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Global Services

Field Engineer Training Project


Control Elementary Knowledge
Author: Marco Cannavò
V. 1.0 – December 2008
GT Instrumentation

• Temperature Instrumentation (Thermocouple, RTD)


• Pressure Instrumentation
• Vibration Instrumentation
• LVDT
• Level and Flow Instrumentation
• Solenoid and Servo-valves
• Speed Sensors

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Temperature

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emperature Instrumentation:
• Measurement Unit

Absolute Scales Relative Scales


• Rankine (°R) • Fahrenheit (°F)
• Kelvin (K) • Celsius (°C)
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emperature Instrumentation:
• Level indicator

Temperature local indicators are situated next to


the object whose temperature has to be monitored,
e.g. tanks.

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emperature Instrumentation:
• Bi-metal type thermometer

The bi-metal thermometers are built from a stainless steel tube


inside of which a bi-metal helicoidally spiral is placed. This spiral is
welded to the tip of the tube and on the other side to a transmission
shaft directly connected to the pointer. The temperature variations
create a deformation of the bi-metal, which is transmitted to the
pointer through a shaft rotation.

Cheap Inaccurate 6/
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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Termocouples fundamentals
A thermocouple is composed of two wires made from dissimilar
metals.
At one end, the two wires join: this is the measurement junction.

A reference, or cold junction, forms at the other end of the conductor.


This reference junction normally forms where the conductor connects
to the measurement device.

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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• The Seebeck Effect

Thermocouples work on the Seebeck effect (1821).


Mr T. J. Seebeck found that if you take two
dissimilar metals and form a closed loop, if one
junction is kept at a different temperature than
the other junction, a small current exists in the
loop.

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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• The Seebeck Effect
This current is related to the temperature difference between the
two junctions. If one junction is kept at a known temperature, the
temperature of the other junction can be determined from the
amount of voltage produced.

As the temperature difference increases, the current in the


closed loop increases. The thermocouple voltage, although
very predictable for a given thermocouple type, is non-linear.
The change in junction voltage as a function of junction
temperature is:
∆ V = a * ∆T
where “a” is the Seebeck coefficient.
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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Law of Homogeneous Circuits

The Law of Homogeneous Circuits says simply that if the


thermocouple conductors are homogeneous, they are
unaffected by intermediate temperatures.

This is why the length and routing of the thermocouple


wire (within reason and with some restrictions) can be set
up not to effect the temperature measurement.

This is also why you must use thermocouple extension


wire, not regular wire, for long thermocouple runs.
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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Law of Intermediate Metals
The Law of Intermediate Metals says that if there is a third
metal introduced into the thermocouple circuit, it will not
adversely effect the reading if and only if the two junctions of
the third metal are at the exact same temperature.

Remember that the Seebeck effect requires that the junctions


have to be at different temperatures to induce a current. If the
two connecting junctions of the third metal are not exactly at the
same temperature, non-linear errors will occur from this second
thermocouple.
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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
Cold Junction Compensation (CJC) is necessary when making
temperature measurements using thermocouples.
____The thermocouple itself relies on the principle that an electrical
potential exists at the junction of two different metals.
The amount of this potential varies with temperature.
When using a thermocouple we measure the voltage potential across
the thermocouple and can calculate the temperature causing this
potential difference____
CJC becomes necessary because the junction between each end of
the thermocouple and your measuring system (connector block,
terminal block) also adds a potential difference to the thermocouple
voltage.

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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
To compensate for this added potential we must know the temperature
at the junction between the thermocouple and your measuring system.
This temperature is measured using a CJC sensor.
This is a temperature sensor other than a thermocouple; commonly used
sensors are IC (integrated circuit) sensors and thermistors.
To make our actual thermocouple temperature measurement we
measure the voltage from the thermocouple and CJC sensor. T

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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
Ideally, the thermocouple signal should only be proportional to the
highest temperature ( E = S*T1 ) therefore the part S*T2 should be zero.
This is possible when T2 is equal to zero.
Under laboratory conditions this can be achieved by immersing the cold
junction in an ice bath.
For industrial applications a technique called "Cold Junction
Compensation" (CJC) is used. Electronic measuring equipment generates
a signal proportional to S*T2, which is added to the EMF value given by
the equation above, resulting in:
E = S* (T1 - T2) + S* T2 = S* T1

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emperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
E2 = S* T2
E1 = S* T1
Etc
Ecjc

Etc = S* (T1 - T2)

Ecjc = S* T2

E =Etc+Ecjc = S* (T1 - T2) + S* T2


E = S* T1 15 /
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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
CJC can be obtained in three ways:
1. Keeping the cold junction at a known temperature

2. Introducing a balancing voltage because T is different from 0


Celsius (combination of R)

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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs
• Cold Junction Compensation
CJC can be obtained in three ways:

3. By software

Software compensation measures the temperature at the reference


junction using a thermistor or an integrated circuit sensor.
Once you know the temperature of the reference junction, the
software calculates the temperature at the measuring junction
using tables that correlate specific temperatures for specific
voltage values for different thermocouple types.
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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs
To determine the output of a thermocouple using tables, use the
formula:
Vout = Vhot - Vcold
For example, assume a type J thermocouple has its hot junction in
boiling water at 100°C and the cold junction is at an instrument which is
at a room temperature of 20°C.
The output at 100°C according to tables is 5.268 mV. The output at 20°C
from the same tables is 1.019mV.
The output of the thermocouple measured at the instrument is:
5.268mV - 1.019mV = 4.249mV
We have to care about the value of the cold junction!!

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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs
Type J Thermocouple ( thermoelectric voltage as a function of
temperature (°C); reference junctions at 0 °C)

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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs
Thermocouple Field JBs to UCP Connections
Thermocouple Field JBs to UCP Connections
( Copper Cables)
(Compensate Cables)
TCs TCs
TCs TCs

RTD

JB JB
JB JB

RTD

Marshalling
Marshalling

UCP UCP UCP UCP


Disable CJC in the Disable CJCin the
Internal CJCon Internal CJCon UCP internal UCPinternal
TCs Terminal TCs Terminal terminal board terminal board
Board Board

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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs

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Temperature Instrumentation: TCs

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Very wide Range of T • Non-linear characteristic for
(-270°C ÷ 2000°C) high ∆T
• Low time response • Need to know a reference T
• Small size • Lower accuracy compared to
the others instrument
• Low cost
• Low sensitivity. It need
amplifier circuit .

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Temperature Instrumentation:
• Switches
A temperature switch is a device for detecting
the temperature of a system. It has no
regulating functions, it is generally used for
protecting functions.

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a resistance
whose value increases with temperature.

Operation of an RTD is based on the principle that the


electrical resistance of a metallic conductor varies linearly
with its temperature.

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs
Compared to other temperature devices, the output of an RTD is relatively linear
with respect to temperature. The temperature coefficient, called alpha (α), differs
between RTD curves. Although various manufacturers may specify alpha
differently, alpha is most commonly defined as the change in RTD resistance from
0 to 100° C, divided by the resistance at 0° C, divided by 100° C.

where R100 is the resistance of the RTD at 100° C, and R0 is the resistance of the
RTD at 0° C.

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs
RTDs can be made of different metals and have different
resistances, but the most popular RTD is platinum and has a
nominal resistance of 100Ω at 0° C (α = 0.00392 => ∆T of 1°C will
give a variation of 0.392 Ω).
RTDs can be difficult to measure because they have relatively low
resistance (100 Ω) that changes only slightly with temperature (less
than 0.4 Ω/°C). To accurately measure these small changes in
resistance, you may need to use special configurations that
minimize errors from lead wire resistance.

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs
• R1 & R3 are fixed resistors ;R2 is variable
• If [R2/(R2+R1)] = [Rx/(Rx+R3)]
EMF = 0 ; I = 0
• In order to do the measurement it is
necessary to vary R2 till the equilibrium point
• I control can be done by the Galvanometer
and the value of emf of the generator is
unimportant
• At the equilibrium point :

• In another way: if R1, R2, R3 are fixed, the I trough the G


can be used to evaluate the value of R3 27 /
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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs

• 2 wire: R of wires affects the measurement


• 3 wire: R of wires doesn’t affect the measurement; T ambient affects the
measurement
• 4 wire: best measurement; high precision; R of wires and T ambient don’t affect
the measurement

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs

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Temperature Instrumentation: RTDs

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Wide Range of T • High cost
(-200°C ÷ 850°C)
• Self-heating
• Excellent linearity
• High time response
• Better sensitivity
• Low sensitivity to shocks and
compared to thermocouples
vibrations
• High accuracy
• Low R value => R wires cannot
• Excellent stability and be neglected
repeatability
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Temperature Instrumentation:
Thermistors
A thermistor is a type of resistor with resistance varying
according to its temperature. The resistance usually decrease
increasing the T => NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient).
Also PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) exists, but are not
common.

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Temperature Instrumentation:
Thermistors
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• High resistance (1 ÷ 1000 • High non-linear characteristic
kΩ) • Narrow T range (ex. 50÷250 °C)
• Low time response • Low stability compared to RTD
• High sensitivity (also 100 > • Higher self-heating than RTDs
compared to RTD sensitivity)
• Low cost

• Reasonably accuracy
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Temperature Instrumentation:
Summary

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Pressure

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Static Pressure

Pressure, P, is defined as force (F) per unit area (A):

P = F/A
The measurement of pressure is generally associated with
fluids, either liquids or gases.

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Types of Pressure Measurements
•Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect
vacuum. An example is atmospheric pressure.
•Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient
pressure.
•Differential pressure is the difference in pressure
between two points of measurement.

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Absolute Pressure

The “absolute” pressure is to be measured with reference to


full vacuum

In SI units is Pa (Pascal)

In English units is psia ("pounds per square inch absolute“)

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Gauge Pressure

"Gauge" pressure definition is related to


atmospheric conditions.

The pressure unit "pounds per square inch gauge"


is abbreviated psig.

In SI units, simply add "gauge" to the measuring


units, such as "Pa gauge”

In GE Oil&Gas plants it is used “Barg” (Bar Gauge)


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Differential Pressure

“Differential" pressure is the difference in


pressure between two points, ie before and after
a valve , a filter, an orifice or a pipe restriction.

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Pressure Instrumentation:
Pressure Units

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Pressure Measurements

Manometers Transducers
or

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Pressure Instrumentation: Manometers
Differential Manometer

A basic manometer
can consist of a
reservoir filled with a
liquid and a vertical
tube.

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Pressure Instrumentation: Manometers
Differential Manometer

The difference in fluid height in a


liquid column manometer is
proportional to the pressure
difference.

H= (Pa-Po)
ρg

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Pressure Instrumentation: Manometers
Bourdon Manometer
A Bourdon tube is C-shaped and has an oval cross-section with
one end of the tube connected to the process pressure. The other
end is sealed and connected to the pointer or transmitter
mechanism.

To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon tube elements can be extended


into spirals or helical coils. 44 /
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Pressure Instrumentation: Manometers
Bourdon Manometer

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Pressure Instrumentation: Manometers
Diaphragm Manometer

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Pressure Instrumentation: Transducers
Strain Gauge Transducers
The use of strain gauges is based on the fact that the
resistance of a conductor changes when the conductor is
subjected to strain.
A resistance wire in it's original state, and after subjected
to a strain. The stretched wire has higher resistance as it
is longer and thinner.
The electrical resistance of a conductor is given by:
R = ρ*l/A
where: R = resistance, ρ = resistivity, l = length, A = cross
sectional area
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Pressure Instrumentation: Transducers
Strain Gauge Transducers

The strain gage is


used to measure the
displacement of an
elastic diaphragm
due to a difference in
pressure across the
diaphragm.

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Pressure Instrumentation: Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials


(crystals and certain ceramics) to generate an electric
potential in response to applied mechanical stress

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Pressure Instrumentation: Transducers
Capacitive Transducers
The capacitance change results from the movement
of a diaphragm element.

The diaphragm is
usually metal or
metal-coated quartz
and is exposed to the
process pressure on
one side and to the
reference pressure on
the other.

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Pressure Transmitter
Primary
Transducer

Secondary
Transducer

Primary Transducer: Sensor and interface to the process


Secondary Transducer: Electronics, case and terminal board
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Pressure Instrumentation:
Definitions
Instrument Range -The region in
which the instrument is designated
to operate. It is a physical capability
of the device. (LRL to URL)
Span-The algebraic difference
between the upper and the lower
limit values of a given range.
Instrument minimum Span . The
minimum distance between the
URV and LRV for which the
instrument is designed. It is a
physical limitation of the device.
Instrument maximum Span . The
maximum distance between the
URV and LRV for which the
instrument is designed. It is a
physical limitation of the device.

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Level

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Level Instrumentation: Level Gauges

Consists of a metal body with


an internal transparent glass
tube as to view the liquid
presence inside.
These gauges are usually
side-side mounted.

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Level Instrumentation: Level Gauges
Magnetic Gauges

They have a float containing a


magnet that rises and falls with
the liquid. As the float moves, this
information is transferred to the
indication rail mounted on the
outside of the tube.
The white and red (or similar)
indication flaps represent air and
liquid level respectively.
These gauges are usually side-
side or top mounted.
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Level Instrumentation: Level Gauges
Level Switch-Displacer
Inside the tank is present a
displacer that moves with the
fluid level; the displacer is
connected with instrument
body with a bar or a chain;
the bar or chain movement
generate the contact
switching action.
These switches can be side,
side-side, side/bottom, top
mounted.

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Level Instrumentation: Level Gauges
Hydrostatic

Hydrostatic level measurement is


method used for measuring
liquid levels in open or closed
vessels.
The underlying physics principle
is that the height of the liquid
multiplied by the specific gravity
of the liquid is proportionate to
the vessel fluid level.

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Level Instrumentation: Level Transmitter
- Differential Pressure

The level measure is detected


measuring the liquid column
pressure; with the pressure
measure and the fluid
specific gravity is possible to
calculate the fluid column
height.
The higher pressure (on the
bottom), caused by fluid level
in the tank, is compared to a
higher reference pressure
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evel Instrumentation: Level Transmitter
LUBE OIL LEVEL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
Assumption: ρ = 860 (Kg/m3); hLFS = 0,5 m ; hi= 0,1 m: hr= 0,7m

ΔΡ = 860 * (0.7-0.1)= 516 mH2O (URV)


ΔΡ = 860 * (0.7-0.1-0.5)= 86 mH2O (LRV)

The panel indicator shall be configured to show hL =0% when the


input is 20mA and hL = 100% (50cm) when the input is 4mA. 59 /
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Level Instrumentation: Level Gauges
Ultrasonic Sensor

The sensor transmits an


ultrasonic beam to the
surface level, and the
returned echo from the
surface is detected by the
sensor and routed to the
microprocessor, which
processes the signal into a
digital representation of the
distance between the sensor
and the surface level.

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Fluid flow measurement

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Flow Meter Heads
The continuity relationship between velocity and
pressure provides the basis for the operation of all head-
type flow meters:

Orifice
Venturi tube

Pitot Tube
Fuel nozzle

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Flow Meter Heads

Schematic illustrating the relation between flow velocity and


pressure drop across a discrete obstruction. Proximal to the
obstruction, flow is laminar (parallel arrows) and velocity V1 is
normal. At the level of the obstruction, and just beyond, flow
remains laminar and velocity V2 is increased. The pressure
drop P1-P2 can be calculated from the velocities by the
modified Bernoulli equation.
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Flow Instrumentation: Orifice

Flow orifices and flow


restrictors contain
precision machined
holes to restrict flow and reduce pressure.
Orifice plates are widely used in industrial
applications. They are effectively utilized
for “clean” fluid flow measurement and
where line pressure losses or pumping
costs are not critical.
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Flow Instrumentation: Venturi Tube

The Venturi tube produces a relatively large differential


with a relatively small head loss. This element is often
used where the process contains large amounts of
suspended solids or if large head losses are
unacceptable.

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Flow Instrumentation: Nozzle

A flow nozzle is in a sense an orifice with a flared


approach section.
Line pressure loss is between that of an orifice and a
Venturi, as is generally the cost.
Often flow nozzles are used at the end of a pipe,
discharging directly into the air, a tank, etc.

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Flow Instrumentation: Pitot Tube
Is a pressure measurement instrument used to
measure fluid flow velocity. The basic Pitot tube
simply consists of a tube pointing directly into the
fluid flow. As this tube contains air, a pressure can
be measured as the moving air is brought to rest.
This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the air,
also known as the total pressure, or sometimes
(particularly in aviation circles) the pitot pressure.
Instrument for measuring the velocity (speed) of a
flowing fluid. it consists of a tube with a short, right-
angled bend, which is placed vertically in a moving
fluid with the mouth of the bent part directed
upstream; the pressure, measured with an attached
device, depends on the fluid flow and can be used to
calculate the velocity.
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LVDT

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LVDT

The LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is an device that produces an


electrical voltage proportional to the displacement of a movable Magnetic Core.

The LVDT is composed of these basic components:

• A COIL WINDING ASSEMBLY consisting of a Primary Coil and two Secondary Coils
symmetrically spaced on a
• tubular center.

• A CYLINDRICAL CASE which encloses and protects the Coil Winding Assembly.

• A rod shaped MAGNETIC CORE which is free to move axially within the Coil
Winding Assembly.

• A separate shield is used for ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING.


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LVDT

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LVDT
When an AC excitation signal is applied to the Primary Coil (P), voltages are
induced in the two Secondary Coils (S). The MAGNETIC CORE inside the
COIL WINDING ASSEMBLY provides the magnetic flux path linking the
Primary and secondary Coils.
Since the two voltages are of opposite polarity, the Secondary Coils are
connected series opposing in the center, or Null Position. The output
voltages are equal and opposite in polarity and, therefore, the output
voltage is zero. The Null Position of an LVDT is extremely stable and
repeatable.

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LVDT
When the MAGNETIC CORE is displaced on the Null Position, an electromagnetic
imbalance occurs.
This imbalance generates a differential AC output voltage across the Secondary
Coils which is linearly proportional to the direction and magnitude of the
displacement.
As shown in the figure, when the MAGNETIC CORE is moved from the Null Position,
the induced voltage in the Secondary Coil, toward which the Core is moved,
increases while the induced voltage in the opposite Secondary Coil decreases.
LVDTs possess the inherent
ruggedness and durability of
a transformer and truly provide
infinite resolution in all types
of environments.
As a result of the superior reliability
and accuracy of LVDTs, they are
the ideal choice for linear motion control.
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LVDT
There are many criteria which influence the proper choice of an
LVDT transducer. The basic considerations are:

• Linear Stroke Requirements


• Temperature Range
• Mounting Configuration
• Captive or Free Core
• AC or DC Excitation

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GE LVDT configuration

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Definition of LVDT Terms
Scale Factor
The ratio of change in output voltage to change in mechanical movement of the core.
For DC-DC units expressed as VDC/in. for AC-AC in mV/.001".

Non-Linearity
Non-linearity gives a figure for maximum deviation of measured values from the best fit straight line.
The non-linearity is given as a percentage of full range.

Full Range
Full range is the total end-to-end electrical stroke. I.e. a stroke of +.375 in. or a full range of .75 in.

Full Scale
The maximum output voltage deviation from zero. I.e. a nominal full scale value of 3.15 VDC
which is half the full range value of 6.30 VDC (8.4 VDC/in. X .75 in.).

Electrical Stroke (Linear Range)


The distance over which the electrical output is linear within the limits defined by the non-linearity.
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Sensitivity

Sensitivity is the scale factor divided by the energizing voltage.


Usually expressed for AC units as mV/V/.001 in.

Energizing (Input) Voltage

For AC-AC units, this is the sine wave voltage that energizes the primary winding stated in
rms (root mean square) units. For DC-DC units, it is a regulated DC voltage

Frequency Range

Range of frequencies of the AC energizing voltage, over which the electrical performance is met.

Null Voltage

The lowest output voltage in the electrical stroke.

Resolution

The smallest movement of the core which gives a detectable change in output voltage.
The LVDT has infinite resolution usually only restricted by the resolution of the instruments
to which it is connected.
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Use of LVDT: fuel system

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Use of LVDT: IGV
The IGV actuation system is composed by a servovalve (90TV) that acts
on a hydraulic positioner. The positioner moves the IGV, and their position
is detected by two LVDTs (96TV-1 e -2).

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Fire & Gas Sensors

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Fire & Gas System

Fire & Gas Sensors


Fire & Gas Detection Control Panel
Alarm Signals
Control Units

Detects fires or un-ignited escapes of flammable or toxic fluids

Initiates an appropriate automatic protective response

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Fire & Gas
Fire & Gas System Control
Unit& Gas
Fire
Detection
Control Panel

Fire & Gas Alarms


Sensors

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Fire & Gas Sensors

 Point Gas Detector


UV Flame Detectors
 IR Flame Detectors
 Optical Smoke Detectors
 Heat Detectors

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Fire & Gas Sensors

Point Gas Detectors : detect gas at a single location and are calibrated in
terms of the lower explosive limit (LEL) of the flammable gas at that point.
Traditional detectors use a heated wire coated with catalyst to detect the
heat of combustion of a flammable mix.
This heated wire is contained within an certified enclosure with a porous
sintered metal insert which allows gas to enter.

 advantage of directly detecting combustion

• the catalyst is prone to poisoning by contaminants in the environment


• the sintered metal screen is prone to blockage

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Fire & Gas Sensors

UV flame detectors detect radiation from the fire.

They can be blinded by obstructions.


The sensitivity is given by the manufacturer; there is no calibration facility, but they
can be checked by means of a torch that generates UV light at a quantified
intensity.

Hydrocarbons are a very efficient absorber of UV light, so UV flame detectors are


prone to blinding by the hydrocarbon content of any smoke between the
detector and the source, or by hydrocarbon contamination of the optical system
(though this problem should be detected by the optical integrity check).
Welding is an efficient generator of UV light, so UV detectors have to be inhibited if
there is any welding in the vicinity; this reduces their availability and the level of
protection they provide.

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Fire & Gas Sensors

IR Detectors . Ice is a very efficient absorber of IR light, so IR


detectors are prone to blinding if the optical system ices up.
This is rare in a marine environment, and may be detected by an
optical integrity self check.

Optical Smoke Detectors measure the absorption by the smoke of


light from a small photodiode. They have a defined sensitivity in
terms of obscuration % per metre. This can be linked to the
capabilities of people to escape through the smoke.
However, these detectors have unrevealed failure modes. They
cannot be calibrated by the user in any meaningful way, but are
checked with artificial smoke.
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Fire & Gas Sensors
Heat Detectors sense elevated temperatures such as might be caused by a fire.

They are often based on a bi-metallic strip that actuates a micro-switch at a set temperature.
Typically, therefore, they are of an ON/OFF nature, having a temperature setting related to
the application.

Some types of heat detector are designed so as to respond to rises in temperature in addition
to the fixed temperature setting. These detectors are used in areas where a rapid rise in
temperature is an early indication of danger (perhaps for example in equipment cabinets),
and are called ‘rate-of-rise heat detectors’.

Another type of heat detector is designed so that the set temperature at which it triggers is
sensitive to changes in temperature, ie the set temperature drops when a rapid rise in
temperature occurs. These devices are called ‘rate compensated heat detectors’.
Heat detectors are usually checked with hot water or a local heat source at the relevant set
temperature; they have unrevealed failure modes and therefore are suitable mainly for areas
where the fire risk is low or where smoke detectors cannot be used for environmental
reasons.

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Vibration

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ibration Instrumentation
Vibration

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ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Non contacting Eddy-current probe

An eddy current (also known as Foucault current) is an electrical


phenomenon caused when a conductor is exposed to a changing
magnetic field due to relative motion of the field source and
conductor (or due to variations of the field with time). This can cause
a circulating flow of electrons, or a current, within the conductor.
These circulating eddies of current create electromagnets with
magnetic fields that opposes the change of the magnetic field
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ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Non contacting Eddy-current probe

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ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Velocimeter or seismic

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GE /
ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Piezoelectric Accelerometer
The sensing element is a crystal which has the property of emitting
a charge when subjected to a compressive force.

F=m*a
a = d2x/dt2

92 /
GE /
ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Piezoelectric Accelerometer

93 /
GE /
ibration Instrumentation:
Vibration
- Piezoelectric Accelerometer

Accelerometer

Amplifier ∆V

94 /
GE /
Solenoid Valve

95 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves
Solenoid valves are used wherever fluid flow has to be
controlled automatically. They are being used to an
increasing degree in the most varied types of plants and
equipment.

96 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
Construction
Solenoid valves are control units which, when
electrically energized or de-energized, either shut off or
allow fluid flow. The actuator takes the form of an
electromagnet.

When energized, a magnetic field builds up which pulls


a plunger or pivoted armature against the action of a
spring. When de-energized, the plunger or pivoted
armature is returned to its original position by the spring
action.
97 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
Operation
According to the actuation mode, a distinction is
made between:
• direct-acting valves
• internally piloted valves
• externally piloted valves
Further distinguishing features are:
• number of port connections
• number of flow paths ("ways")

98 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Direct-acting valves
With a direct-acting solenoid valve, the seat seal is attached to
the solenoid core.

De-energized condition  seat orifice closed


Energized condition  seat orifice open
99 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Direct-acting 2-way valves
Two-way valves are shut-off valves with one inlet port and one
outlet port.

In the de-energized condition, the core spring, assisted by the


fluid pressure, holds the valve seal on the valve seat to shut off
the flow. When energized, the core and seal are pulled into the
solenoid coil and the valve opens.
100 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Direct-acting 3-way valves
Three-way valves have three
port connections and two valve
seats. One valve seal always
remains open and the other
closed in the de-energized
mode. When the coil is
energized, the mode reverses.

101 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Internally piloted
Internally piloted solenoid valves are employed for switching
higher pressures in conjunction with larger orifice sizes.

In this case, the differential fluid pressure performs the main


work in opening and closing the valve.
102 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Multi-way internally piloted
Internally piloted 4-way solenoid
valves are used mainly in hydraulic
and pneumatic applications to
actuate double-acting cylinders.
These valves have four port
connections: a pressure inlet P, two
cylinder port connections A and B,
and one exhaust port connection R.

103 /
GE /
Solenoid Valves:
- Externally piloted

With these types an independent pilot


medium is used to actuate the valve.

In the unpressurized condition, the


valve seat is closed. A 3-way solenoid
valve, which can be mounted on the
actuator, controls the independent
pilot medium. When the solenoid
valve is energized, the piston is raised
against the action of the spring and
the valve opens.

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GE /
Response times
The response time is defined as the time
between application of the switching signal and
completion of mechanical opening or closing.
The small volumes and relatively high magnetic
forces involved with solenoid valves enable
rapid response times to be obtained. Valves
with various response times are available for
special applications.

105 /
GE /
Servo-Valves

106 /
GE /
Servo-Valves:
Gas control system

107 /
GE /
Moog Servo-Valve (Flapper Type)

108 /
GE /
Moog Servo-Valve – inside view

109 /
GE /
Servo-actuator Simplify Diagram

110 /
GE /
Moog Servo-Valve applied to a Gas
Valve

111 /
GE /
Conversion Torque - Position

112 /
GE /
Abex Servo-Valve (Jet Pipe Type)
In 1957 R. Atchley devised a two stage servo-valve with a first stage
based on a jet pipe valve. This valve provided a single oil inlet path
instead of the dual path in flapper-nozzle valves, thus providing a
measure of reliability for a particular failure mode.

113 /
GE /
Abex Servo-Valve (Jet Pipe Type)

114 /
GE /
Servo-Valve: Ports Position

115 /
GE /
Speed Sensors

116 /
GE /
Speed sensors

•Normally 6 sensors (3 for protection


and 3 for control)
117 /
GE /
Speed sensors and toothed wheel

118 /
GE /

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