equity earnings, this primarily
includes interest earnings and income from haram operations (other than primary operations
which should of course be halal). While this seems simple in theory, it is rarely so in practice.
While many jurists and Islamic finance professionals agree about the importance of
disagree about whether Islamic funds should purify returns for investors, or if investors should
81
be responsible for this function. Another issue is whether interest earnings and impure income
should be attributed to revenue or net income. Yet another issue revolves around what is to be
purified: dividends, capital gains, or assets. Purification can also create a comparison problem
between Islamic funds (purified vs. unpurified returns) or distortion of optimal portfolio
There are three common methods for Islamic equity fund purification. In all formulas, P
equals the purification factor through which impure income can be estimated. Impure income
Method 1
In a portfolio of shares on at time period t1, we have companies (c) earning interest i.
Interest income is equal to ic1 + i c2 …+ i cn = a. If net operating income for any company is y,
then total net operating income for the portfolio is equal to: yc1 + y c2 …+ y cn = b. Net asset value
for the fund at time period t1 is NAVt1. Then we must calculate Z, which is equal to: NAVt2 -
NAVt1. If H is equal to H = a/b then purification factor P is equal to ZH=P. For every dollar
invested, the investor must multiply by P and donate this amount to charity. So for example, if P
= 0.009 and the investor’s Z is $3000, then she must give $27 to charity.
Method 2
We have a portfolio of n securities. (S1, S2,… Sn). Compute the dividend yield where:
The annual portfolio dividend yield will be D1 + D2…+ Dn. Interest income for each company
will be:
For the entire portfolio, total interest income will be ic1 + i c2 …+ i cn. The purification factor P
can be calculated as (D)(I) = P. For every dollar invested, $P must be donated to charity.
Method 3
Interest income for each stock in the portfolio is X. X1 …Xn denotes each company.
Interest income of the portfolio is then: ∑ X (1-T) (X) (A) (M) (Elgari, 2000)
Many jurists and Sharia board advisors agree that the funds winnowed away during
purification should be set aside for charitable purposes. Some funds distribute these amounts
among a variety of charities, while others set up a charitable fund or foundation under the
It is interesting to note that while these mechanisms are meant for cleansing returns of
interest income, no such requirement is in place for income derived from haram secondary
operations. However, one could easily substitute “haram income” wherever “interest income”
appears in the formulas listed above. It is also not clear how “Islamized” debt (that which is
The Sharia lays down specific principles that govern the economic and financial decision
making of the faithful. One of the main tenets of Islamic financial theory is the superiority of
profit-and-loss sharing in ownership rather than debt financing. In other words, equity is looked
upon more favorably than debt in a company’s capital structure. However, debt financing is
83
widely used across the world, as is investing in interest bearing securities. For Muslims who
wish to adhere to the strictest interpretation of this prohibition, the universe of companies in
The financial screens that are used to select halal investments are not clear cut and vary
with each Sharia board. The Dow Jones Sharia board has instituted three financial screens that
are used to winnow out unacceptably leveraged companies. Stocks are considered ineligible for
investment if:
more.
a. Total debt = short term debt + long term debt + current portion of long term
debt
obligations (CDOs) is impermissible. Selling cash for cash must comply with
the currency exchange (sarf) rules set forth in the Sharia. Modern scholars
traditionally stipulate that cash and debts cannot exceed real assets on a
company’s equity. Scholars differ on the percentage of cash and debt that is
allowable, but most agree that this number cannot exceed 50%.
more.
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Some might wonder what is so significant about the 33% number. It is based on a well known
saying of Muhammad: “One third, and one third is too much.” 18 In consequence, amounts of one
In addition to the three screens specifically used by the DJIM indexes, other financial
1. Companies with debt-to-equity ratios over 30% are often considered impermissible to
unlawful gains exceed 5-15%. However, the opinion that such earnings should not
exceed 5% is now widely accepted and considered the norm. The DJIM index also
18
Bukhari. Volume 4, Book 51 – Wills and Testaments (Wasaayaa), Number 5.
85
Sharia
Compliant
Companies
Primary Business
Screens
Financial Screens
In terms of the stringency of their guidelines for primary business activities, the DJIM
does a remarkably good job of staying in keeping with the strictures of the Sharia. It is easy to
understand that companies that produce pork or alcohol would be excluded from an Islamic
portfolio, whereas for certain other industries, such as hotels and food providers, it may seem
akin to throwing the wheat out with the chaff. Certainly there are some hotels that do not serve
alcohol. However, for an index provider such as Dow Jones, the cost of scouring prohibited
industries for companies that are indeed Sharia compliant far outweigh the benefits. The
conservatism that the DJIM exhibits is reflective of this fact. It has been suggested that
companies that do not pass the business screen due to their industry but who are themselves
86
Sharia compliant could provide information to Dow Jones that indicates their compliant status. If
index managers and the Sharia board approve, then the company could be included in the index,
provided that they also pass the financial screens. This could possibly be of great benefit to the
DJIM in that it would remove the onus of collecting such information from the provider, would
allow the DJIM to provide a wider snapshot of the broader market, and would provide more
investment choices for Islamic funds and individual Muslim investors. In addition, there is also
an illogical omission from the list of prohibited industries – air and sea transportation. Both
airlines and cruise lines are known to serve alcohol and provide entertainment for their
Another shortcoming of the DJIM is that it does not take into account off-balance sheet
liabilities and assets in the computation of the financial ratios. Taking these items into account
will result in a truer picture of the financial status of a company, and be truer to Islamic
principles.
problematic. Sudden large market movements can cause a company to be Sharia compliant one
hour, then out of compliance in the next. Since Islamic investors are more concerned with the
assets and liabilities of a company, total assets or total capitalization is a more appropriate
measure for financial compliance (Dow Jones Indexes, 2008; Khatkhatay and Nisar, 2007, pp. 1-
Conclusion
Two things should be abundantly clear. First, Islamic finance is just as fluid and dynamic
as Islamic law. While there are some issues that enjoy wide agreement, there are others that do
not. Numerous attempts to create an autonomous regulatory body that can govern Islamic finance
87
across the globe have been made. The individualistic nature of fiqh that was first encountered in
chapter II may make this goal impossible. Nevertheless, the industry should still strive to create
and adopt cohesive regulatory standards that can be applied by Islamic financial institutions from
New York to Dubai to Jakarta, for the good of both customers and the industry’s long term
undoubtedly important to keep these prohibitions in mind during the development of Islamic
financial products and services. But a single minded focus on these prohibitions may at best
drastically limit the potential of the industry and at worst promote inefficiency, creative
stagnation, and the elevation of legal form over religious substance. These dangers will be
elucidated in chapter VII, but now we turn to the performance of Islamic equity funds.
88
Introduction
We now turn our attention to the performance of Islamic equity funds. Four mutual funds
that conform to the precepts of the Sharia will be examined. The performance of these funds vis-
à-vis the performance of conventional equity funds will be compared. The ultimate purpose of
4. How have the Islamic funds performed in the recent market downturn and broader
Ethical mutual funds have been in existence for a number of years, but only recently has
their performance been seriously analyzed. As more and more investors show a marked interest
in ethical investing, and more funds are channeled into the sector, attempts have been made to
analyze their returns as compared to conventional funds. Wall Street purists have consistently
argued that investors who employ ethical restrictions when making their financial decisions will
suffer from a lack of sufficient diversification and sacrifice returns. Proponents of socially
responsible investing have countered that investors can indeed achieve outstanding returns as
In the late 1970s, GOOD MONEY Publications created its Good Money Industrial
Average (GMIA) and Good Money Utility Average (GMUA). Both stock indexes, the brainchild
of Ritchie Lowry, were designed to be the ethical equivalents of the Dow Jones Industrial
Average and the Dow Jones Utility Average respectively, and were developed to provide an easy
way for investors to track and compare the performance of SRI versus traditional investment
over time. For the GMIA, the industries of the DJIA were examined to select socially acceptable
companies. While acceptable companies existed in some sectors such as computers and
pharmaceuticals, other sectors had no acceptable companies. Nuclear weaponry production and
other defense related business disqualified companies in the aerospace and defense industry.
Companies with poor track records in particular social indicators, such as environmental
protection and labor relations, were also excluded. Like the GMIA, the GMUA was designed to
replicate its Dow Jones counterpart. The index was comprised of utility companies that did not
produce nuclear power, developed and/or used alternative energy sources, and enacted
conservation programs. Companies that used traditional fossil fuels but nevertheless had good
environmental records were also included. Like the Dow Jones indexes, the Good Money
indexes replaced components if a company went private, declared bankruptcy, or merged with
another company. While no company in either Good Money index was replaced because of
negative performance, companies were dropped if they ceased to meet social guidelines. If
possible, the offending company was then replaced with a socially acceptable alternative from
Table 1. The Good Money Industrial Average vs the Dow Jones Industrial Average, 1976-2000
From its inception in 1976, the GMIA performed admirably. Indeed, the GMIA often
outperformed the DJIA. Over a 25 year period, the GMIA climbed over 2000% in value, while
the DJIA increased 973%. This impressive performance is even more evident in figure 4, which
graphs the cumulative change in both the GMIA and the DJIA from 1977 to 2000. The GMIA
was up 20 years out of the 25 year period, and down four. The DJIA, in contrast, was up 18 years
and down six. The GMIA outperformed the DJIA 14 years during the period, while the DJIA
2000%
GMIA
1500%
1000%
DJIA
500%
0%
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
-500%
Table 2. The Good Money Utility Average vs The Dow Jones Utility Average, 1976-2000
Likewise, the GMUA also performed well, often outperforming its Dow Jones
counterpart. The GMUA outperformed the DJUA 15 years to nine during the period. The value
of the GMUA rose 454% compared to the DJUA’s 280% rise. In addition, when utility stocks
fell out of favor with equity investors during early 1987, the GMUA lost 11.5% of its value
500%
400%
GMUA
300%
200%
DJUA
100%
0%
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
-100%
GOOD MONEY decided to stop tracking their averages in 2002, citing market volatility
and the increasing difficulty in finding socially acceptable companies in which to invest. On this
latter point, GOOD MONEY referred to a study that found two thirds of CEOs interviewed
revealed that they had felt the need to falsify earnings and performance in an effort to placate
shareholders and analysts (Lowry, 1991, pp. 41-49; Good Money, 2002). In spite of this, the
Good Money averages’ long track record does provide important insight into the performance of
SRI over the time period covered. The GMIA and GMUA both demonstrate that an investor may
not have to sacrifice return and financial gain in order to remain true to their moral principles. At
93
the same time, a few caveats must be kept in mind. While the DJIA tends to focus on large cap
companies and not high growth small firms, the GMIA has a broader representation of the entire
economy. This could explain why it has performed in such an impressive fashion. Likewise,
Grossman and Sharpe once compared the performance of the NYSE to that of a value weighted
NYSE portfolio that screened for companies involved in South Africa. To this portfolio they
added Treasury bills, creating a portfolio whose standard deviation was equivalent to the
NYSE’s. While the risk adjusted South Africa free portfolio outperformed the NYSE from 1960
to 1983, this was due to the fact that the portfolio’s companies were smaller than those of the
In addition to indexes, several ethically screened funds have also performed well. The
1980s saw many socially managed funds outperform their traditional peers. The Calvert Social
Investment Fund, part of Washington, D.C.’s Calvert Group rose 6.8% in 1984 as many
unscreened funds lost value. That same year, the Pax World Fund 19 gained 6.5%, and the New
Alternatives Fund 20 lost a mere 0.6%. In 1987, 848 mutual funds selected by Lipper Analytical
Services that were at least one year old were ranked in the Financial Services Directory; three of
the most recognizable socially screened funds – New Alternatives, Calvert, and Parnassus 21 –
each handily outperformed the industry average for performance in 1986 of 27.7%. During the
bloodletting of the 1987 stock market crash, Lipper found that nine socially screened mutual
funds had actually outperformed or stayed in line with their unscreened peers. Despite the
19
The Pax World Fund was started by Quakers and Methodists. The fund employed both the avoidance and positive
choice approaches. The fund especially sought out companies with excellent environmental records and those who
were dedicated to being equal opportunity employers. (Lowry, 1991, p. 23)
20
The New Alternatives Fund sought companies that had a positive impact on the environment, especially those that
were involved with alternative and renewable energies. (Ritchie p. 52)
21
Parnassus is a socially screened fund that uses a contrarian approach to selecting companies, i.e. choosing firms
that are currently out of favor with other investors. (Ritchie p. 52)
94
damage inflicted by the crash, Lipper also declared the Calvert-managed Ariel Growth Fund as
1987’s top small company growth fund with assets of less than $25 million, and the second best
of all small company growth funds irrespective of size. Ariel screened for companies engaged in
business in South Africa, weapons manufacturing, nuclear energy and/or nuclear equipment
As dedicated as the adherents of SRI have and continue to be, there remain many
investing purists and financial professionals who remain unconvinced that socially responsible
investing can yield the same financial rewards as more conventional styles. They believe that
investors should only be focused on risk and return; a person’s subjective set of moral principles
has no place in the investment decision. The arguments against social investing are numerous.
One popularly held belief is that imposing moral/social restrictions on the kinds of companies
that may be invested in unnecessarily limits one’s potential universe of investments, thus
dampening the benefits achieved by diversification. Blanket prohibitions on certain sectors deny
these funds and their investors the opportunity to invest in high performing stocks. In addition,
such funds often have a higher cost of operation due to the extra research needed to identify
investments. In the case of Islamic funds, hiring and maintaining a Sharia board also imposes
added costs.
Just as there have been studies that seem to indicate stronger performance from socially
screened funds vis-à-vis their more traditionally managed counterparts, there have also been
empirical analyses that substantiate the claims of those who oppose using social criteria to make
22
Not discussed in this section is the TIAA-CREF Social Choice Equity Fund. TIAA CREF is one of the largest
defined contribution pension plans in the world. Like many of the ethical funds discussed here, the Social Choice
Equity Fund has offered consistently strong performance, both against other funds of its class and its benchmark
index, the Russell 3000.
95
investment decisions. These analyses find that socially screened portfolios perform worse than or,
at best, in line with conventional portfolios. In a study by Hamilton, Jo, and Statman calculated
the monthly excess returns of 17 socially responsible mutual funds established in or before 1985,
and 15 socially responsible mutual funds established in or after 1986. These returns were
compared to those of two groups of conventional mutual funds from the same time periods. The
returns of the SRI mutual funds were not statistically different from those of the conventional
funds, indicating that investors can expect to neither lose nor gain from investing socially
screened funds. They found that adopting social responsibility principles affect neither expected
stock returns nor firms’ cost of capital (Hamilton et al., 1993, pp. 62-66).
Going a step further, Samuel Mueller of the University of Akron identified in 1991 what
he called the “opportunity cost of discipleship,” a theory which holds that adherents of moral or
ethical systems that are different from the prevalent, mainstream social environment will face
negative consequences as a result of their observance. Mueller’s theory builds upon the work of
sociologists, most notably Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who advanced the concept of costly grace. 23 The
costs experienced by such adherents include both indirect costs such as missed opportunities and
more direct costs such as lower incomes. According to Mueller, sect members’ social networks
often consist primarily of other sect members, reducing the opportunity for networking and other
economic benefits. Also, adhering to a sect’s particular set of ethical guidelines may also prevent
members from participating in and taking advantage of profitable economic enterprises such as
owning a liquor store or operating a casino. Like Hamilton and her colleagues, Mueller also
23
The concept of costly grace was developed by Bonhoeffer in 1963. He posits that adherents to sectarian religions
will experience social costs associated with their belief. In 1988, Laurence Iannaccone took Bonhoeffer’s work a
step farther by developing a formal microeconomic model in which participants in sectarian groups suffer real
economic costs as a result of their actions. See Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. (1963). The Cost of Discipleship. New York:
Macmillan and Iannaccone, Laurence R. (1988). “A formal model of church and sect.” American Journal of
Sociology, 94: S241-68.
96
compared the returns of several ethical funds 24 against relevant fund indices during the 1980s.
He found that the funds yielded lower returns than their unrestricted peers, while also exposing
The examples presented above provide a glimpse into the ongoing controversy
surrounding ethical mutual funds. A definite conclusion about the efficiency and performance of
such funds has not yet been reached. While by no means offering a definitive conclusion as to
ethical funds’ performance, this study will attempt to answer such questions regarding the
No matter what one thinks of including social criteria in the investment decision, social
investing has a definite advantage, one that has increasingly been highlighted in the wake of the
financial crisis of 2008. The causes of the financial crisis are manifold, but an important root is
speculation in risky mortgage backed securities and the chase for short term profits (which
existed even before the mortgage crisis). The credit crunch that nearly strangled the global
financial system to death highlighted the dangers of excessive leverage. Socially responsible
investing, including Islamic investing, discourages just this sort of behavior because it can lead
investors seldom chase after short term gains, instead focusing on long term return and gain.
They favor companies with excellent track records, financial strength, superior valuation, and a
sound business model. Socially responsible investors’ insistence on steering clear of companies
that engage in what they (and others) consider to be morally suspect behavior, such as polluting
24
The funds were: Working Assets, Calvert Money Market fund, Calvert Managed fund, Pax World fund, Pioneer,
Pioneer II, Pioneer Three, Dreyfus Third Century, Parnassus, and New Alternatives.
97
the environment or not doing enough to promote and retain female and minority employees, may
seem overly fastidious to many more traditionally minded investors. But that approach seems
wise, even prescient, when such companies are penalized for their behavior through lawsuits,
punitive legislation, and the like. Islamic funds were spared much of the damage that
conventional funds suffered in the early stages of the financial crisis as they did not own
financial stocks. The Sharia’s ban on interest saved many of these funds from the rapid declines
compliant funds were necessary. Generally speaking, investors seek either growth or regular
income from equity investments; Islamic funds that focused on these goals were needed. Four
Islamic mutual funds were selected to represent the Islamic equity portfolio in this analysis.
The Azzad Ethical Income Fund is provided by Azzad Asset Management, a Virginia
based asset management firm that specializes in ethical investing. Benchmarked to the S&P 500,
the fund’s managers seek to obtain current income for investors by investing at least 80% of its
assets in dividend paying companies, as well as achieving long term capital appreciation. The
fund’s holdings are primarily distributed across a number of large cap dividend yielding
companies. Though the fund’s focus is on large cap companies, the fund may invest up to 25%
of its assets in small and midcap companies. The fund does not invest more than 5% of its assets
in one company, nor does it devote more than 25% of assets to a single sector. Managers also
employ business and financial screens to select securities for inclusion in the fund. Like most
Islamic funds, this fund does not invest in companies that deal with alcohol, tobacco, financial
98
services, and unethical entertainment like pornography and gambling. The fund uses proprietary
software, which uses financial data provided by sources such as Thomson Financial, to screen for
companies that meet its ethical criteria (Manal Fouz, personal communication, December 9,
2008). Interestingly, the fund also does not invest in companies that are primarily involved in
the production of all meat products, and not solely pork products, citing the fact that many
people are vegetarians or abstain from eating meat due to religious reasons. The fund also
employs the following financial screens to select permissible securities for inclusion:
A. Debt Screen
i. Total debt = short term debt + current portion of long-term debt + long-term
debt
ii. Total debt/trailing 12-month average market capitalization ≤ 33%
iii. Total debt/assets ≤ 33%
The fund also does not invest in interest based securities, assets that are deemed interest-
equivalent securities, and derivative and hybrid securities (i.e. swaps and futures contracts) (The
Like the Azzad Ethical Income Fund, the Amana Income Fund is dedicated to generating
current income for investors by investing only in dividend paying stocks, as well as preserving
capital. This fund is managed by the Amana Mutual Funds Trust, which is part of Saturna
Capital. Also like the Azzad fund, the Amana Income Fund is benchmarked to the S&P 500. The
fund does not invest in instruments that pay interest, nor does it invest in companies whose
primary lines of business are inconsistent with Sharia guidelines. At least 80% of the fund’s
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assets are invested in income producing equity securities, and the fund is biased toward large cap
companies.
Also managed by Saturna’s Amana Mutual Funds Trust, the Amana Growth Fund is
focused on providing shareholders with long term capital appreciation. Benchmarked to the
Russell 2000, the Growth Fund is biased toward large cap growth stocks. At least 80% of the
assets of the Growth Fund are invested in common stock. Along with Sharia guidelines, stocks
are selected for inclusion in the fund based on past earnings and growth rates, as well as
The funds’ managers are true long term value investors; they tend to seek out companies
with strong balance sheets, established and sound business models, and attractive valuation. In
keeping with many mutual funds, managers actively strive to limit the amount of income taxes
paid by shareholders by infrequently trading securities and selling high tax cost lots first (The
The fourth Islamic fund is the Iman Fund, distributed by Quasar Distributors and advised
by Allied Asset Advisors, a subsidiary of the North American Islamic Trust (NAIT), which also
owns approximately 72% of the outstanding shares of the fund. The Iman Fund is benchmarked
to the S&P 500, the Russell 3000, and the Dow Jones Islamic Market US Index. The fund’s
managers refrain from investing in interest bearing securities, companies that generate large
amounts of interest income, and companies that have impermissible lines of business. The fund
is advised by a three member Board of Trustees – Shaykh Abdalla Idris Ali, Mohammed
Kaiseruddin, PhD., and Bassam Osman, MD – none of whom receive compensation from the
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fund. These trustees meet throughout the year to discuss and decide upon issues of policy and to
In order to effectively judge the performance of Islamic funds, funds that do not face
Sharia guidelines are needed for comparison. Two conventional mutual funds were chosen for
comparison to the Islamic funds, both provided by Vanguard. “Conventional” funds are those
which do not face restrictions in the types of companies they may invest in. Unlike Islamic funds,
which cannot deploy their uninvested cash in interest bearing accounts, these conventional equity
funds may place their excess capital in interest bearing accounts and instruments.
Due to its focus on obtaining current income for investors, this fund was selected for
comparison to the Azzad Ethical Income Fund and the Amana Income Fund. The fund primarily
invests in large cap stocks with high dividend yields. The fund, which maintains a number of
advisors, looks for companies that have demonstrated a commitment to consistently paying
dividends. Normally the fund invests at least 80% of its assets in stocks. Though the fund may
invest up to 20% of its assets in foreign securities, its primary focus is on U.S. equity securities.
The fund also invests a small portion of its assets in exchange traded funds (ETFs), including
those of Vanguard. The fund can participate in futures contracts, but avoids utilizing more than
20% of its assets for this purpose. The fund does not use futures or any other derivative
instrument to speculate (The Vanguard Group, 2008, Vanguard Equity Income Fund Investor
Shares – VEIPX).
The Vanguard U.S. Growth Fund is dedicated to providing investors with long term
101
capital appreciation, making it a suitable conventional comparison to the Amana Growth Fund
and the Iman Fund. The fund’s portfolio holdings typically include large cap U.S. companies that
have experienced and are expected to continue to experience high rates of growth. In addition to
focusing on firms that have above average expected rates of growth, the fund’s managers also
search for companies that maintain positions of strength within their particular industry, and are
financially sound. Unlike the Vanguard Equity Income Fund, this fund may use futures, options
contracts, or other derivative instruments. However it too does not use such contracts for
speculative purposes (The Vanguard Group, 2008, Vanguard U.S. Growth Fund - VWUSX).
The Vanguard 500 Index Fund was created to track the S&P 500. Generally, it contains
the 500 stocks included in the S&P 500. The fund also maintains approximately the same levels
of sector diversification as the S&P 500. Naturally, the fund has a beta of 1.00 (meaning that it is
as volatile as the market) (The Vanguard Group, 2009, Vanguard 500 Index Fund – VFINX). The
VFINX makes a perfect benchmark to measure the performance of the Islamic funds and the
conventional funds because it is basically a cost-adjusted version of the real S&P 500. With the
fund, management costs and fees are taken into account, making for a more realistic comparison
of returns.
How does an Islamic fund compare to a conventional fund? Can Muslim investors expect
the same or better levels of performance? Or are they penalized for adhering to their religious
beliefs, as theorized by Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Samuel Mueller? To conduct this analysis, the
quarterly holding period returns for each portfolio were calculated for its entire time span, from
date of inception to December 2008. The Islamic income funds, AEIFX and AMANX, were
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compared to the VEIPX. Likewise, the Islamic growth funds, IMANX and AMAGX, were
During most of its history, the AEIFX has been outperformed by its conventional
counterpart, the VEIPX. Roughly from 2002 to 2007, the AEIFX only outperformed the VEIPX
four times. However, beginning in last 2007, we can observe an interesting reversal. The Islamic
fund began to consistently outperform its conventional rival over the five quarter ranging from
December 2007 to December 2008. This can be seen even more clearly in the Figure 9, which
depicts the basis point difference between the returns of AEIFX and VEIPX; anything above the
reference line at 0% represents a quarter when the AEIFX outperformed the VEIPX.
103
Figure 9.
The timing of this reversal is most likely no coincidence. This time period coincides with
the emergence of the global liquidity crisis and the resulting upheaval in the broader economy.
Financial stocks, which represented nearly 20% of the VEIPX’s holdings at the end of 2008,
suffered tremendous declines. AEIFX’s Islamic restrictions no doubt helped spare the fund from
AMANX, the other Islamic income fund, tells nearly the same story. AMANX has often
outperformed the VEIPX, even in its earlier years. And it too also posted superior performance
relative to the conventional fund (with the exception of the quarter ended September 30, 2008).
104
Figure 11
The Islamic growth funds have also fared well against their conventional
counterpart, the VWUSX. Throughout its eight year history, IMANX has often outperformed the
conventional growth fund, as seen in Figures 12 and 13. And until the end of the third quarter of
2008, IMANX maintained strong performance in the midst of the fallout from the financial crisis.
AMAGX, the second of the Islamic growth funds, delivered a strong performance during
the difficult second half of 2008, as well as an admirable overall performance throughout its
Figure 13
107
Like the other Islamic funds, AMAGX offered investors a welcome measure of relief
from the dizzying downward spiral in the financial markets in the last months of 2008.
On the whole, the Sharia restrictions of the four Islamic funds protected investors from
the more overwhelming declines faced by conventional funds as the credit crunch deepened. The
ban on interest-based financial companies was a major part of the funds’ consistency and
resilience. As the financial crisis began to punish those companies that had accumulated large
and onerous debt loads, the Islamic funds were largely spared the fallout from the credit crunch
Figure 15
should be comforted by the fact that the Islamic funds also charted great performance during
good times as well. These results suggest that Muslims may not suffer from “costly grace” if
they choose to adhere to their religious beliefs in their financial dealings and investments.
In recent years, there have been three bear markets (aside from the current and ongoing
109
market downturn precipitated by the financial crisis): the 1987 bear market, which lasted from
July 1987 to December 1987, the 1990 bear market, which lasted from June 1990 to November
1990, and the stock market downturn of 2002, which actually really began in February 2000 and
lasted until October 2002. This downturn is generally associated with the “Internet bubble”
bursting 25, and was exacerbated by the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The oldest of the
Islamic funds, the Amana Funds, were incepted in 1996, whereas the Iman Fund and the Azzad
Ethical Income Fund were incepted in 2000 and 2002, respectively. Therefore, three of the
Islamic funds’ strength and performance have only been tested by the stock market downturn of
2002. The Azzad Ethical Income Fund missed the brunt of the downturn, which came prior to its
inception.
25
The Internet, or dot-com, bubble was a nearly six year speculative bubble that occurred when Western stock
markets saw their valuations increase exponentially. The bubble’s growth was led by Internet and technology
companies. The rise of the dot-com stocks was accompanied by rapidly increasing stock prices, a rush of venture
capital, speculation, and Malkielian “irrational exuberance.” This environment led many tech ventures to abandon
standard business models and focus more on stock price appreciation. But like all bubbles before it, the tech bubble
also proved untenable and resulted in a devastating stock market crash in 2001 and many tech and Internet
companies went bankrupt.
110
Table 3 compares the quarterly returns of AMAGX, VWUSX, and the benchmark VFINX
during the stock market downturn of 2002. AMAGX often outperformed the VFINX and
actually nearly always outperformed the conventional VWUSX. Its average quarterly holding
In contrast, AMAGX’s sister fund performed slightly worse, as seen in Table 4. While it often
outperformed the benchmark fund, it seldom did better than its conventional rival VEIPX did.
The reason for this was that AMANX was heavily weighted with utility and energy companies
during much of the period; weakness in those industries overcame the relatively good
The Iman Fund rarely outperformed the benchmark fund VFINX during this period, but nearly
always outperformed its conventional counterpart VWUSX, much like the other Islamic growth
fund AMAGX.
One of the most common charges against Islamic portfolios – and ethical funds in general
– is that by reducing the number of sectors in which an individual may invest, the investor will
pay a price for losing the benefits of diversification. Diversification has been an important tenet
of portfolio selection ever since Markowitz introduced the idea in the 1950s (see chapter III).
According to theory, an investor can virtually eliminate all unsystematic risk in a portfolio
through diversification. This depends on reducing the covariances between assets in the portfolio
to their minimum level. While investing in many securities does not guarantee the smallest
variance for a portfolio, it is generally accepted that adequate diversification can be achieved by
investing in a large number of securities across different industries. The question lies in how
many stocks are necessary to reach an adequate level of diversification (i.e. when unsystematic
risk in the portfolio has been reduced to the lowest possible level).
112
In 1968, John Evans and Stephen Archer investigated how many securities were
necessary to achieve diversification in a portfolio. Through their analysis, Evans and Archer
found that the marginal benefits (i.e. risk reduction) of adding securities to a portfolio declined
rapidly as more and more securities were added, or in technical terms displayed a diminishing
marginal effect. Their study indicated that only eight to ten securities were needed to attain the
full economic benefits of diversification; adding any more was not economically justified due to
marginal costs (primarily transactions costs) outweighing marginal benefit (Evans and Archer,
1968, pp. 761-767). However, this position was refuted by the work of Meir Statman in the late
1980s. Statman’s analysis yielded surprising and substantially different results from the Evans
and Archer study. Statman demonstrated that no less than 30 stocks are needed for a well
diversified portfolio. Specifically, Statman showed that a well diversified equity portfolio must
contain at least 30 stocks for a borrowing investor, and no less than 40 stocks for a lending
Even with Statman’s drastically larger required number of stocks, Islamic equity
portfolios are in no danger of not meeting his criteria, as can be seen in the table below:
IMANX 158
AEIFX 48
AMANX 82
AMAGX 84
The sector weights in each portfolio are just as important as the total number of securities.
The sector weight represents the portfolio’s exposure to a specific industry. After a thorough
113
analysis of each of the Islamic funds’ SEC filings, the Islamic funds demonstrated good sector
diversification. The figures in the right hand column of Table 7 represent the highest industry
allocations throughout each fund’s history. None exceeds a quarter of the portfolio’s value. The
Islamic portfolios have thus maintained sufficient industry diversification, overweighting sectors
AEIFX 19.61%
IMANX 17.70%
AMAGX 21.60%
AMANX 22.10%
In the midst of the recent turmoil in the US stock market, nearly every stock has suffered
declines as this global financial and economic crisis has proved that no industry is recession
proof. The financial industry was the worst hit. After the global liquidity crisis emerged in late
2007, one financial institution after another fell in a staggering domino-like fashion. Bear Stearns,
Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and Lehman Brothers were all felled by the crisis sweeping the
financial markets and enveloping the broader economy. Portfolios that held significant amounts
of financial stocks were pummeled. In light of their lack of financial stocks, 26 a significant
question about the recent performance of Islamic funds immediately emerges. Did Islamic
26
The reader should keep in mind that when we say “financial stocks”, this is not just limited to banks and other
lending institutions. This generally includes all companies that are involved in the financial industry. The companies
that are excluded are: insurance companies, credit services companies, banks (commercial and investment),
brokerages, savings and loans, non-Islamic mortgage companies, asset management companies, and REITS that
invest in conventional interest-based mortgages and/or properties used for non-halal enterprises such as casinos.
114
restrictions on investing in financial companies and companies with high debt loads actually
shield the Islamic funds somewhat from the carnage in the markets? The answer is a qualified
yes.
In the current global financial crisis, there have been three important watermarks for US
markets. The first occurred around August/September 2007 when the liquidity crisis began to
emerge. The “credit crunch”, as it came to be called, was marked by financial and debt markets
seizing up, blocking off lifelines of credit and funding for large and small businesses alike.
Turmoil in the home-loan and mortgage markets gradually began to seep out into the rest of the
lending world. Stock markets across the world were sent into a tailspin, dragging the returns and
0%
AEIFX IMANX VFINX VWUSX VEIPX AMAGX AMANX
-10%
-20%
-24.16%
-30%
-31.15%
-34.68%
-40%
-39.66% -39.55%
-41.08%
-44.21%
-50%
Source:
Author's Calculations
Figure 16 depicts the holding period returns of all seven portfolios after September 2007
(the holding period is September 2007 to December 2008). VFINX, shaded purple, represents the
benchmark for comparison. The results of this analysis are very interesting. Two of the Islamic
portfolios, AEIFX and IMANX, underperformed the benchmark fund, down 44% and 41%
115
respectively. At the other end of the spectrum, the other two Islamic portfolios, AMANX and
The first quarter of 2008 was another watershed moment in the current crisis. The quarter
began with extremely high market volatility, both in the US and abroad. The pain did not stop
there; March 2008 saw both the collapse of fabled investment bank Bear Stearns and the
government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. These events sent further shockwaves
through the markets and financial stocks were among the most severely affected. The pattern
shown above again plays out below in Figure 17. AMANX and AMAGX performed well against
their peers during 2008, despite the unprecedented upheaval in the financial markets and the
broader economy.
0%
AEIFX IMANX VWUSX VFINX VEIPX AMAGX AMANX
-10%
-20%
-23.14%
-30%
-29.31%
-31.20%
The third shoe to drop in the course of the crisis came in September 2008, which
witnessed the fall of another Wall Street pillar, Lehman Brothers. Unlike Bear Stearns, which
was acquired in the eleventh hour by rival JP Morgan Chase with the backing of the federal
government, Lehman Brothers was forced into bankruptcy. The bankruptcy filing sent already
fragile markets into a vicious, breakneck freefall, which eventually led Congress to enact the
116
Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), administered by then Secretary of the Treasury Henry
Paulson.
Figure 18 shows the holding period returns for each of the portfolios from September
2008 to December 2008. After this third shock, AMAGX and AMANX yet again displayed good
performance. No portfolio was spared in the carnage that ensued after the fall of Lehman
Brothers, but these two funds performed arguably well and caused their shareholders much less
In this recent environment, a lack of financial stocks was a definite advantage for the
Islamic funds. In the midst of fears about mortgage related securities and other toxic assets,
shares of banks, brokerages, and other financial companies were hit hard. The restrictions of the
0%
IMANX AEIFX VFINX VWUSX VEIPX AMAGX AMANX
-10%
-12.67%
-20% -18.68%
-19.42%
-22.61% -22.45%
-25.92%
-30% -27.22%
However, only the Amana funds seemed to be the beneficiaries of this protection, while
the Iman Fund and the Azzad Ethical Income Fund suffered even worse than the conventional
117
funds. So while the lack of financial companies does seem to explain a part of the Amana Funds
The other factor that probably helped the Amana funds perform so well was the fact that
their managers began to build strong cash positions in August 2007. New investors’ funds were
not placed into equities, and cash levels subsequently rose to around 30% of assets (obviously
these were not held in interest bearing securities) (Mamudi, 2009). These cash positions helped
to mitigate the impact of the havoc raging in the markets on the funds’ performance. In contrast,
the other two Islamic funds kept the majority of their assets in equities.
The strong and consistent performance of the Amana Funds comes as no surprise. While
the funds are not widely known to most investors, both have consistently been top performers
and their managers at Saturna Capital are also well regarded. Most importantly, the funds belie
the criticisms leveled against socially conscious and faith based funds discussed earlier in the
chapter. Both funds have been continually ranked among the best performing funds in their
The Amana funds’ Islamic restrictions and investment rules have also contributed to their
performance, even before the current crisis hit. The low debt requirement has led managers to
some profitable investments. Nicholas Kaiser, the funds’ manager, bought shares of construction
company Washington Group International after research revealed that it had zero debt. The firm
bought the shares at $55; they later sold the position at $91.50 after a takeover offer caused the
stock to rise. The restriction on investing in companies whose debt levels exceed 33% also
helped the funds escape from some potentially disastrous choices. For example, Enron
Corporation met the other criteria for inclusion in AMAGX, but its debt level prevented the fund
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from investing. In addition, the Amana funds’ low turnover rate (which measures how often
stocks are bought and sold) is around the very low level of 10% annually; this strengthens
performance and cuts costs associated with frequent trading, such as capital gains taxes and
trading fees (the frequent trading of stocks is seen as a form of maysir). On the whole, these
guidelines also make the Amana funds appealing choices for long term minded investors, both
Muslim and non-Muslim (Cui, 2007, pp. C1-C2). The performance of the Amana funds within
the period studied provide strong evidence that investors in socially conscious funds need not
Conclusion
Islamic investment is, at its core, a subset of ethical investment in that it is guided by a set
of essential, intrinsic beliefs, values, and social standards. Both Islamic investment and ethical
investment in general have faced a barrage of criticism from “traditionalists” who cling steadfast
to the principle that emotions and other subjective criteria should be divorced from the
investment decision. Indeed, some studies have pointed to the existence of an opportunity cost
associated with investing according to one’s ethical or religious principles. It is true that ethical
investment and Islamic investment in particular can result in a very restricted investment
universe, as well additional costs of operation. At the same time there have been numerous other
studies, including this one, that suggest positive benefits. A key advantage of social investing is
that it tends to be conservative, favoring a value oriented strategy that focuses on long term
return and gain. Furthermore, the restrictions maintained by some social funds have helped their
investors steer clear from stocks that eventually came to be severely punished in the market, as
we have seen in the case of Islamic stocks and their fortunate exclusion of financial firms and
debt laden companies in the wake of the credit crunch. The results of the foregoing analysis offer
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compelling evidence that Muslims need not necessarily fear being penalized for attempting to
adhere to the precepts of the Sharia. Indeed, the Islamic funds, especially the Amana Funds,
One should not think that equity portfolios are the only investment vehicles available to
Muslims who choose to adhere to the Sharia in their financial decisions. There are several other
Islamic asset classes and investment alternatives that they may choose from, as we shall see.
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Introduction
With all the restrictions imposed by the Sharia, it would seem that Muslim investors are
limited to investing in equities and not much else. However, this is not the case. The focus of this
work may be on equity portfolios, but there are a number of different Sharia compliant asset
classes that are available to Muslims. In addition to other special classes of valuable assets that
can comprise a portfolio, such as fine art, jewelry, antiques, and the like, there are many new
types of Islamic securities and financial vehicles that are being developed to suit the needs of
Muslims. Depending on their level of individual wealth, Muslims can deploy their financial
capital in a variety of contracts and assets that are acceptable to Islamic protocol. The purpose of
this chapter is to explore these investment alternatives in greater detail. We will begin with a
Even before the recent meltdown in the mortgage market, securitization had become a
tradable, liquid financial instruments from a wide variety of other financial assets, not only
mortgages, but also receivables and loans. This process, which can only take place with assets
which have an associated cash flow, leads to the creation of an asset backed security. It has
become a powerful tool in modern finance. Presumably, the recent mortgage collapse will only
However, from the advent of collateralized debt obligations in the 1980s, securitization
has been greeted with an unfriendly reception by many Muslim jurists, who are keenly averse to
new financial instruments secured by debt. This is due to the fact that the sale of debt is strictly
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prohibited in Islam. Likewise, contemporary jurists – some in Malaysia are notable exceptions –
have also prohibited trading in debts and liabilities. General trading of one liability for another
has been forbidden due to gharar, which would arise from uncertainty about the delivery of
either compensation. However, classical jurists ruled that it is permissible to cancel one debt
against another of equal amount and maturity (maqassa). Forwarding a debt to a third party –
hawala – is also permitted. Most modern jurists hold that selling a liability to the debtor was
halal, with the qualification that the debt must be sold at or below face value to the debtor
Real Estate
business in the eyes of the Sharia. Real estate is one of the most widely used methods of
investment in the West (even though it has been associated with some spectacular bubbles and
panics, such as the current financial crisis which, as noted, was precipitated by flawed mortgages
and mortgage-backed securities). Real estate and property development is a key industry in the
Middle East, the Arab world, and the Muslim world. However, investing in real estate generally
requires having a substantial amount of capital readily available with which to purchase and
develop properties. Few individual investors have the financial resources to invest in real estate
on a wide scale. Even for those who do possess the financial wherewithal to do so, it may not be
feasible or efficient for a number of reasons. Consequently, investing in a real estate investment
A REIT is an entity that invests in different kinds of real estate or real estate related
assets. The properties can be of a residential nature, or be commercial real estate properties, such
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as offices, hotels, and malls. Many REITs specialize in one type of property. REITs can also
invest in mortgages secured by real estate. There are three principal types of REITs:
1. Equity REITs are the most common type of REIT. They invest in, or own real estate
and distribute profits to their investors from the rents they collect.
2. Mortgage REITs provide funds to real estate owners and developers. In addition,
they invest in financial instruments that are secured by mortgages on real estate.
3. Hybrid REITs are a combination of equity and mortgage REITs, as their name
suggests.
In order to be classified as a REIT, an entity must conform to several specific guidelines enacted
by the IRS. A company must pay 90% of its income to investors annually. The firm must also
invest at least 75% of its total assets in real estate. Lastly, the company has to earn 75% or more
of its gross income from investments in real property and/or mortgages tied to real property
Equity REITs represent the most permissible option for Muslims (unless of course a firm
invests in Islamic mortgages), which hold the majority of their assets in the form of real estate.
The majority of their income also comes from rent. And because REITs are legally required to
pass much of their income on to investors in the form of dividends, REITs are an excellent
investment option for Muslims looking for reliable, stable sources of income. Furthermore,
REITs have exhibited low correlations with other asset classes – which means that they are
suitable for diversification, thus making them useful additions to any equity portfolio.
However, in terms of Sharia compliance, REITs do have an Achilles heel; they are
usually highly leveraged. The optimal level of debt for the average REIT is somewhere in the
40% to 60% range, well above the commonly accepted cutoff of approximately 33%. Since
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REITs offer such desirable benefits to investors, two approaches have been suggested that would
allow Muslim investors to reap the benefits of these securities. First, the principle of maslaha is
often invoked; since REITs offer such clear advantages to investors, a higher debt benchmark
should be used to screen them. A debt to asset ratio of 50% is considered a reasonable
benchmark. The second approach, offered by Mahmoud El-Gamal, is to consider only non-
mortgage or unsecured debt when computing debt to asset or debt to market capitalization ratios
during screening. All secured or mortgage debt can easily be “Islamized” through a number of
Islamic contractual forms. In a recent study, El-Gamal examined thirteen REITs, and found that
when unsecured debt-to-assets ratios were employed, ten of those REITs actually passed the
Profit and loss sharing (PLS) is the ideal business form in Islamic finance in that it
promotes equity and the sharing of risk and reward between parties. The partnership is the
primary expression of this principle, and is highly regarded in Islamic financial fiqh. The use of
partnerships in Arabia predates the Islamic period, and is highly revered in the Arab and Muslim
worlds. Many of Muhammad’s Companions entered into partnerships during and after his
lifetime. Forms of partnership are recognized and legalized in both the Quran and the Hadith.
Christians who lived in Muslim controlled areas of Europe were likely thus inspired by the Arabs
and Muslims to adopt the practice and spread it to other parts of the Continent. Partnerships have
a long and rich tradition in classical Islamic jurisprudence (Ayub, 2007, pp. 307-311).
This chapter will focus on the two main forms of partnerships in use in contemporary
Islamic finance: mudaraba and musharaka. These two forms are considered by many jurists and
scholars to be the workhorse of true Islamic finance, and the two forms that contribute the most
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to Islamic finance’s goals of productivity, equity, and PLS. In many jurists’ opinion, mudaraba
and musharaka constitute the axis on which modern Islamic finance is supposed to turn.
Mudaraba
A mudaraba (also known as a qirad and muqarada by the Shafii and Maliki schools
as the rabb al-mal) who provide capital to an agent (the mudarib) who acts on their behalf. The
mudarib invests the capital on behalf of the investors. The investors and the agent share the
profits of a venture, if there are any, according to a pre-determined ratio. For example, the
contract may specify that the investors receive 60% of the profits while the mudarib receives
40%. Capital losses are borne strictly by the investor, while the agent loses his or her time and
any profit he or she would have realized had the venture been successful. The mudarib may only
use the funds for purposes that are explicitly defined in the contract. At the conclusion of the
mudaraba transaction, the mudarib must return the principal and the predetermined share of
In terms of the business of the mudaraba, the mudaraba can be either restricted or
unrestricted. In a restricted mudaraba, the mudarib may only engage in the business or
businesses specified by the rabb al-mal. In the unrestricted mudaraba the rabb al-mal leaves it to
the discretion of the mudarib to engage in whatever businesses he or she wishes. In both types of
mudaraba, the business must of course conform to the religious litmus test in order to be deemed
acceptable.
The capital of a mudaraba must be currency and not any other form of real property; this
injunction exists in order to prevent gharar in that the price of the real property may fluctuate
before it is converted to cash. It is also impermissible to use a debt owed by the mudarib or
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anyone else to the rabb al-mal as capital. This stipulation is clearly meant to prevent the rabb al-
mal from guaranteeing the return of his principal and an illegitimate return on the loan, namely
The rabb al-mal may impose restrictions on the mudarib, but the mudarib is afforded a
great deal of flexibility and freedom in deciding how to conduct business and earn profits. Every
madhhab with the exception of the Hanbalis does not permit the mudarib to use his own capital
in the venture. It is the duty of the mudarib to liquidate the mudaraba; however each madhhab
differs as to which party has the final say over the proper time of dissolution. The Hanbali and
Hanafi schools allow a mudaraba contract to specify a pre-determined duration, after which
mudarib may no longer conduct business on behalf of the investor(s) (Wakin, 1993, pp. 284-285;
Musharaka
line of business or project. The project can be a new venture or an existing one that requires
additional capital. Each partner in the musharaka receives an equity stake in the venture – this is
the primary difference between the mudaraba and the musharaka. In contrast to the mudaraba, a
musharaka allows each partner to contribute capital and to jointly share in the profits and losses
of the venture. Another key difference between the two contracts is that in the musharaka each
partner not only contributes capital, but also contributes some amount of labor. Musharaka can
also include non-Muslims provided that the guidelines of the Sharia are observed. As in the
mudaraba, the capital infused in a musharaka must be a liquid asset i.e. money.
The musharaka is the modern Islamic contract that conforms most closely to the ideals of
Islamic finance in that it is true profit-and-loss sharing. Each partner receives profits or bears
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losses in proportion to the share of capital he or she provided. Some jurists argue that a partner
can receive more than the ratio of his or her investment as compensation for supplying more
labor to the musharaka. This view is held on the basis that labor is also an important factor in the
success of the venture and the generation of profit. Regardless of disagreements about the share
of profit, there is universal consensus on the point that losses must be shared in accordance with
the amount of capital invested by each partner (Latham, 1993, pp. 671-672; Ayub, 2007, pp.
Even the most casual observer can appreciate the similarities that exist between
conventional Western private equity and venture capital structures and the two main forms of
Islamic PLS, mudaraba and musharaka. Both focus on creating a partnership between lender and
borrower, with financiers actively involved in the management of the venture and ensuring that it
is as profitable as possible. Islamic PLS and venture capital feature long term commitments on
the part of financiers to entrepreneurs and their ventures, rather than the short term focus of
This type of investment is not limited to very wealthy Muslims or Islamic institutional
investors. There are two avenues through which middle class Muslims can also participate in
mudarabas and musharakas. First, there is the “double mudaraba”, a contract endorsed by Frank
Vogel, the director of Harvard Law School’s Islamic Legal Studies Program. The structure of the
double mudaraba is simple. Investors place their capital with an Islamic financial institution in a
primary mudaraba, thereby making the institution a mudarib. The institution then invests those
funds, as well as its own capital, with entrepreneurs in a number of secondary mudarabas. The
institution then can redistribute its profits from these secondary ventures to its own primary
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investors. Second, Islamic PLS offers the potential to develop a secondary market of mudaraba
and musharaka certificates in which both Muslims and non-Muslims alike could invest. Indeed,
mudaraba certificates have been in use since the early 1980s (Warde, 1999; Ayub, 2007, p. 389).
Muslims are prohibited from investing in conventional bonds, but they do have an
Islamic alternative. This alternative is known as a sakk (plural: sukuk), the Arabic term for bond
or certificate. Before the advent of sukuk, it was widely held than an Islamic debt market could
not be developed due to the Sharia prohibition on the sale of debt. But the materialization of
different types of sukuk has demonstrated that some feature and benefits of a debt market can be
Many participants are involved in a typical sukuk issuance, but there are always four key
players:
2. The special purpose vehicle (SPV), which is incorporated specifically for the
securitization process, managing the issue, and purchasing the underlying assets from the
issuer
3. Investment banks
4. Subscribers to the issuance, which are usually central banks, Islamic banks, and
Sukuk can be issued on the basis of Islamic contracts such as ijara. They can be either
variable return sukuk or fixed return sukuk. There are various categories of sukuk that are based
on Islamic financial contracts, such as mudaraba, musharaka, and ijara (Ayub, 2007, p. 396).
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Since lease backed sukuk are some of the most popular in contemporary Islamic finance, we will
Tabreed
4. Periodic payments
and/or dissolution
payments
1. Sells trust shares
In March 2004, Tabreed Financing Corporation, an SPV of the National Central Cooling
Company (United Arab Emirates) issued $100 million in corporate sukuk. At first glance, the
diagram above seems complex. However, the transaction was completed in a rather simple,
straightforward manner. Tabreed held trust assets – in the form of central cooling plants – in trust
for the sukuk holders. These plants were purchased by Tabreed with the proceeds of the sale of
the sukuk. Tabreed leased the plants back to NCCC, which subsequently made rental payments to
Tabreed. In turn, Tabreed redistributed these rental payments to the holders of the sukuk. When
the sukuk matured, NCCC would purchase the plant from Tabreed. In addition, if any
27
Diagram from El-Gamal 2006 p. 7
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“dissolution event” such as the destruction of the plants or anything else that would stop the flow
of rental payments, had occurred, then payments would have continued in the form of a
Sukuk hold an enormous amount of potential for the Islamic financial industry. They can
be used for liquidity and fund management as well as for monetary policy. Indeed, Sudan uses
them to control liquidity in its economy. In addition to Middle Eastern and Muslim majority
countries and firms, corporations in Europe and Japan are beginning to tap the sukuk market in
order to raise short term and long term funds. Sukuk also promise to be instrumental in raising
the huge amounts of funds needed for infrastructure development in the Muslim world (Ayub,
While call and put options, which are equity derivatives, may be exotic for some
investors in the West, they are nevertheless popular investment instruments and constitute an
important part of many investment strategies. Simply put, an option is the right to buy (call
option) or sell (put option) shares of common stock at a specific price during a specified time
period. In a call option contract, a party (not the company in question) issues the call option to
buy a company’s common stock within a certain time frame for a certain strike price, which may
then be bought by another investor. Conversely, an investor who holds a put option has the right
to sell shares of a company’s stock at a designated strike price within a certain time period. Put
options are an excellent tool for investors who believe that a stock price will decline in the future,
or for someone who owns shares of a certain company and want to protect themselves from a
price decline (Reilly and Brown, 2006, p. 86). If the price of the stock moves in the holder’s
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favor, the holder can exercise his or her right to buy or sell the stock at the strike price. The
holder can simply abandon the options contract if the price moves unfavorably.
As useful as they may be, options are considered impermissible under the Sharia by many
Islamic scholars to be. This is because delivery of a good (in this case a stock) must be given and
taken in accordance with a contract regardless of price movements. Because an option grants the
right, not the obligation, to purchase or sell a stock on or before a date of expiration, many
Islamic scholars feel that options are thus not compliant with the Sharia.
However, as in nearly all issues relating to the interpretation of the Sharia, there are some
scholars who feel that call and put options may be made permissible through the use of arbun. In
an arbun contract, a buyer agrees to purchase some asset and makes an advance payment, which
is less than the full purchase price. If the buyer decides to accept the asset, then she will pay the
purchase price less the amount of the advance. If she decides not to take the asset, then the seller
keeps the advance. Interestingly, classical law does not require a time limit to be fixed to this
contract. The arbun is Islamic finance’s closest answer to the call option. The Organization of
the Islamic Conference (OIC) Academy endorsed arbun with the stipulation that a time limit be
Many (if not most) scholars feel that arbun is a void contract. The lack of a time limit
requirement makes the contract unacceptably indefinite. If the buyer decides not to take the
assets, the seller still gets to keep the advance or down payment, which many scholars consider
to be an unjust enrichment (akl al-mal bi al-batil). Also, some scholars also cite a hadith in
28
A put option, however, is another story. The most analogous Islamic financial contract to a put option is the third
party guarantee (TPG), which are usually provided by Islamic banks. The TPG is used to guarantee the installment
payments of customers who have bought goods through murabahas. Thus the TPG can be seen as the Islamic
alternative to the default penalty used in conventional finance. The bank is paid an administrative fee, which cannot
be expressed as a percentage of the contract’s value, by the customer who buys the good or goods. The TPG is a sort
of put option for the purchaser; if they decide to stop paying the balance of the installment payments for the good for
whatever reason, they can theoretically surrender the asset to the bank. This acts as a put option where the strike
price is equal to the unpaid installment payments. (Vogel and Hayes, 2006, pp. 228-229).
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which Muhammad forbade the contract. The Hanbalis are the only madhhab that endorses arbun,
citing other hadiths and stories from early Islam they feel lends credence to the contract. Some
Hanbalis insist that a time limit be placed in the arbun contract, while most do not (Ayub, 2007,
Preferred Stock
Sometimes used to meet the long term equity needs of an established company, preferred shares
of stocks often carry distinct benefits that common shares do not. Although they usually do not
have voting rights, preferred shares typically are senior to common shares in the payment of
dividends and other payouts and in the event of bankruptcy liquidation. Preferred shareholders
are paid after bond holders and before common shareholders in a bankruptcy. Almost all
preferred shares have some sort of fixed dividend amount, negotiated with the corporation. There
is no consensus on whether or not preferred stocks are Sharia compliant. It is accepted that while
one group of shareholders cannot receive a higher/more senior fixed dividend than other
investors, they can have a higher payout ratio. Ideally, the owners of the class of stock with the
higher payout ratio would pay a premium for this privilege, or would forego other advantages,
In the West, deposits in a bank are liabilities as they are considered to be loans from
depositors to the institution. Islamic financial theory views deposits in much the same way, and
thus the Islamic rules regarding loans apply to them. Contemporary Muslim scholars
consequently view the interest paid on conventional bank deposits to be forbidden. This view
was endorsed in 1965 at a conference of Islamic scholars in Cairo (Hardie and Rabooy, 1991, p.
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59). Likewise, depositors may not receive free services while they hold accounts at a bank
because the services are considered a form of return. Muslims are forbidden to receive interest,
no matter if it is in the form of money or services. The bank would also be in the wrong if they
could easily repay the depositors’ funds, which are considered loans (Hardie and Rabooy, 1991,
p. 64).
Zero coupon bonds by definition yield no interest. So at first glance, it seems like these
instruments would be perfect investment choices for Muslims. However, such bonds are issued
at a discount to buyers relative to other bonds and debt instruments available in the marketplace.
It can be argued that this means that the discount can be influenced by or even determined by the
interest rates on other securities. Samuel Hayes, a professor of the Harvard Business School who
has written prolifically on issues in Islamic finance, sees no point at which interest is not built
into the price of a zero coupon bond (S. Hayes, personal communication, November 4, 2008).
Traditional CDs are riba based, and are thus unacceptable for Muslim investors. However,
certificates based on murabaha deposits are a Sharia compliant option, and can even be tradable
in a secondary market. These certificates will undoubtedly be much riskier than traditional CDs.
First, the returns on such investments’ underlying deposits are only known ex post facto rather
than ex ante, which may cause their market value to fluctuate and vary from the redemption price.
This risk can be mitigated somewhat by the shorter the time to maturity. Unlike conventional
CDs whose returns are determined largely by macroeconomic variables, the returns on Islamic
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CDs would be influenced primarily by microeconomic conditions, because it is the profits of the
Islamic bank or company that determine the return (Wilson, 1991, pp. 205-214).
Conclusion
Despite the number of restrictions that Muslim investors face, there are a number of
investment alternatives available for their use. Islamic financial institutions and increasingly,
Western financial institutions, are in the process of developing and engineering new Sharia
compliant products and services designed to meet the needs of their clientele.
But the industry is currently prohibition driven. Most practitioners of Islamic finance
focus solely on replicating conventional, interest based financial products using medieval Islamic
contracts such as murabahas. This preoccupation invariably leads to the formulation of hiyal, or
legal ruses, to circumvent these prohibitions. The prohibition-focused nature of the Islamic
financial industry has caused some Islamic financial institutions to lose sight of the broader aims
of Islam and the Sharia. Unfortunately, it also provides a fertile breeding ground for
Introduction
Islam is the world’s fastest growing religion, and it is no surprise that this growth is
accompanied by a concurrent rise in demand for financial and business products that fit within
the confines imposed by ubiquitous Islamic religious restrictions. This represents a major source
Many of the products developed for the nascent Islamic finance industry are based upon
nominate contracts developed during the early centuries of Islamic jurisprudence, as discussed in
chapter IV. While this backwards-looking approach has provided a strong foundation for the
industry, it can also lead to a phenomenon known as Sharia arbitrage. As we shall see, Sharia
arbitrage is a severe handicap for the industry, in terms of both innovation and reputation.
In finance, there are two kinds of arbitrage. The first type is the textbook definition of
arbitrage. When the fundamental “law of one price” 29 breaks down in practice, opportunities to
engage in arbitrage arise. A specific tangible good has different prices in different markets. An
arbitrageur can purchase the good in market A, where it has a lower price, and resell it in market
B, where it has a higher price. Minus transactions costs, the difference between market B’s price
and market A’s price represents the arbitrageur’s profit. The second type of financial arbitrage is
regulatory arbitrage. When a financial product or service is banned in country A, but allowed in
country B, financial professionals can synthesize a new product that mimics the attributes of the
29
This theory states that in an efficient market all identical goods must have only one price. This also applies to
services but since services are not easily transferred across borders, most economists focus on tangible goods.
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Simply put, Sharia arbitrage occurs when Islamic financial institutions create and sell Islamic
versions of conventional financial products, usually at a premium. The term ‘Sharia arbitrage’
may be new, but the phenomenon itself has existed for centuries. In Medina, during the time of
the jurist Malik, various hiyal were being used to skirt the prohibition on riba (Hassan and Lewis,
2007).
industry which serves a captive market of Muslims who must adhere to those prohibitions and
would rather not use conventional financial products. But the Islamic finance industry uses those
conventional financial products as the inspiration for its own products, and seeks to create
alternatives that closely mirror the properties of conventional products while still being deemed
permissible (El-Gamal, 2006, p. 175; El-Gamal, 2005, pp. 117-119). Furthermore the diversity of
juristic opinion espoused by different madhhabs and Sharia boards can also engender
As currently practiced, Sharia arbitrage occurs primarily through two main methods. The
first method is dual characterization of financial contracts, and the second method is through
Dual characterization refers to the use of two sets of terms, one for jurists and one for
home buying (i.e. a bank buys a home, and then sells it to a Muslim customer for the price plus a
credit markup). Regulators see this as secured lending (which is un-Islamic) and customers view
the contract as safe, because it does not violate the rigid restrictions of Islamic law and in fact
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has the approval of the Sharia board. The mortgage documents often feature terms like loan,
interest, and borrower, but Sharia boards of US Islamic home finance providers assure Muslims
that these terms are only included to meet US regulatory requirements. Customers can even
deduct the “markup” component of the mortgage on their annual taxes (El-Gamal, 2005, pp. 120-
122).
The second major method of Sharia arbitrage is the use of degrees of separation. With
this technique, different segments of a financial contract are viewed individually rather than as a
made Sharia compliant. Consider the following telling examples provided by El-Gamal (2005):
1. B sells a stapler to A, for the cash price of $100. A turns around and sells the
stapler to B for a credit price of $105 payable in one year. This practice is called
“bay` al-`ina” (same item sale-resale). Some jurists (e.g. the Hanbalis) forbade it
based on Prophetic traditions, while others (e.g. the Malikis) forbade it based on
the principle of sadd al-dhara’i` (prevention of stratagems to achieve illegal ends
through legal means). However, some others (e.g. the Hanafi jurist Abu Yusuf
and Al-Shafi`i) allowed the contract, ruling on each of the two separate valid sales
separately. Provided that the second sale is not stipulated in the first, they
reasoned, one cannot forbid the practice based on speculation about the
contracting parties’ unobservable intentions.
2. C sells a stapler to A, for the cash price of $100. A sells the stapler to B for the
credit price of $105 payable in one year. B sells stapler to C for the cash price of
$100. This practice is called Tawarruq (literally, monetization – of the stapler in
this example). Abu Hanifa contemplated this contract as a variation on the previous one,
with a third party serving as intermediary (muhallil). While he forbade the simple `inah
(without a third party), he was more accommodative of Tawarruq. Most jurists
considered Tawarruq invalid, defective or reprehensible. However, there were two
reports on ibn Hanbal’s opinion on this contract, thus allowing a faction of the Hanbali
school to approve the contract, which is quickly replacing Murabaha as the favorite mode
of financing in the GCC.
3. C sells stapler to A, for the cash price of $100. A sells stapler to B for credit price of $105
payable in one year. B sells stapler to D for cash price of $100. D sells stapler to C for
cash price of $100. Now, we have added two intermediary entities (C and D) between
lender (A in all examples) and borrower (B). Contracts with larger numbers of
intermediaries do not have explicit names in classical jurisprudence, and were not
discussed in their writings (pp. 123-124).
137
Islamic prohibitions and replicate conventional financial products. Since adding many degrees of
separation can be expensive in terms of transactions costs, bankers tend to keep them to a
Sharia arbitrage poses a number of dangers to the long term development of Islamic
finance, and its effects could have far-reaching consequences for the nascent industry.
First of all, Sharia arbitrage leads to higher transactions costs and economic inefficiency.
As evidenced by the degrees of separation approached described above, Sharia arbitrage usually
adds extra costs to contracts due to superfluous and unnecessary transactions. Another example
of this is the incorporation of special purpose vehicles (SPVs) to conduct parts of certain
transactions. And of course there are the fees associated with hiring lawyers and jurists to
structure and package products and certify their permissibility (El-Gamal, 2005, p. 127).
The methods of Sharia arbitrage also bear a striking and disturbing resemblance to
methods of financing criminal activities. The use of SPVs, which can be used in tax evasion, and
the numerous degrees of separation, which divide funds from their final destinations, can both be
used in money laundering and other criminal activities. In addition, because Sharia arbitrage uses
many of the same strategies, this may expose the industry to abuse by criminals who wish to use
Islamic financial contracts to conceal their financing activity and fund their illegal operations.
This possibility is especially troublesome in a post 9/11 world where Muslim movements are
often viewed with suspicion (El-Gamal, 2006, pp. 176-177; El-Gamal, 2005, pp. 128-130).
The deleterious effects of Sharia arbitrage’s nature also pose a significant threat to the
overall health of the Islamic finance industry. Sharia arbitrage is quite lucrative in its early stages;
138
even after accounting for added transactions costs from inefficient contracts and products, profit
margins are still attractive. Like any competitive industry, the existence of profit leads other
firms to enter the market. The proliferation of competition forces existing players to seek out
new avenues of business and find ways to cut costs. This drive to cost-cutting may lead some
firms - especially those who do not have the size, scope, and economies of scale enjoyed by
mammoth players like HSBC - to sacrifice quality in their operations, such as by incorporating
SPVs in less reputable areas. This can lead to Enron-like scandals and loss of confidence in the
engineering, new products can be created that follow the form of Islamic law but not its spirit
and allow users to engage in speculation (Yashpal, 2008). This mere imitation of conventional
products lends credence to the argument that many firms’ products adhere to the Sharia in form
but not substance. The focus on imitation rather than on innovation to meet the needs of Muslims
is a serious defect of IFIs which practice Sharia arbitrage in the opinion of many scholars and
experts. Thus Sharia arbitrage can damage the credibility of the industry in the eyes of Muslims
(El-Gamal, 2006, pp. 183-184). When “Islamic” products differ from conventional products only
in minute details, both potential and existing customers may feel alienated from the industry.
Moving Forward
scholarly literature to newspaper and magazine articles, the main interest is clear; IFIs, Sharia
boards, ordinary Muslims, and outside observers continually fixate on the haram. As we have
139
seen, this single minded focus provides a fertile breeding ground for the growth and proliferation
of Sharia arbitrage. We have also seen the destructive attributes of Sharia arbitrage that pose a
real danger to the industry’s long term growth, stability, and reputation.
Sharia arbitrage’s most harmful effect however is that it can and most likely will lead to
stagnation in this small yet growing industry. Islamic finance is developing at a rapid pace, but it
is still a niche market. If those in the industry hope to maintain this rate of growth so that Islamic
finance becomes a viable, attractive alternative to conventional finance, it must drop this current
mode of imitation. Bankers and jurists should focus on creating and innovating unique products
of their own rather than simply replicating conventional financial products. On a deeper level,
the industry must move away from trying to satisfy form to delivering true substance, namely by
seeking and embodying the aims of Islam. Only in this way can the industry retain its current
It has been acknowledged that the Islamic financial industry currently tends to serve high
net worth Muslims who are looking for “Islamic” products that mimic conventional ones and are
However, it is not this relatively small group that will provide the basis for sustained, long term
growth of the industry. Rather, it is middle class Muslims, and poor Muslims who aim to reach
that socioeconomic status, who will constitute the largest and most important consumer segment
for the industry. The Islamic finance industry cannot afford to ignore this already large and
growing middle class. Furthermore, this class of Muslims tends to be well-educated and not as
Wharton School of Business, 2004). Muslims are not unintelligent; they are well aware that
many products offered by the Islamic finance industry are Islamic in name only. They are not
140
fooled by Arabic names and dual characterization; indeed these attributes of Sharia arbitrage are
more likely to disenchant them than earn their business and trust. Attracting this class of
customers will require that the industry shift away from Sharia arbitrage to products that offer
economic efficiency and represent a sincere effort to adhere to the ideals of the Sharia and Islam
as closely as possible.
It is not enough to focus on prohibitions and negative screens like those discussed in
chapter IV. In order to move forward, Islamic finance must also seek, support, and promote that
which is positive. In numerous places in the Quran, Muslims are commanded to enjoin what is
good and forbid what is wrong. 30 Ergo, Muslims must not only refrain from sin and push others
to do so as well, but they must also actively do the things that are good, i.e. the things that are
wajib and mandub. The overarching aim of the Sharia after all is to promote and protect the
welfare of man while bringing him closer to God. Specifically, the maqasid al-Sharia, previously
mentioned in chapter II, are the goals that the Sharia was designed to protect. Anything that
furthers and promotes these goals should be pursued and supported by Muslims in general and
the Islamic finance industry in particular. Islamic culture has a number of institutions and
features that are well suited to promoting the positive goals of the Sharia, such as waqf 31 and
zakat 32. The industry should try to develop and promote products that serve not just economic
goals, but further social and spiritual goals as well. It is only in this fashion that Islamic finance
can truly be called Islamic and differentiate itself from the conventional financial industry.
Conclusion
Islamic finance is an industry that holds enormous potential for both Muslims and non-
30
See Quran 3:110, 3:104, and 9:71
31
Waqf is a religious endowment, similar to a common law trust, which is exclusively dedicated to religious and/or
charitable purposes.
32
Zakat, one of the well known five pillars of Islam, is alms given to the poor. It is incumbent upon every Muslim to
set aside a specific portion of their income for zakat payments.
141
Muslims alike across the world. Its guiding light – the Sharia – was meant to protect and promote
the best interest of humankind. The Sharia itself is imbued with a strong sense of fairness, justice,
The current prohibition-focused nature of the Islamic financial industry is a handicap and
a hindrance that may prevent it from reaching that full potential. Furthermore, the phenomenon
of Sharia arbitrage poses a clear threat to the industry’s development, innovation, and reputation.
In order to move forward, practitioners of Islamic finance must loosen themselves from
the overzealous adherence to juristic form and the tendency to merely replicate conventional
financial products. If the industry ever wishes to emerge as a viable alternative to conventional
finance, it must abandon these propensities and recommit to the rich legacy of innovation and
originality that has characterized Islamic law for centuries. In doing so it will not just attract
Muslim customers, but also non-Muslims who are looking for a financially and morally
Due to the heightened interest that has surrounded Islam and the Middle East in recent
years, it is no small wonder that Islamic finance has received such an intense amount of attention.
This attention has led scholars and financial professionals alike to devote themselves to further
study of this exciting and fascinating field. Muslims too have turned to Islamic finance in
increasing numbers for the opportunity to exercise their faith in their financial dealings. This
swell of interest was a catalyst for this study. Specifically, the aim of this work has been to
investigate the performance of Islamic equity funds versus their conventional counterparts. On a
broader level, an analysis of Islamic law and the juristic underpinnings of modern Islamic
finance has been made in order to gain a deeper appreciation for its historical, theological, and
philosophical roots.
Islamic finance sits under the canopy of Islamic law. Indeed, Islamic finance cannot be
fully understood without first understanding Islamic law. And Islamic law in turn is a part of the
wider body of the Sharia, the true and righteous method of conduct for Muslims. Islamic law has
a rich history of innovation and healthy (oftentimes sharp) debate. It is fluid and changing,
nothing at all like the hardened monolith that it is often incorrectly assumed to be. While the
current era of Islamic law is characterized by a high degree of taqlid, it still can, should, and does
adapt to ever changing times. It rises to the challenges presented by the modern age, ones that
were never even conceived of during the time of Muhammad, with the same spirit possessed by
the jurists of old. The growth and development of Islamic finance, which uses the contracts and
143
forms devised in Islam’s classical and medieval ages to construct financial products to meet the
The results obtained in chapter V indicate that Muslims may not necessarily have to pay
an opportunity cost for adhering to their faith in their financial affairs. While of course longer
time horizons are needed to make more certain judgments, the Islamic funds have charted
excellent performance over the time horizons considered and have performed well versus their
conventional counterparts. Indeed, the superior returns of the Amana funds have attracted the
That has important implications for global investors, both Muslim and non-Muslim. The
analysis of chapter V suggests that combining moral/ethical considerations with the traditional
risk vs. return standard may not lead to financial loss. Islamic investing and all socially
responsible investing are conservative by nature. It involves and encourages examining company
fundamentals and rewards corporate responsibility. This can help socially conscious investors
avoid being dragged down by companies penalized for unethical behavior and/or engaged in
businesses that do not comply with their specific standards. For example, the Islamic funds were
partly insulated from the turmoil in the markets during the last quarter of 2008 because of their
lack of financial stocks. Socially responsible investing is value investing, and can offer long term
gain and capital appreciation, rather than short term profits. Islamic investing in particular is
averse to speculation, which can lead to financial and economic instability, as this recent global
This study’s conclusions open up a multitude of opportunities for further research. First,
the future performance of the Islamic funds should be closely tracked and monitored. Longer
144
time horizons will provide us with more information about their performance and quality of
management.
Second, as discussed above, the TIE’s positive screens could benefit from more debate
and input from Sharia specialists and individual Muslim investors. Furthermore, separate TIE’s
could be developed for each industry. For instance, the “proper treatment of animals” screen may
be better suited to companies in the clothing, health, and beauty industries than, say,
telecommunications companies. Each industry has different and idiosyncratic concerns that may
Above all, it is the author’s hope that this work inspires the creation and development of
new, innovative Sharia-compliant products with an equal focus on Sharia prohibitions and
positive benefits. While Islamic financial products should not solely mimic conventional
finance are not always antagonistic, mutually exclusive spheres. Indeed, they can inform and
inspire each other. There are numerous conventional financial constructions that can be easily
adapted to Islamic standards. Search funds are an excellent example of the potential synergies
Created and developed over 25 years ago, a search fund is little known business model
that can offer outstanding long term return. In a typical search fund, entrepreneur(s) with little to
no practical, managerial experience (mostly graduates of elite business schools) are financially
backed by a small group of investors. The investors provide money for the entrepreneur(s) to
search for an attractive acquisition target – a promising business with revenue of $10 million to
$30 million dollars. Once the entrepreneur(s) find a desirable business, the investors finance the
company’s purchase. The entrepreneur(s) become managers of the company, where they can
145
gain from the expertise and knowledge of the investors, who join the newly acquired company’s
board of directors. Studies have shown that the search fund investors can receive an average
annual return of 30 percent or higher (Bowers, 2009, p. B5). The search fund model can easily be
The implications of this study reach far beyond the Muslim world. Islamic financial
products and contracts can be attractive to non-Muslim markets as well. Islamic finance is
buttressed by ethical principles that have broad-based appeal to Muslims and non-Muslims alike.
These same principles can help us create a more ethical financial system and illustrate the
similarities and common values that are present across the globe. As globalization and
technology tighten the linkages between us, long held assumptions about so-called barriers
between Muslims and non-Muslims begin to break down. Islam is a powerful force the world
over, and will undoubtedly remain so. Globally, Islamic finance is well suited to help accomplish
this paradigm shift. It has already taken root in the US financial system, as evidenced by the
Islamic equity funds profiled in this study, and is on track to gain market share in the foreseeable
future. Islamic finance can be used as a tool to introduce non-Muslims to Islam as a positive,
beneficial, and ethically-driven entity that seeks only the best interests of humanity and the
planet.
146
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Appendix I. Glossary
APPENDIX B. Portfolio Holdings of the Amana Income Fund – December 31, 2008
APPENDIX C. Portfolio Holdings of the Amana Growth Fund – December 31, 2008
APPENDIX D. Portfolio Holdings of the Azzad Ethical Income Fund – September 30, 2008
APPENDIX E. Portfolio Holdings of the Vanguard US Growth Index – November 30, 2008
Financials (7.2%)
CME Group, Inc. 379,485 80,432
Charles Schwab Corp. 2,849,585 52,233
The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. 511,100 40,372
JPMorgan Chase & Co. 1,248,300 39,521
Franklin Resources Corp. 360,900 21,924
234,482
Health Care (23.4%)
Gilead Sciences, Inc. 3,355,360 150,287
Abbott Laboratories 2,191,000 114,787
Celgene Corp. 1,911,660 99,597
Genentech, Inc. 1,269,200 97,221
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. Sponsored ADR 1,934,260 83,463
Medco Health Solutions, Inc. 1,116,400 46,889
Baxter International, Inc. 728,100 38,516
Alcon, Inc. 469,540 37,465
166
APPENDIX F. Portfolio Holdings of the Vanguard Equity Income Fund – December 31, 2008
Financials (19.4%)
JPMorgan Chase & Co. 3,708,100 116,916
Wells Fargo & Co. 3,905,520 115,135
Bank of America Corp. 4,845,563 68,226
U.S. Bancorp 2,165,879 54,169
The Chubb Corp. 955,062 48,708
PNC Financial Services Group 845,182 41,414
Bank of New York Mellon Corp. 1,308,970 37,083
Ace Ltd. 670,900 35,504
The Allstate Corp. 811,700 26,591
The Travelers Cos., Inc. 310,800 14,048
Citigroup Inc. 1,534,700 10,298
BB&T Corp. 347,700 9,548
Kimco Realty Corp. REIT 438,809 8,021
SunTrust Banks, Inc. 263,200 7,775
T. Rowe Price Group Inc. 214,000 7,584
Hudson City Bancorp, Inc. 435,400 6,949
NYSE Euronext 231,100 6,327
Lincoln National Corp. 322,800 6,082
MetLife, Inc. 166,700 5,811
Cincinnati Financial Corp. 187,300 5,445
Wachovia Corp. 963,100 5,336
IPC Holdings Ltd. 173,100 5,176
First BanCorp Puerto Rico 451,700 5,032
Huntington Bancshares Inc. 647,400 4,959
Bank of Hawaii Corp. 107,100 4,838
Morgan Stanley 290,700 4,663
Materials (3.7%)
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. 878,027 22,214
Packaging Corp. of America 1,384,500 18,635
PPG Industries, Inc. 409,700 17,384
Air Products & Chemicals, Inc. 313,800 15,775
International Paper Co. 906,900 10,702
Dow Chemical Co. 528,900 7,981
United States Steel Corp. 143,100 5,323
Eastman Chemical Co. 166,600 5,283
Olin Corp. 274,400 4,961
Compass Minerals International, Inc. 78,200 4,587
Southern Copper Corp. (U.S. Shares) 276,300 4,437
Glatfelter 472,000 4,390
Stepan Co. 74,000 3,477
Worthington Industries, Inc. 273,200 3,011
Nucor Corp. 52,900 2,444
Bemis Co., Inc. 82,800 1,961
Lubrizol Corp. 14,100 513
Innophos Holdings Inc. 3,337 66
133,144
Telecommunication Services (6.7%)
AT&T Inc. 5,058,105 144,156
Verizon Communications Inc. 2,731,428 92,596
Embarq Corp. 138,355 4,975
Windstream Corp. 30,100 277
242,004
Utilities (9.9%)
FPL Group, Inc. 1,361,066 68,502
Dominion Resources, Inc. 1,320,930 47,342
Consolidated Edison Inc. 813,400 31,666
OFFICE
Herman Miller
EQUIPMENT None
and Pitney Bowes
& SUPPLIES
PETROLEUM
Chevron ExxonMobil
PRODUCTS
Johnson & Johnson Johnson & Johnson
PHARMACEUTICALS
and Merck & Company and Merck & Company
PRECISION
None Eastman Kodak
INSTRUMENTS
PUBLISHING Washington Post None
172
REAL ESTATE
The Rouse Company None
DEVELOPMENT
RECREATION None Walt Disney
RETAIL Target Stores
Wal-Mart Stores
STORES and Nordstrom
STEEL Worthington Industries None
AT&T Corp. and
TELECOMMUNICATIONS US West Communications
SBC Communications
TOBACCO None Philip Morris Companies
INDUSTRY
GMUA DJUA
CATEGORY
DIVERSIFIED
Citizens Communications None
SERVICES
AES Corp,
Dominion Resources,
Hawaiian Electric Industries,
IDACORP,
LG&E Energy,
NONNUCLEAR ELECTRIC MidAmerican Energy,
AND/OR GAS Montana Power, None
UTILITIES NiSource,
OGE Energy,
Otter Tail Power,
Southwest Gas,
UtiliCorp
and Xcel Energy,
American Electric Power,
AES Corp.,
Consolidated Edison,
Dominion Resources,
Duke Energy Corp.,
Edison International,
Enron Corp.,
NONNUCLEAR & NUCLEAR
Excelon,
ELECTRIC AND/OR None
NiSource,
GAS UTILITIES
PG&E Corp.,
PECO Corp.,
Public Service Enterprise Group,
Reliant Energy,
Southern Company,
TXU
and Williams Companies
WATER
American Water Works None
SERVICES
Appendix H. Dow Jones US Islamic Market Index Components – January 21, 2009
Market
Company Ticker Capitalization
Agilent Technologies Inc. A LRG
Alcoa Inc. AA LRG
Advance Auto Parts Inc. AAP MID
Arkansas Best Corp. ABFS SML
Abbott Laboratories ABT LRG
Autodesk Inc. ADSK MID
Arch Coal Inc. ACI MID
Alcon Inc. ACL LRG
Alberto-Culver Co. ACV MID
Adobe Systems Inc. ADBE LRG
Analog Devices Inc. ADI MID
Alliance Data Systems Corp. ADS MID
Adtran Inc. ADTN SML
American Eagle Outfitters Inc. AEO MID
AGCO Corp. AG MID
Allergan Inc. AGN LRG
American Greetings Corp. Cl A AM SML
Skyworks Solutions Inc. SWKS SML
Hess Corp. HES LRG
Wyeth WYE LRG
Akamai Technologies Inc. AKAM MID
AK Steel Holding Corp. AKS MID
Albemarle Corp. ALB MID
Honeywell International Inc. HON LRG
Alkermes Inc. ALKS SML
Allegheny Technologies Inc. ATI MID
Altera Corp. ALTR MID
Alexion Pharmaceuticals Inc. ALXN SML
Applied Materials Inc. AMAT LRG
Applied Micro Circuits Corp. AMCC SML
Ametek Inc. AME MID
Amedisys Inc. AMED SML
Amgen Inc. AMGN LRG
Healthways Inc. HWAY SML
Amylin Pharmaceuticals Inc. AMLN MID
American Tower Corp. Cl A AMT LRG
Abercrombie & Fitch Co. ANF MID
Ann Taylor Stores Corp. ANN SML
Alpha Natural Resources Inc. ANR MID
Ansys Inc. ANSS SML
Arris Group Inc. ARRS SML
Apache Corp. APA LRG
Air Products & Chemicals Inc. APD LRG
Avocent Corp. AVCT SML
Amphenol Corp. Cl A APH MID
175
APPENDIX I. Glossary of Portfolio Theory and Arabic and Islamic Financial Terms
Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) – a multiple factor-based theory of asset valuation that holds
that the expected return on an asset can be described and determined by its relationship with
other common risk factors
Call Option – a contract that grants the bearer the option to purchase a stock or bond within a
certain period time at a specified price (the exercise price)
Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) – a single factor-based theory of asset valuation that
estimates an asset’s required or expected return based on its systemic risk relative to that of the
market portfolio
Capital Market Line (CML) – a line that extends from the intercept point and represents the
risk free rate tangent to the original Markowitz efficient frontier; investments on the capital
market line dominate those portfolios on the efficient frontier
Certificate of Deposit – certificates issued by banks and savings and loans associations that pay
higher interest rates than regular deposit accounts
Efficient Frontier – the set of portfolios that offer the maximum rate of return for each and
every level of risk, or the minimum risk for every rate of return
Holding Period Return (HPR) – an investment’s total return, including all sources of income,
for a specified time period
Holding Period Yield (HPY) – the holding period return expressed as a percentage (HPR – 1)
Market Portfolio – the portfolio that includes all risky assets available for investment
Preferred Stock – an instrument that has the characteristics of a stock and a bond, in that it
represents ownership in a company like a stock and pays a fixed dividend to investors like a
bond; preferred stock usually has no voting rights and the claims of preferred stockholders are
superior to those of common shareholders and subordinate to bondholders
Private Equity – investors and investment funds that make direct stakes in private companies or
buy the outstanding shares of a public company to “take it private”; private equity investors and
firms have access to tremendous financial resources that they can commit for long periods of
time
Put Option – a contract that grants the bearer the right to sell a stock or bond within a certain
period at a specified exercise price
188
Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT) – a security that is traded on an exchange like a stock
and invests in real estate directly through mortgages or in the properties themselves; can be
equity, mortgage, or hybrid REITs
Risk Free Asset – an asset whose returns have zero variance (usually considered to be Treasury
securities, especially T-bills)
Risk Free Rate – the theoretical rate of return on a risk free asset (the interest rate on the 3
month Treasury bill is generally considered to be the risk free rate)
Security Market Line (SML) – line that represents the combination of risk and return on
investments
Separation Theorem – the theory which holds that the investment decision (whether to invest in
the market portfolio on the CML) is separate from the financing decision (whether to borrow or
lend at the risk free rate)
Systematic Risk – the risk that cannot be diversified away; measures the variability of returns to
due to macroeconomic factors that affect all risky assets
Unsystematic Risk – idiosyncratic risk; represents the risk that is unique to an asset due to its
own inherent characteristics; unlike systematic risk, it can be diversified away in a portfolio
Venture Capital – a form of high risk investment that provides financing for small businesses
and startup companies, and can also include managerial and technical expertise; most venture
capital comes from a group of wealthy investors, investment banks, and/or a dedicated venture
capital firm
Zero Coupon Bond – a bond, sold at a discounted price, which pays its par value at the date of
maturity but no interest payments
189
Bida – innovation
Caliph – successor or representative; the head of the Islamic state; the title was held by the first
four successors of Muhammad, and later the Umayyad, Abbasid, and Ottoman dynasties, as well
as other competing ruling factions in Egypt, Spain, and North Africa
Companion - early Muslims who saw or spoke with Muhammad, the most prominent of which
were his close associates
Hadith - a report from one or more of the Companions of what Muhammad said or did
Halal - any object or an action which is permissible for Muslims to use or engage in
Haram – the opposite of halal; any object or an action which is impermissible for Muslims to
use or engage in
Hila/pl. Hiyal – ruse or stratagem used to evade various prohibitions in Islamic law
Ibadat - refers to matters of religion and other obligations incumbent upon Muslims
Ijara – lease; refers to selling benefit, use, or service for a fixed price or wage
Ilm – knowledge
Istislah - a mode of legal reasoning that uses maslaha as grounds for making a legal decision
Jahiliyya – the age before the coming of Islam
190
Jamhur - a lesser degree of consensus, obtained when a majority of jurists agrees on a specific
ruling
Makruh – an action that is frowned upon but not expressly prohibited and punished
Maysir – gambling
Muamalat – refers to social, political, and economic practices and issues that are most akin to
the subject matter of other legal systems
Mufti – an Islamic scholar who interprets the Sharia and can issue fatwas
Qard – a loan
Riba - unjustified enrichment through the exploitation of others or through the appropriation of
other’s property for one’s own use without a legitimate reason; commonly equated with interest
in modern times
Sadaqa – a voluntary act of charity, as opposed to zakat, which is obligatory
191
Sharia - the method of conduct that Muslims must employ in their lives, revealed in the Quran
and the Sunna
Sunna – the sayings and actions of Muhammad; the example of the Prophet
Taqlid – imitation
Ulama - the community of legal/religious scholars who were well versed in Islam and the Sharia
Waqf - a religious endowment, similar to a common law trust, which is exclusively dedicated to
religious and/or charitable purposes
Zakah - one of the well known five pillars of Islam, is alms given to the poor. It is incumbent
upon every Muslim to set aside a specific portion of their income for zakah payments
Zann – opinion
192
FactSet – FDS
Screen Score Rationale
• FactSet supports communities by making financial contributions,
2 2 matching our employees' monetary donations, sponsoring local
programs, and promoting employee activism
6 2 • FactSet is an equal opportunity and affirmative action employer
Foot Locker – FL
Screen Score Rationale
• Company supports well-established non-profit organizations, schools
and youth centers
2 3 • Works with The Fred Jordan Mission on its annual back-to-school
giveaway event, providing shoes and supplies to thousands of
impoverished youths in downtown Los Angeles
194
Tiffany’s – TIF
Screen Score Rationale
1 3 • Committed to stopping the flow of blood or conflict diamonds
• Refuses to knowingly purchase rubies from Myanmar due to its
human rights violations
2 3 • The Tiffany Foundation – supports design and decorative arts,
environmental and cultural preservation, responsible mining, and
coral reef conservation
• Working to stop destruction of coral reefs
4 3 • Opposed to destructive gem and metal mining in culturally significant
areas
Ralph Lauren – RL
Screen Score Rationale
• Ralph Lauren foundation serves a large variety of organizations and
2 3 causes, including cancer care, underserved communities, and the
American Heroes Fund (scholarships for children of 9/11 victims)
• Uses models of color on runway and in print work
3 3 • Women are presented tastefully in ads and aren’t excessively
sexualized
• Commitment to fair labor practices among its suppliers does not seem
to be very strong
6 1 • As of its 2008 10K, the company is a defendant in 3 legal cases where
it is accused of improper treatment of workers and improper
compensation practices