The Other Side

A HANDBOOK FOR MONITOR ENGINEERS
Cover picture:  Soundcraft
Pictures and diagrams: Guido Tattoni, except where indicated.
 Guido Tattoni, 2003.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information
storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the
copyright owner.
For enquiries and comments, please write to:
Guido Tattoni
Corso di Porta Vigentina, 21
20122 Milan
Italy
Or email: gtatton@hotmail.com
A HANDBOOK FOR MONITOR ENGINEERS
guido tattoni
NOTE:
For the purpose of this guide, the monitor engineer is often called
stage engineer, and also words like monitor mixing, monitor engineering
have sometimes been changed to stage mixing or stage engineering,
without any difference in meaning. Similarly, the term Front of House
referred to words like console, engineer, mix, etc. will be often
abbreviated in FOH, house, or main.
There are other words in the guide that mean the same thing: the
following is a complete list of these.
Desk, board, console, and mixer: they all mean what is commonly
called mixer:
Speakers and wedges: they both have been used to indicate the
kind of loudspeakers placed on the floor used for monitoring purposes.
Band and artists: these terms indicate the person(s) who performs
on stage, who is the final user of the monitor. I used the plural most of
the times, but of course what is said is valid also for solo artists.
I also used some abbreviations to the most used terms, for example:
IEMs: for In Ear Monitors

PA: for Public Address
EQ: for Equaliser
LPF: for Low Pass Filter
HPF: for High Pass Filter
Finally, you will notice that I always refer to the engineer and the
artists using the masculine. I apologise to all the female readers for this
discrimination, which is exclusively due to the reading cohesion.
Preface
This guide is written for sound engineers who wish to know more
about monitor mixing. Being myself a sound engineer and being also
very interested in live music, with particular regard to the monitor part, I
found myself very often looking for information, techniques, advice and
tips that could help me improve this skill. I have read several live-sound
manuals, surfed dozens of live-related sites and looked through
countless industry oriented magazines. After extensive researches I
have found that:
(1) there is no specific literature (being it a book, a website or a

magazine) on this subject.
(2) if something is said, it is very generic and certainly not as detailed

as other subjects.
If one picks up any live-sound book, for instance, one will find that the
section dedicated to the basics of sound (waveforms and wavelength,
acoustic, etc.) is usually very detailed, and so is the explanation of how
to run a P.A., but when it comes to monitors, things are different. In
most cases monitor engineering is not mentioned at all, but sometimes
one can find a small section at the end of the book titled “monitors”, or
an article about monitor techniques in a live music magazine. Books are
usually very generic, articles, on the other hand, are usually very
specific and useful, but they appear too rarely.
This constructive criticism is not intended to be based against those

books (or articles, or websites) and their authors, whom I truly respect
(being experienced professionals and to whom I have nothing to teach),
it is rather aimed at the lack of information available on this subject. It is
this lack of information which made me decide to write something that
was dedicated to monitor engineering only.
This guide is intended to be read by a sound engineering graduate

who has a knowledge on sound basics and equipment, but no
experience in this field. By reading this book, the reader will develop a
I
better understanding of what is involved in monitor mixing. The guide
will not explain to the reader the basic principles of sound, which is
assumed that he will already be familiar with, nor will go into intense
detailed theories. Its approach is rather practical than theoretical.
I tried to support any theory that I mention with a practical example,

scheme or table. In some cases a real-life report will show the theory
put into practice by a professional engineer.
This guide is not intended to make the reader capable of engineering

a concert straight away, but rather it will help a beginner monitor
engineer develop a good understanding of the purposes and the
procedures of monitor engineering in a effective, and hopefully
enjoyable way.
Guido Tattoni, January 2003
II
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO MONITOR ENGINEERING................................ 1
The purpose of monitor engineering................................................. 2

Differences from other kinds of sound engineering .......................... 3
SIGNAL FLOWS .................................................................................. 5
Mixing monitors from the FOH .......................................................... 5

mixing monitors from the stage....................................................... 12
EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................... 15
Mixing consoles .............................................................................. 16

Inputs........................................................................................... 16
Quantity factor ......................................................................... 17
Quality factor............................................................................ 18
Preamps ............................................................................... 18
EQ section............................................................................ 19
Dynamics controls................................................................ 19
Outputs ........................................................................................ 19
Aux sends/mixes/busses ......................................................... 21
groups ...................................................................................... 21
Matrix ....................................................................................... 21
masters .................................................................................... 21
monitors ................................................................................... 22
Grouping...................................................................................... 22
III
Audio groups............................................................................22
Mute groups .............................................................................22
VCA groups..............................................................................22
Automation/recall.........................................................................23
Outboard effects..............................................................................23
Microphone preamps...................................................................23
Reverbs, delays and other special effects ..................................24
Compressors/limiters/noise gates ...............................................24
input .........................................................................................25
output .......................................................................................25
Graphic EQs ................................................................................25
loudspeakers (wedges) ...................................................................25
Placement....................................................................................26
Floor wedges ...........................................................................26
sidefills .....................................................................................27
Frequency range .........................................................................27
sub-woofers .............................................................................27
Shakers....................................................................................28
In Ear Monitors (IEMs) ....................................................................28
Sound-proof IEMs........................................................................30
Ambience IEMs ...........................................................................30
DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM ..................................................35
basic designing principles ...............................................................35

talking to the artists .........................................................................36
choosing the equipment ..................................................................37
Testing the equipment.....................................................................39
RUNNING THE SYSTEM ...................................................................41
building up the system ....................................................................41

ringing out the system .....................................................................42
IV
line- and sound-check..................................................................... 45
conclusion ....................................................................................... 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................ 49
Books .............................................................................................. 49
Magazines....................................................................................... 51
Articles ............................................................................................ 51
Web................................................................................................. 51
INDEX................................................................................................. 55
V
Chapter one
Introduction to Monitor
Engineering
The Live Concert industry has grown very quickly in the last few years:
live concerts are now big events, where the audience can experience
the latest audio and visual effects. Due to this high degree of
technology, organising a concert is much more difficult than before:
everyone involved in the event has to be very skilled and specialised in
order to guarantee the best outcome. For sound engineers, particularly,
this trend of the industry brought about the separation of two careers
that before were one the continuation of the other. Being a stage (or
monitor) engineer nowadays does not mean being an apprentice front of
house engineer. The growing number of electronic instruments and the
always higher demands of the artists, make the job of the monitor
engineer so complex and specialised, that it can be considered without
doubt a real career.
If you are reading this guide, it means that you are taking your first
steps in monitor engineering, so you are probably doing some small
jobs for local bands or maybe you are working in a company that hires
sound systems as technician. Both these cases are excellent sources of
experience, and represent the way that famous engineers began their
career.
If you are not working, I strongly advice you to start gaining

experience, even if unpaid. Do not worry if the only jobs you have been
asked to do were small ones, it does not really matter (and it is perfectly
normal). Very often from these situations that seem to be pointless, one
can learn a lot.
This guide is intended to be integrated with a certain amount of

practice, for the simple reason that some things cannot be taught in a
1
THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE
book, one has to experience them. So, if you do not know where to turn,
just ring up your a local band and offer yourself as an engineer, it is the
best way to learn.
THE PURPOSE OF MONITOR ENGINEERING

Generally speaking the purpose of monitor engineering is to allow the
artists on stage to hear themselves and their bandmates. As a result, if
they are comfortable with their monitors, they can play and sing better,
and the performance as a whole will be more enjoyable to the audience.
In other words, it could also be said that a monitor engineer is
responsible for the sound on the stage. In fact, this “being responsible”
is not as simple as it sounds, since it involves three main tasks, that
define the purpose of monitor engineering:
To provide musicians with personalised mixes that must meet their
needs.
To make sure that the stage noise does not spill into the sound
addressed to the audience, either directly or via the PA system.
To avoid the stage sounds generating feedbacks.
Besides, if one considers not only the performance of the concert, but
also its preparation, the responsibilities of a monitor engineer also
entails:
The designing of the monitor system around the artists’ needs.
Making sure that the system is effectively operating on site.

As we will see later on, these last two points are the most important
and complex parts of the job.
2
INTRODUCTION TO MONITOR ENGINEERING
DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER KINDS OF

SOUND ENGINEERING
It is well known that every branch of sound engineering has its
peculiarities that make it different from another one. Being a recording
engineer, for instance, is extremely different from being a mastering or a
FOH engineer. What distinguishes a monitor engineer from other kinds
of engineer is:
A monitor engineer has to handle several mixes at the same time: a
medium sized concert of a four-members band can require even
eight to ten different mixes.
The balance required by the artist is often unpleasant to listen to.

Depending on their position on stage, artists may hear an
instrument louder than another, and therefore they would need a
mix that sounds nice to them but completely unbalanced to whom is
not in their same position. This means that there are no references
for the engineer to judge if a mix sounds good or not, apart from
what the artist says.
Mistakes cannot be corrected: this is valid for everyone involved in a
live event. Everything is done in real-time, so if one makes a
mistake, the audience will notice it. Sometimes the pressure is really
high, and one has to think really quickly: unlike other situations,
there is no “undo” for a live engineer.
3
Chapter two
Signal flows
There are two main ways of engineering monitors: one can manage
the stage speakers from the FOH console using the FOH facilities, while
the other one implies the use of equipment completely dedicated to the
monitors -usually located at one side of the stage- and a monitor
engineer. The latter is of course more expensive, but it definitely gives
better results. Mixing for the PA at the front of house does not allow the
FOH engineer to pay enough attention to the monitor mix, and, being
the main console usually far away from the stage, it makes the
communication between artists and engineer quite problematic. More
rarely, it happens to see some hybrid situations, such as using a
separate smaller monitor console placed in the FOH position and
operated by an assistant engineer, but most of the time the methods
employed fall into these two main categories. In the next section we will
examine the pros & cons of both situations.
MIXING MONITORS FROM THE FOH

It is very common not to employ any dedicated equipment or engineer,
especially in situations where one has to keep an eye on the expenses.
It would be wrong however, to think that this solution is always worse
than the other one just because is cheaper. There are some situations
that do not require a separate monitor console, so an all-in-one desk
that handles both the monitors and the PA is the best thing to have.
Most small venues for example, do not have enough space on stage for
more than three or four monitors, even less for a whole monitor desk
with outboards. In these cases, engineering monitors from the FOH is
the only way to do it, and most of the time -if done properly- it works
really well. It would not work that well, of course, with a higher number
5
of monitors, or when the PA is more demanding (in terms of attention

that the engineer has to dedicate to it), when particular kind of
monitoring systems are required (such as IEMs or stereo monitoring), or
when the monitors are heavily processed. Fig. 1 shows a typical signal
flow in situations where monitors are engineered from the FOH.
As you can see, this is a very basic sound system, that could be
suitable for a small venue. The stage is also not very big, so only
smaller bands can perform on it. The PA consists of two speakers (or
two arrays of speakers) only, without sub-woofers or front-fills. A four-
element band is performing: a lead singer, a guitarist, a bass player, and
a drummer. In order to provide a minimal decent monitor system, each
member has to have his personal wedge, but in this case we have been
able to provide the lead singer with two (in dual mono configuration).
This system can be easily run by one person using a 24-channels/6-
aux. outputs/2 busses console, but its capabilities are very limited.
This is how the system can be configured:

The signal is routed to the desk from the three stage boxes, directly
from the microphones (or D.I.) to the mic inputs.
Four of the six aux. outputs feed the monitor wedges, whilst the
other two could feed two reverb units, which return into four
channels. These reverbs can be used both for the PA and for the
monitors.
The PA is fed from the console’s stereo bus, through a stereo

compressor and a graphic EQ.
Even if extremely basic, this kind of system can work well in certain
circumstances. It presents, however, some major limitations that make it
unsuitable for any situation that is bigger or even a bit more complicated
than this one.
Tab. 1 summarises the pros and the cons of this kind of monitoring
system.
6
SIGNAL FLOWS
drumkit
Guitarist Bass player

Lead singer
PA Left PA Right
Stereo
These are bus to PA
guidelines o
d i ti l
Graphic EQ
Ext. compressor
These are guidelines

FOH mixer only, so,
used in a particular way, it do
Signal from everyone’s creativity and practic
stage boxes to the best. Aux out to stage
main desk’s mic monitors
inputs
Stage monitor
KEY
Stage box
Amplifier
Lines in
Lines out
Fig. 1: A very basic monitor system, run from the FOH.
7
PROS CONS
Very cheap Limited capabilities
Easy to operate (both monitors and It does not allow the use of sub-
PA can be operated by the same woofers or front-fills for the
engineer) audience. Also, it is not possible
to have side-fills or drum-fills on
stage.
It allows the PA engineer to have If the situation is any more
direct control on monitors. This complex than the one shown, it
gives the engineer more control on will be very difficult for a single
feedbacks engineer to handle it.
It considerably reduces the time There is very little one can do to
dedicated to the soundcheck. the monitors sound, since there
is no dedicated EQ or
compression.
It sounds good in most small It is unsuitable for larger venues
venues. or when a complex monitoring is
required.
Tab. 1: Pros and cons of running monitors from the FOH.
The situation pictured in Fig. 1, however, is very basic and shows the
signal flow in its simplest form. The capabilities of this kind of system
can be drastically improved with a little effort, i.e. using a better console,
or employing more outboard units (dynamics, EQs, and effects) that will
deliver better quality monitors. Adding a graphic EQ before each monitor
will reduce sensibly feedback-related problems, that are more likely to
happen in a small venue.
Fig. 2 shows how this system can be improved in order to make it

capable of delivering good quality sound in bigger venues. When this
set-up is employed, however, there is often someone who assists the
engineer with the monitors.
The use of such gear, of course, will ruin the most favourable point of
this system, its relative cheapness, but will equally improve all the
others, making this solution a valid one even for bigger events.
8
SIGNAL FLOWS
drumkit
Bass player
Guitarist Lead singer
Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ
Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ
Aux. 6: bass player

Aux. 4: sub-woofer
Aux. 2: guitarist
Aux. 1: sidefills
Aux. 5: drumfill
Aux. 3: singer
Fig. 2: A monitor set-up that includes sidefills, a sub-woofer, and

graphic EQs, run from the FOH.
As Fig. 2 shows, it is still possible to run a more complex monitor

system from the main console, but it is not common practice. In this
case, we have a graphic EQ on each wedge, two sidefills linked
together, and an extra sub-woofer for the drummer. That makes the
system (that requires at the very least a 24 channel-8 aux-2 busses
console) more difficult to run, making it necessary for the engineer to
have an assistant. Moreover, it will fill the FOH position with monitor-
dedicated equipment. That’s why, this solution is very rarely used.
9
REPORT
T H E C H I E F T A I N S – U.S.A . T O U R 2002
The Chieftains’ U.S.A. Tour 2002
The Chieftains, which after more than 40 years of touring are now a milestone in
Irish music, employ the monitors-from-the-FOH system, engineered since 1998 by
Mark Horton. He is assisted in mixing monitors by tour manager Cleland, who used to
be the band’s engineer before him. The band’s line-up is as follows:
- Kevin Conneff: bodhran and vocals

- Derek Bell: harp and keyboards
- Matt Molloy: flute
- Sean Keane: fiddle
- Paddy Moloney: uillean pipes and tin whistle
For the U.S.A. tour 2002, some special guests joined the band:
- Alison Moorer: guest singer
- Nathalie MacMaster: guest fiddler
- Jeff White: guest guitarist
As shown in Fig. 3, Horton runs four different monitor mixes from a Harrison SM4
console, although his favourite is the Midas Heritage 3000. Most musicians play
acoustic instruments, and stages were usually quite small, so they did not need a
different monitor mix each. Basically this is how Horton arranged their listening:
Mix 1 - Sidefills: this mix gave the musicians an overall band stereo monitor. It
was made up of an ensemble of all instruments, except for the drums which
“were loud enough on stage” he says, and it go to two outside wedges.
Mix 2 - Guest singer: a wedge was dedicated to Alison Moorer only, and it had
her voice only with “a lot of the guitar”.
Mix 3 - Guitarist: an overall mix with some drums in.
Mix 4 - Kevin Conneff: his monitor, like the mix one, had a bit of everything in,
but his voice was very loud, and drums and guitar were predominant.
This set-up worked well so far, however, Derek Bell experienced some trouble
hearing his organ, which is not in the overall mix. That is why Horton planned to add
an extra wedge for him in the future.
Source: Candace, H. (2002). ‘The Chieftains: the sound of Ireland heard round the
world’
10
SIGNAL FLOWS
Uillean pipes + whistle

Bodhran + vocals
Flute
Harp + keyb.
Fiddle
Guest vocals Guest guitar
Mix 4: Kevin Conneff
Mix 3: guitarist
Mix 2: guest singer
FOH mixer
Mix 1: sidefills
KEY
Stage monitor
Musicians
Mono signal
Stereo signal
Fig. 3: Mark Horton’s monitor setup for The Chieftains U.S.A. tour 2002.
11
MIXING MONITORS FROM THE STAGE

Instead of having four hands on the same console, the trend
nowadays when monitors need to be accurate, is to create two separate
environments: the FOH in front of the stage, and the monitor console at
one side of it. This way, the two engineers are completely independent,
and they both have more control on their mixes, without being in each
other’s way. To do this, one has to feed the two consoles independently,
so the signal from the stage boxes goes first of all into a device called
splitter (Fig. 4), which splits the signal into two equal ones.
1-8 splitter 1-16 to monitor desk

1-8
9-16 1-16 to FOH

9-16
1. mic/D.I. cables 2. multi-core cables 3. two bigger cables

go into stage boxes carry the signal into deliver the same signal
the splitter to both desks
Fig. 4: Functioning of a splitter box.
Whit his solution there are several advantages with its only weak point
of being expensive: therefore, when the budget allows, this is the most
used system. Having a dedicated console and equipment means makes
the whole monitor set-up able to be configured completely around the
artists’ needs, without the troubles of sharing the gear with the FOH.
The monitor engineer will deliver better sound, the artists will be able to
have what they want (whether they use IEMs or wedges), and feedback
problems and troubleshooting on stage will not interfere with the work of
the FOH engineer, who will be able to look after the PA properly.
Tab. 2 is a summary of pros and cons of mixing monitors from the
stage.
12
SIGNAL FLOWS
PROS CONS
It allows both the engineers to It doubles the amount of gear,
work independently. rising the costs for hiring and
transportation.
As the equipment is of exclusive It requires a skilled monitor
use of the monitor engineer, it will engineer to operate it.
be easier for him to deliver better
quality sounds and service.
Being closer to the stage improves It requires a specifically
communication between the dedicated area that is often not
engineer end the musicians. available on smaller stages
It makes the designing the system
more accurate.
Tab. 2: Pros and cons of running monitors from the stage.
As Tab. 2 shows, the advantages compensate largely the few weak

points of this solutions: in a big production, one will definitely go for this
system, being usually enough funds to hire both the engineer and the
equipment, provided that the venue can host the gear on stage (almost
all the “big ones” do).
If the concert is supposed to be quite loud, the monitor system (if it
employs wedges) could be as powerful and as complex as the P.A. of a
small/medium gig. The use of IEMs simplifies the system in some ways,
but requires more attention in some others (see IEMs section later on).
Fig. 5 shows a medium sized monitor system, where each member of

the band has his own wedge (plus: the singer has a stereo pair and the
drummer has an extra sub-woofer), and two arrays of sidefills improve
the overall listening. If the arrays are fed with different signals, it is not to
make a stereo mix between the two (it would not make sense, since it
would be difficult for someone to hear the one at the opposite side): they
are fed independently because musicians performing on different sides
are likely to need different mixes. Considering the two arrays of sidefills
as a stereo pair is one of the most common mistakes, and in fact, their
proper name (which better describes their function) is Cross Stage
Monitors.
13
Stage console
In a separate-console
situation, Lines-in go
through multi-core cables
from stage boxes into the
splitter, and then into the
consoles. Monitors are
usually fed by aux. outs or
matrix outs when available,
because they offer the best
mixing facilities.
splitter
FOH
Stage monitor
KEY
Fig. 5: A monitoring system run from Stage box

the stage.
Amplifier
Lines in
Lines out
14
Chapter three
Equipment
The equipment of a monitor engineer, with only a few exceptions, can

be easily split into two main categories, that will make it easier to
understand its use:
Equipment especially designed for monitor mixing purposes, that
features characteristics and functions specifically thought for an “on
stage” use only, and therefore it is very hard to find in other
situations.
Equipment that is employed in other kinds of sound engineering, but

that is used in a particular way for stage mixing purposes.
The way a particular piece of equipment is employed, of course,

varies in different situations, but there are some general rules that are
followed in designing or using equipment for monitor engineering. In the
next section we will examine thoroughly a stage engineer’s toolbox, in
order to show the peculiarities of each piece of equipment.
These are guidelines only, so, if a particular machine is said that it can be
used in a particular way, it does not mean that it has to be. It is up to
everyone’s creativity and practicality to use any device the way that he finds
the best.
What follows is a comprehensive list of the equipment used by monitor

engineers.
15
MIXING CONSOLES
Mixing consoles, also called desks, boards or mixers, are the heart of
the monitor system. Many major brands developed consoles that make
a monitor engineer have more control on his mixes more easily. Very
often these mixers are exploited as the monitor version of an already
existing FOH console. Yamaha and Soundcraft, are among the brands
that developed a monitor adaptation of their best console or series of
consoles: Yamaha’s most popular is its PM4000 for the FOH and the
PM4000M for the monitors, while Soundcraft’s latest set of consoles is
the Series Five for the house and Series Five Monitor for the stage.
Midas is also very well known for its extremely high quality (and
expensive) desks. After establishing a standard with its XL250 and later
on with its XL4 (also used for FOH), it launched its new Heritage series:
three powerful consoles (H1000, H2000 and H3000) that embody
enough features and capabilities for the most demanding engineers.
Consoles specifically designed for monitors are intended to be used in
situations where the monitoring system is completely separated from the
PA system. Other brands, or less expensive products of the above
brands, developed some hybrid consoles that can be used both for the
FOH and for the monitors, or in case the monitors are engineered from
the main mixer. The features that we are going to examine refer mostly
to stage-dedicated mixers.
So, what distinguishes a monitor console from a normal desk? What
are the features that a monitor engineer requires most? And least? In
order to make it easier to understand, those features can be divided into
four categories: inputs, outputs, grouping and automation/recalling.
Inputs
The input section is very important in a monitor desk: in order to
understand its importance, two factors have to be considered:
The more inputs the console has, the more instruments can be
independently monitored (quantity factor).
High-quality components of each input module allow the engineer to

achieve better sounds easier (quality factor).
16
EQUIPMENT
Mostly due to budget problems, it is not always possible to have as

many inputs or the very best components available as one would like,
so very often one has to try to get the best out of equipment that is not
state-of-the-art. It is important to know how these factors can affect the
quality of your monitor mix.
QUANTITY FACTOR
The first thing that one’s eye falls on while looking at monitor console
is the incredible number of input channels that it features. In fact, it is
very rare to find a monitor mixing desk with less than 24 channels, and
more often they have 36, 48, or 60, and have the possibility of being
linked to another console, in order to extend the number of channels
available.
If you are wondering why should one need so many inputs, simply
think about how many channels you would need to engineer monitors
for a standard four-member rock band (a lead singer, guitarist, bass
player, and drummer). At the very least, this is the amount of channels
that you need to dedicate to each instrument:
- Singer: 1 channel
- Guitar: 1 channel
- Bass: 1 channel
- Drumkit: 8 channels (miking kick, snare, hi-hat, 2 toms, 1 floor tom
and overheads)
- 1 Effect return: 2 channels
that makes a total of 13 channels. But sometimes, you may wish to

mike the guitar twice, or to have the bass signal both miked and from a
D.I. box, or put two mikes on the snare, or add an extra effect;
sometimes you may need to mike backing vocalists, or an extended
drumkit. And what if the bands are more than one? what if they use
sequencers? As you can see the amount of inputs that one requires can
rise very easily: very often more than 24 input channels are used.
Besides it is important that every instrument is discretely monitored

(which means that one cannot sub-group them to reduce the number of
17
inputs), since the mixes addressed to the artists can be extremely

different, so that what one wants loud, the other might not want it at all.
So, this is why monitor consoles have so many channels, but most of
them offer even more possibilities. Some desks (like Soundcraft’s series
Five Monitor) now feature two different XLR mic inputs per channel,
other than the line-in. This is particularly useful if one has to engineer
two bands: just by pressing a button one can switch from input A to
input B, and have the desk ready for the second band very quickly. The
need of a line-in on every channel came with the use of more
sequencers, keyboards and sound generators.
However, as previously mentioned, all of this equipment is not always
available due to its cost, leaving the engineer with a console smaller
than is required. If you run out of channels you have to decide what to
leave out, which is always a difficult choice. Generally speaking, things
should be fine even if you reduce your inputs to the above “essential”
list: the artists may complain (they always do anyway…) but at least
your mixes will be intelligible.
If you are already using the “essential” list and need to further reduce the
number of channels (yes, sometimes it happens), you could possibly leave out
the overheads, which are generally loud enough on a medium-sized stage.
QUALITY FACTOR
It is hard to provide good mixes starting from bad sounds, and this is
why it is important to have good inputs (in terms of level and sound
quality). Generally speaking, the quality of a mix depends very much on
the quality of one’s equipment; this is true for a monitor mix as well. In
other words, with particular regard to the preamps section, the role
played by the input channel is extremely important. Quite often the
overall quality of a console is judged by its preamps and its EQ section.
Preamps
The purpose of the pre-amplifier (preamp), is to amplify the
microphone level. The ideal preamp, amplifies the signal without
interfering with the frequency spectrum of the sound, and it is noiseless.
In fact, due to physical limitation a completely flat and noiseless
18
EQUIPMENT
amplifier does not exist, however, good quality ones get very close to
this. On the other hand, poor quality preamps add unwanted
frequencies to the sound and have a loud background noise. Even
though someone likes the preamp to “colour” the sound in a particular
way, it is important to have control on how the sound changes and to
keep the background noise down.
EQ section
The EQ section is what allows the engineer to achieve the sound he
wants for his mixes. The electronic components of an EQ are quite
expensive, so a good EQ section makes the price rise, but it is worth it.
A very good console usually features a four-bands parametric EQ plus
an independent adjustable HPF, while cheaper ones may not have the
extra HPF and sometimes not even a fully parametric EQ, featuring a
shelving for treble and bass frequencies.
Dynamics controls
Unlike almost every high quality recording console, even the most
expensive monitor mixers do not usually feature any on-board dynamics
control, partly to leave more room on the module for the auxiliary
outputs. Compressors and gates are more often external units, fed
through the insert points.
Outputs
Without any doubt, the most distinctive feature of a monitor desk is the
incredibly huge amount of outputs. Again, a real-life example will help to
see that output channels are never enough. If the example given for the
inputs was an extremely simple situation, for the outputs, on the other
hand, we’ll see what happens with a pretty tough line-up.
Björk’s gig at Royal Opera House in 2001 was a really complicated

situation: she was touring with a 56-piece orchestra and a 16-voice
choir. Her monitor engineer Bob Lopez, behind a Midas Heritage 3000,
created 16 different stereo mixes plus a 4-channels sidefill to imitate the
19
surround system used for the PA. None of the musicians used any In
Ear Monitor system, so he could keep the number of outputs used to 36
(Source: Mann, M. (2002). ‘Björk - The Vespertine Goddess Makes Her
Debut at Covent Garden’).
Monitor consoles are designed to give the highest flexibility as far as

outputs are concerned, featuring many auxiliary outputs, busses, and
other facilities that can only be found in this kind of desks. Unfortunately
the way that output channels are named, often generates a bit of
confusion, since it is different from consoles designed for other
purposes, so, same features may have different names. Generally this
is how names change from a recording console to a monitor one:
Feature Recording console Monitor console

Output send with level - aux
(Depending
control both on each - mix
Auxiliary send on the
channel and in a master - send brand)
section - bus
- group (with master
Output send with no level
Bus level control in larger
control on each channel
consoles)
Additional output send
with multiple input routing
possibility, with level Usually not present -matrix
control in the master
section
Monitors (sometimes
Monitors (usually control also Communication
Output send section used
room’s nearfield and Module), but the
for the engineer’s
farfield monitors, and outputs are usually
listening
headphones) called A, B, (or 1 and
2) and headphones.
In both kinds it could be called L-R or Master
Master outputs/section
output
Tab. 3: A comparison between outputs features of a recording desk and a monitor
console.
From now on, the names used to indicate a particular feature, will be
the ones listed in the monitor console column.
20
EQUIPMENT
AUX SENDS/MIXES/BUSSES
It is now a standard to have 16 busses in a monitor desk, but some
consoles features up to 32 aux sends. Whether they work as mono or
as stereo sends, it is usually possible to switch each of them pre or post
fader. An optional additional EQ section is sometimes available in the
aux master section, but more often additional EQing is made by external
modules. Aux masters should feature muting and soloing possibilities.
GROUPS
Larger consoles also feature grouping possibilities (see next section
for more details) that give even more output channels. One of the best
group section is probably in Midas’ XL4 console, which allows the
creation of 16 independent audio groups. However, independent signal
processing on groups is very limited in any console, being usually
nothing more than a bass/treble EQ.
MATRIX
This facility is usually available on larger monitor desks only, and is
almost never featured by other kind of desks. Its purpose is to provide
the engineer with additional output channels. The capabilities of a matrix
section are indicated by two numbers, i.e. 23x12: in this case it means
that each matrix module can be fed from 23 different sources
simultaneously, and that the desk features 12 different matrix outputs.
Signal sources are usually some of the group masters, plus L-R master,
plus (sometimes) an external input. Some brands feature matrix
modules specifically designed for In Ear Monitors The matrix module
varies very much in different brands, so for more detailed information
you have to refer to a specific desk’s user’s manual.
MASTERS
This section is usually very similar to the one featured by other kinds
of consoles. Depending on the console’s size, one can find, other than
the main L-R out, one or two additional stereo outputs as well as a
mono out.
21
MONITORS
Again there are no major differences in this section. In this part of the
desk oscillators, noise generators and talkback facilities are also fitted.
Grouping
Groups are widely used when it comes to engineer gigs with a large
number of instruments, since it allows one to control more signals via a
single fader or section. There are different kinds of grouping possibilities
in a monitor console: depending on the model, one can find audio
groups, mute groups, and VCA groups.
AUDIO GROUPS
As we have seen in the previous section, these groups do what
busses do in a recording console. Any input channel can be assigned to
one or more of these groups, and then controlled by the group master
fader. They usually come in pairs, to allow an easier stereo grouping.
This facility is generally used to sub-group instruments that use more
than one input channel (such as drumkits), or instruments ensembles
such a horns or strings section or backing vocals.
Changes made to the group master will not affect single channels.
MUTE GROUPS
Group muting is particularly useful when a given instruments section is
not used for a while, since it allows the engineer to close a group of
microphones on stage by simply pressing a button. It is important to
reduce the number of open microphones to the minimum at all times,
because it is the most effective way to reduce the risk of feedbacks.
There can be several mute groups, but the average for big consoles is
usually 8.
VCA GROUPS
This feature is extremely powerful and must be used carefully.
Basically one can group his input channel’s faders into up to 8 VCA
groups (some consoles feature more), controlled by the same number of
master VCA faders. Moving a master VCA fader therefore, will be like
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EQUIPMENT
moving the same way all the faders assigned to that group, which will
affect any post-fader derivation of those signals. Each fader can be
assigned to more than a group, and sometimes it is easier to get lost in
your own routing, ending up not knowing what effect moving a certain
master VCA fader will have. To make things easier, some desks feature
motorised faders that allow the engineer to actually see what happens.
Automation/recall
Only the biggest and most expensive desks have on board
automation and recall facilities. However, not every feature of the
console can be always automated: while digital consoles offer almost
always complete automation and recall of any function of the desk, on
analogue ones (which are still the most used) it is more difficult to find
really complete automation. Depending on the model, the possibilities
offered can vary a lot, but at least faders, mutes and routing automation
is always available. When the desk can be fully automated many
engineers set up a scene (or snapshot, or act) for each song of the
show during rehearsals: this allows them to develop very sophisticated
mixes that can be recalled quickly during the gig. Most desks can be
controlled via MIDI, giving even more possibility of synchronisation.
OUTBOARD EFFECTS
This category includes any signal processing device that is not built-in
on the console. The most commonly used are microphone preamplifiers,
reverb/delay units, compressor/gate modules, EQs and, more recently,
digital sound processors (such as the BSS Soundweb) which feature all
the previous devices in one single unit.
Microphone preamps
A microphone preamplifier is a very expensive device, that sensibly
affect the quality of the sound. However, even though it would be great
to have a state-of-the-art preamplifier also on that floor-tom that the
drummer hits only once in a gig, sometimes one has to face budget
23
problems, and realise that it is not always possible to have 48 or more

very good preamps. So, instead of hiring an expensive console that
features high-quality preamps on every channel, it is a common practice
to go for a cheaper desk, and have a few good preamps as external
units. Sometimes however, when the budget is not a problem, some
engineers use a particular external preamp even if they have an
expensive console, simply because they like its sound.
Reverbs, delays and other special effects

The use of effect units is very limited for the purpose of monitor
engineering: if it is not required for artistic reasons (when the artist
needs to listen to a particular effect to achieve a certain sound) it is very
hard to find more than a couple of reverbs in the stage engineer’s rack.
Besides, when the artists need to hear specific effects, they usually
have their own rack (especially guitarists), and they change their sounds
themselves. A bit of reverb is used to make the mixes more realistic,
and, especially with IEMs, to add ambience to the sound. This very
limited use of effects is mostly due to the higher risk of feedbacks that
they may generate.
One of the first rules in monitor engineering is to keep the sound on stage as
simple as possible: try not to add any extra sound unless it is really
indispensable. Reverbs especially reduce the available gain-before-feedback,
so, if you think your headroom is too small, try to make your mixes a bit more
dry by turning down your reverbs before changing anything else.
These effects are usually the same employed in other situations, such
in studio or for the FOH, they are not specifically designed for monitor
applications.
Compressors/limiters/noise gates
Unlike other outboards effects, dynamic controllers are a must for the
monitor engineer. They can be used either in the input or in the output
path, both for artistic reasons and to reduce feedbacks.
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EQUIPMENT
INPUT
Compressors are employed in the input path to reduce the dynamic of
a signal, so that more gain can be achieved before clipping. Usually
patched in the insert connection, they make the sound easier to handle.
While compressors are widely used on almost every instrument, gates
are used more carefully: it is too risky to rely on a given threshold in a
noisy environment like a live show, so engineers are usually not very
keen on using gates, and if they do they keep the ratio pretty low
compared to their studio colleagues: setting the threshold too tight and
the ratio too high may easily result in loss of signal.
OUTPUT
It is very common to use compression on the outputs. Combined with
a graphic EQ, a good compressor is one of the outboards used more
often in monitor engineering. When possible, one should try and have
compression on every channel that feeds a wedge, and always, with no
exception, on an output routed to an IEMs (see IEMs section).
Use of compressors/limiters is not very different from the way they are
used in the studio, being their main purpose to control dynamics and
peaks.
Graphic EQs
A graphic EQ is the most powerful tool that a monitor engineer can
use to fight feedbacks. The more accurate it is, the more effective: the
best kind is a 31 bands (or 1/3 octave) EQ. It means that one can
control 31 different frequencies, or, in other words, three frequencies in
each octave. A graphic EQ should be patched into any output channel
routed to a loudspeaker, in order to maximise your gain before
feedback. Graphic EQ, therefore, are not intended in first place for an
artistic/creative equalisation: their main function is strictly technical.
LOUDSPEAKERS (WEDGES)
Loudspeakers used for monitoring purposes, usually called wedges,
are normal loudspeakers as far as components are concerned, but they
25
are a bit different in the shape, since they are conceived to lie on the
stage floor and direct the sound towards the artists’ head. This is the
most common shape for floor wedges:
Fig. 6: A floor wedge (Crestaudio - LH Series - LH6M). Picture ©2002 Crest Audio, Inc.
There are different kinds of speakers however, and they all have
different functions. Their purpose depends on two factors: firstly one can
distinguish different wedges by their physical placement on stage, and
secondly by the frequency range that they are able to deliver.
Placement
There are basically two main uses of wedges, that have different
position on stage:
FLOOR WEDGES
This is the type above pictured. Its function is to direct the sound
towards the artists’ head. They are placed on the stage floor, next to the
area where the artist is performing. They can be used in mono, or as a
stereo pair for better quality. They usually have a narrow diffusion angle,
or a high directivity, to make sure that the sound remains in the vicinity
of the designated area, and does not bleed into others. The wider the
diffusion angle, the more likely are feedbacks.
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EQUIPMENT
SIDEFILLS
Loudspeakers placed at one or both sides of the stage are commonly
called sidefills, even though their proper name is Cross Stage Monitors
(to differentiate them from the P.A. sidefills).These are basically P.A.
speakers used in a monitor environment. Their function may seem
superfluous, since every artist has his personal floor wedge, but it is not
so. One has to take into account that performing musicians very rarely
stand in the same position at all times: they walk, run, jump, dance and
generally they move around the stage for artistic reasons. Having their
monitors, as before said, high directivity, a few steps to one side is
enough to lose the listening. So the engineer usually places some
sidefills at both sides of the stage that are less directive, and allows the
artists to listen themselves at all times. Most of the times the sidefills mix
is an overall mix with no or little drums, but of course it can be different.
Sidefills are usually placed on stands at head level.
Fig. 7: A typical sidefill speaker (Peavey TLS™ 2). Picture ©2002 Peavey Electronics
Frequency range
SUB-WOOFERS
Normal floor wedges and sidefills have an average frequency range
between 60Hz and 20kHz. However, sub-woofers, which can deliver
27
usually between 35Hz and 300Hz, are widely used as drumfills. Most
drummers like to hear their kick and the bass line above all, which are
low frequency sounds. So it is common to provide drummers and
percussionists with an extra sub-woofer that will give to these sounds
enough power to satisfy those artists.
SHAKERS
Also called “butt-woofers” they are actually not proper loudspeakers,
since they deliver no sound at all. Basically they are just drivers
mounted on the bottom of a drum stool. Feeding them through a LPF,
makes them vibrate to low frequency signals, giving the drummer a vibe
through the spine equal to the one experienced with a loud sub-woofer
pointed at him.
Shakers are not really a common solution, but they are sometimes employed.
Rod Stewart’s drummer Dave Palmer used two in the last tour. It won’t
happen very often to use them, but you may find them useful in case you are
monitoring with IEMs only, or if you don’t want an extra speaker on stage. Not
every drummer likes it though, so check with him before shaking his butt!
IN EAR MONITORS (IEMs)

Widely used across the nineties, even if first prototypes were invented
in the early eighties, In Ear Monitors (or IEMs) represent the latest
innovation in monitor engineering. The basic principle of IEMs is to
deliver a stereo mix through two micro-speakers, which is only a few
millimetres far from the eardrums. The speakers are mounted in a
silicon-based support that fits perfectly the artist’s ear channel, being the
ear piece a mould of the channel itself.
Their main advantage is that using them, an artist can have a high
quality monitor stereo mix at all times, without worrying about losing his
mix if he moves around the stage. IEMs mixes are usually better in
brightness, but they often lack low frequencies.
IEMs can be either hard-wired or wireless, but the latter is definitely
more common. In order for the sound to be delivered to a radio IEM, the
28
EQUIPMENT
artist needs to wear a body-pack, which is a radio receiver, that picks up

the signal sent by the transmitter, usually placed at the monitor
engineer’s position.
The first researches started in the late seventies, and the first models
were available on the market in the early eighties (Stevie Wonder was
one of the first artists that used IEMs). They did not have a wide
exploitation until the nineties, when many brands started producing
them commercially at more reasonable prices. IEMs are nowadays very
common, and some people are wondering if they will completely replace
wedges. We won’t get into this debate (it would take way more than this
tiny guide), we will just examine how do they work both alone and in
combination with traditional speakers.
Fig. 8: Two earmolds. Picture © 2000 Audible Difference.
First of all, without distinguishing between hard-wired and wireless

models (the kind of transmission does not affect the audio quality), we
can divide IEMs into two main categories: sound-proof and ambience.
IEMs are designed to be very close to one’s eardrums! Carelessness in using
IEMs may result in serious hearing damages. To prevent loud signals, a limiter
MUST be patched in the output path. Some manufacturers now provide built-
in limiters, always refer to the product’s specifications provided. The monitor
engineer is liable for any damage he may cause!
29
Sound-proof IEMs
This kind of IEMs is designed to completely isolate the person who
wears them from external noises. In other words, an artist who uses
sound-proof IEM, will only hear what is in his mix, and very little of the
rest. In a way this is very good because it will keep the artist free from
extraneous noises, allowing him to concentrate on his mix. Sometimes,
on the other hand, this isolation prevents the artists from “feeling the
vibe” both of his bandmates and of the audience, with the result that he
feels separated from what surrounds him.
Sound-proof IEMs are not completely sound-proof of course: they
allow a little of the external sound to bleed in, even if extremely
attenuated. These characteristics make them the best choice for artists
performing on very loud stages, or for the ones who do not mind that
feeling of isolation that they may give.
Ambience IEMs
This other type of earpieces on the contrary, allows the wearer to hear
external sounds. As it is easy to imagine, their characteristics are the
opposite of the previous kind: the artist who chooses ambience IEMs,
will hear a combination of monitors and external noises. These
earpieces are recommended in situations that require an ensemble
sound, or when the artist likes to hear the sound of the public.
It is important to point put that there is not a better kind, they are
simply two different products that offer different performances.
The feeling of wearing earmolds at all times is very particular: some
artists are not keen on using IEMs and still prefer to continue using
traditional wedges. Many musicians, on the other hand are real
enthusiasts of In Ear Monitors and perform with no wedges at all (see
Brooks & Dunn report).
Tab. 4 summarises pros and cons of IEMs, and it is valid whether the
artists chooses one kind or the other.
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EQUIPMENT
PROS CONS
The mix is usually better in There is very often a lack of low
brightness and dynamics. frequencies.
The artist can move freely, without Some people do not tolerate
worrying about losing his monitor. earmolds.
The artist has a handy volume- They require a limiter patched in
control on the body-pack. for safety reasons.
Wireless systems avoid the use of Sometimes the receiver picks up
a considerable number of cables. external radio signals.
Tab. 4: Pros and cons of using IEMs.
REPORT
BROOKS & DUNN – NEON CIRCUS AND WILD WEST SHOW
Featuring hi-tech lightning and state-of-the-art sound equipment,

Brooks & Dunn toured across the U.S.A. with an IEMs only monitor
set-up. Monitor engineer Dave “Hud” Haney mixes from a Ramsa
SX-1A console: he handles ten separate in-ear mixes for ten
musicians that are all fitted with the latest Future Sonic’s single
driver IEMs.
He uses dbx Quantum 4-band compressors to compensate the

lack of low frequencies:
“I squeeze the lows and also the high-mid band” he says “narrowly
around 100Hz and 2.5kHz, then, depending on the instrument in
each mix, I use the other two bands to compress the hottest
frequencies”
31
As for the effects, he uses four Lexicon PCM 80s and a PCM 70:
while using IEMs he has to add more effects compared to wedges,
since the In Ear Monitors always lack ambience.
Having run out of auxiliaries outputs to feed the reverbs, he uses

the channels direct outs. He also added external Drawmer 1960
compressors on the vocal, kick and snare inputs.
The drummer, who uses hard-wired IEMs, also uses a pair of

throne-mounted Aura shakers and a sub-woofer. As a precaution, in
case one of the artists pops an ear piece out, he also installed a
series of sidefills enclosures, that is fed with the stereo FOH mix, so
that the sidefills leakage does not upset the FOH mix, being
essentially the same.
Source: Frink, M. (2001). ‘Brooks & Dunn tour profile: Neon Circus and Wild West
Show’
Fig. 9 shows the signal flow of a mic line in a dedicated-console

monitor system. Optional or essential components are distinguished
assuming that the sound has to be of a medium-high quality. Therefore,
just after the mic, a compression module is strongly advisable, while an
external preamp and EQ would be great but not essential. Outboards
can be patched through the desk in countless different ways; the
example shown is one of the most common ones: an optional
compression in insert and reverbs/effects via aux. outs. A mix of dry and
processed signal is sent out to the monitors via an aux. master, through
a graphic EQ. X-over and power amps are required only if the monitors
are passive, while the limiter becomes a must if using IEMs.
KEY
Optional component
Essential component
Stereo signal
Mono signal Output path
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EQUIPMENT
Input path Output path
to artist’s
IEMs
OR
to stereo
stage wedges
before the console after the console

Power amplifier
Ext. preamp
Ext. crossover
Ext. EQ
Ext. compr./limiter
Ext. compr./gate Graphic EQ
console to aux/group
preamp masters
insert point
built-in EQ
aux.
outputs/
groups outboards dry signal
to stereo aux
returns
Ext. compr./gate Ext. processing
Ext. processing
Fig. 9: Signal flow of a medium sized monitor system with dedicated

console and outboards
33
Chapter four
Designing a monitor system
As previously mentioned, designing the system is a key stage in

monitor engineering, if not the most important. Before talking about the
designing process, however, it is important to say that, as a beginner,
the reader is not likely to find himself in a situation of designing a whole
monitor system. Most of the time, especially in smaller productions, one
has to work with what he finds on site, having a very little (if any at all)
decision power. Nonetheless, understanding the designing process, is
important for a beginner too, so that when it comes to making a
decision, he will not be unprepared, and he will act with reason.
If you are going to engineer a gig in a venue that owns its sound
systems, for example, there will be no designing at all, but if one knows
the principle of designing, he will be able to configure an existing system
to his needs without problems. This is the most common situation for
beginners.
A complete designing process happens in big tours only, where the
production is wealthy enough to afford to hire whatever the artists need,
and even in that case is not the monitor engineer only who decides what
to hire: usually there is a consultation between him and the hiring
company’s engineers that leads to the final decision.
So, even if it does rarely happen for a monitor engineer to design a
whole system alone, it is important to know what criteria are to be
employed in the process.
BASIC DESIGNING PRINCIPLES

Like P.A. systems, every big monitor set-up is the result of several
hours spent by the engineering team choosing and testing the right
machines, techniques and methods, in order to provide the artists with
35
exactly what they want. Not everything depends on the monitor

engineer, however: there are many factors that limit the engineer’s
freedom, that have to be taken into account. Sometimes the tour
production imposes a limit to the expenses, or it asks for a particular
brand of products which it has a sponsorship agreement with, or
countless other requests. The artists themselves sometimes prefer a
specific product or piece of equipment, or they may particularly dislike
some others.
In order to realise an effective monitor system that satisfies the artists,
three are the steps that one should take: talking to the band, choosing
the equipment, and testing the system.
TALKING TO THE ARTISTS

As it is the most important part of the most important process, this is
absolutely a major issue of monitor engineering. The artists’ satisfaction
is actually the whole point of the job. In other words, the more one
knows about the people he will work for, the better he will do the job. As
we will see in the next chapter, getting to know the artists is the only
way to understand their needs. Whether you are working for the local
band or for a superstar, you should always go and talk to them before
doing anything else. Even if there is no designing involved at all (if you
are going to work in a small venue, for instance), at least there will be a
planning. The engineer must know in advance what each member of the
band likes to hear in his monitor and how (more about this will be said in
the next chapter).
So, assuming that he is working in a concert (or a tour) of a band he
does not know at all, after the first meeting the monitor engineer should
know:
The band line-up for that concert/tour. This includes the following
questions: How many members are there in the band? What does
each one play? How many of them sing? What kind of music do
they play? And in what kind of venue(s)? Are there any guest
musicians?
36
DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM
The way they like to be arranged on stage, if there is any. Some

artists are very concerned about that, some others do not mind at
all, so it is better to find it out.
The kind of monitors they prefer. Wedges, IEMs, or both? If

wedges, do they have to be a stereo pair or will one do?
What they like to hear in their mixes. This will help in the choice of
sub-woofers and other special needs.
Note that the answers to these questions may vary widely depending
on the band’s experience. Generally speaking, more experienced bands
have precise ideas of what they want, which makes the engineer’s job a
lot easier. New bands on the other hand, may have no clue of what is
better for them, so they will rely on the engineer’s advice.
Of course this is not all you need, you will learn more about the band
in the future, but this is enough to start thinking about the monitor
system that would suit them best.
CHOOSING THE EQUIPMENT

Once you know the kind of artists you are working with and what they
want, you have to start thinking how to provide them with it. There is no
rule at this stage, since the same results can be achieved in many
different ways, but there are some general procedures that are usually
valid in choosing the equipment. The choice, in fact, is not completely in
the engineer’s hand: when you think about something, you should
always discuss it with the artists or the production (depending on the
size of the event you are engineering). This may disappoint you at first,
but one has to keep in mind that is the people he is working for that
must be happy, not the engineer himself: you may be more comfortable
working with some machines/equipment rather than some others, but is
always the artists that has the last word. To be more precise, there are
some issues that are completely up to the engineer and some others
that always has to be discussed. The final set-up is usually a
compromise between the engineer practicality, the artists’ taste and the
production’s budget.
37
Tab. 5 shows what an engineer can usually decide to employ

independently, and what, on the other hand, is more often subject to
someone else’s approval, it being the artists, the tour production, or
someone else.
Do not stick to the letter of these lists: their purpose is to show what generally
speaking is up to engineer’s choice, and what is not. It is unlikely, for instance,
that one member of the band would interfere with your decision of which
console to employ, but you never know. Artists are unpredictable, and even
more are tour productions, so be prepared and expect anything…
Of course what the engineer is free to choose has to be chosen

reasonably. Every decision must be subordinated to the artists’
requirements
ITEM ENGINEER ARTISTS

Console It is the piece that he must be most Since it does not affect their
comfortable with. He usually perception of the sound, they do not
chooses the console independently. usually rise any objection.
Wedges/ He may suggest what he think is They are likely to prefer one of the
IEMs more suitable for the kind of gig. two solutions, so the engineer has
to attain to what they like better.
Brands and He may be free to choose IEMs’ They do not usually object to the
models and wedges’ brand according to his engineer’s choice of wedges, but
taste and experience. they may possibly have a favourite
IEMs model.
Use of When he foresees that they may be They will ask for them in case they
sidefills/ needed, he includes them in his need them.
drumfills design.
Outboards He chooses them according to the They will tell the engineer what they
(type of) artists needs. If no preference is want in their monitors and he will
indicated, he will make a decision pick the ones that satisfy them.
basing on his experience.
Outboards He is usually free to choose the In some cases they may have a
(brands and ones he likes or knows best. favourite reverb or compressor that
models) they wish to be used.
Tab. 5: Choosing the monitor’s equipment.
38
DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM
The comparison shown in Tab. 5, is between the engineer and the

artists only, since their debate is mostly technical/artistic. The
Production (or whoever pays for the equipment) usually rise financial
objections only: in some cases, it will ask to pick a cheaper piece, or to
use less wedges, etc. Sometimes the artists pay for the equipment
themselves, so they will rise the issue.
TESTING THE EQUIPMENT

The test stage is not the rehearsals (which will be described in the
next chapter), it is the moment that the engineer, alone or with his crew,
dedicates to checking if the system he designed works well. Basically it
is a little bit more than a line-check, and it is usually done while the
system is still in the hiring company’s warehouse. Its purpose is to verify
that the connection works, that all the cables are in their place, that the
desk’s layout is fine and all the outboards are patched the way the
engineer planned.
It is during this process that one may realise that he forgot to include
something, or that something else is more handy if routed in a different
way, and many other things that may help the system run smoothly. It is
a lot easier to make up for any mistake or perform any adjustments at
this stage, rather than once the gear is on the stage.
Mistakes ALWAYS happen. Even the world’s best engineers make mistakes,
that’s why they do check their systems… Do not underestimate this stage!
Remember that is much better to work things out when you have no pressures
and you are still in the warehouse, rather than on a stage. Carelessness in
testing the equipment, or not testing it at all, will easily lead to a lot of troubles
during the show.
So, the only thing to do is to build up the whole system in the warehouse
and make it work. If it does, you are more than half-way through the
success of your performance.
39
Chapter five
Running the system
For obvious reasons, it is impossible to write in a book something like

“how to run a monitor system”: that little “how” means all the knowledge,
experience and skills that an engineer has to employ to do a good job. It
is something that one learns from the practice, not from a book. If you
have seen it in a book before, either it is a lie or the author is a genius.
Since I believe I am not so, and I do not want to tell lies in this guide, I
will not try to explain how to run a monitor system, I would rather give in
this chapter a few pieces of advice that one may find useful. It is more
like a checklist of what is to be done on the show day: in some cases
there is a specific order to do things, in others one is free to do them the
way he likes best. Needless to say, these are guidelines, so, like
everything else in this field, what works well in a situation may not be
the best solution in another.
What follows is valid whether if you are engineering the monitors only
or if you also run the FOH. The only difference is that if you are doing
both you are freer to decide when to do things, while if you work in a
team you will have to compromise with other people’s needs.
BUILDING UP THE SYSTEM

You will only have to do this if the system has been hired and needs
to be built. If you work in a venue that has its own system already
assembled and ready for use, you should then check it and adjust it to
your requirements. If the gig is really big, you will probably have a crew
to help you. Whether the system is already built, or it needs to be
assembled, these are the main things of which you should be certain:
41
Location: are all the pieces located where you wanted them? If not
adjust them before you start patching. If that is not possible, you
may also place them roughly where you want them and do fine
adjustments later.
Is there everything you need? Try to work out if something is

missing as soon as you can: you will have more time to make up for
that.
Is everything patched the way you planned? Especially if you do not

do it yourself, this is the mistake that happen more often.
When everything is in place and the stage is ready, make sure that the
equipment is switched on and ready to use.
RINGING OUT THE SYSTEM

The purpose of ringing out a system is to increase the available gain
before feedback. The biggest problem of every monitor set-up is that the
speakers are all pointed towards the microphones, making the risk of
feedbacks very high. Every system is naturally more sensitive to one or
more particular frequencies that ring easier than others.
This is, for instance, the sensitivity of a given system: the area above
0 dB is where we have continuous feedback, and the horizontal broken
line is the system’s gain.
+5
Relative Level in dB
-5
-10
-15
100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k
Frequency in Hz
42
RUNNING THE SYSTEM
We are already at our maximum available gain, since at this point a

frequency at around 1kHz will start ringing. By cutting that frequency a
little bit, we can increase our gain by 2-2.5 dB.
+5
-5
-10
-15
100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k
Frequency in Hz
At this point, three more frequencies will ring: approximately around

100Hz, 500Hz and 2.5kHz. We can do the same thing and achieve two
more dB of gain.
+5
-5
-10
-15
100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k
Frequency in Hz
Now, the system’s sensitivity is roughly linear, so if we increase the

gain further, almost all the frequencies will ring at the same time: this
tells us that we achieved the maximum gain available
Putting this into practice will help to understand it better: in order to

ring out a system, you must have a graphic EQ (preferably a 1/3 of
octave one) on each wedge. Audience must not be present at this
stage.
43
1. With the system muted, point the mic that the artist will use to its
correspondent wedge.
2. Make sure the EQ is flat, then rise the system level until you hear a
frequency ringing.
3. Now, you have to identify what frequency is it on the EQ, and lower
the correspondent slide a little bit, just until the ringing stops.
4. Then, rise the volume again until more frequencies start ringing:
identify them and cut them using the EQ.
5. Keep repeating this process until the frequencies that ring

simultaneously are as many as possible.
At this point, the system response is flat, so it is very good by a

technical point of view, but it may not satisfy you as far as sound quality
is concerned, so you may need to adjust the EQ in order to achieve a
pleasant sound. By doing this, you will change the system’s response
again, so you may create a new sensitivity to certain frequencies,
causing the ringing of the system. In many cases you will have to
compromise between the sound you like, and the system’s maximum
gain before feedback.
Repeat the whole process for every wedge or group of wedges.
(Cf. Stark, H. S. 2002. Live Sound Reinforcement. pp. 110-111)
The acoustic conditions of a room are very much affected by factors like
humidity and temperature. Besides, an empty venue sounds really different
from a crowded one, so the system response will change from the one you
set-up by ringing it out, so it may be that when the band is playing you will
hear one or more early-ringing frequencies. If that happens, you will need to
identify which monitor is ringing to which frequency: it may seem really
difficult, but it is not as hard as it sounds…
44
RUNNING THE SYSTEM
LINE- AND SOUND-CHECK

The line-check is an essential thing to do, but it does not take very
long: you can do it in a few minutes while you are waiting for the artists
(you always wait for the artists…) by simply playing a CD and routing
the signal quickly through every device. The sound-check also has to be
done anyway, the only difference is that if there have been rehearsals
for the show, you should know precisely what each artist wants in his
monitors, and hopefully you have calibrated/adjusted your outboards
and console before. In this case, a simple recall (being it electronic or
just sheets of notes) would set the system ready to operate, otherwise
things are a bit more complicated.
There is never plenty of time before the show, and usually more
importance is given to the FOH soundcheck, so you are likely to find
yourself trying to mix your monitors under pressure. If you have got to
know the band properly, you should have at least a rough idea of what
kind of monitors they like, but hopefully you have learnt precisely how
they want their monitors to sound. The monitor soundcheck should be
done before the FOH's one, and the reason is very simple: they need to
listen to themselves to perform for the FOH engineer. This is a simple
way to start your soundcheck (which usually does not last more than 10-
15 minutes):
Make sure you have rung out the system properly.
Before the band arrives, mix their monitors giving to each one what
you know he likes to listen to. You do not know what the monitors
sound like at this stage, you can only guess that they are more or
less the way they want them.
When they arrive, ask them to play for a couple of minutes: during
this time you can listen to the mixes from your monitors, and adjust
them if they sound odd.
When they stop, ask them one at a time if their mixes were ok, or if
they want to change something.
45
Most of the time, artists will ask you to raise the volume of a particular
instrument in the mix. If the stage is too loud already, instead of rising that
instrument, you can turn down all the others in the mix. This usually works, but
if the artist is still not happy, you have now enough headroom to raise the
general volume a bit.
Hopefully your mixes were more or less ok, so you could quickly
adjust them to their requirements.
If there is still time, you may ask them to play another minute to
double-check their mixes.
If there is no time, do not worry; you can still refine them during the
FOH soundcheck or, at the very worst, during the show’s first song.
CONCLUSION
Ok, the show is about to start now. If the guide finishes here, there is a
good reason: no one would ever be able to tell you what to do during the
show, it is something that is beyond any planning. However, if you have
managed to get to this point, you will handle the show without any
problem. What an engineer does during the show, is mostly up to his
personality, it is not a matter of applying rules. Of course, one could say
that you have to be concentrate, and listen and watch the stage
carefully, but this is quite obvious: you are there to do your job, so you
do not need to be told that you have to do it well, you should already
know that. What I think is most important, besides of course being
professional and doing my job well, is to enjoy what I am doing, and be
happy with it; at the end of the day, this is what I like to do best.
Enjoy the concert then, and good luck!
46
Bibliography
BOOKS
A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement voll. I and II. U.S.A.: Audio

Engineering Society
A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement. Conference Proceedings.

U.S.A.: Audio Engineering Society.
Ahnert, W. Sound reinforcement engineering. Routledge. ISBN:

0419218106
Ben, D. The live sound manual: getting great sound at every gig.
Backbeat Books. ISBN: 0879306998
Capel, V. (1998) Public address systems. England: Focal Press
Carter, P. & Chiang, G. The backstage handbook: an illustrated

almanac of technical information. Broadway Press. ISBN:
0911747397
Cunningham, M. (1999). Live & Kicking: the rock concert industry

in the nineties. London: Sanctuary,. ISBN: 1-86074-217-3
Davis, G. & Jones, R. (1990) Sound reinforcement handbook.

(second edition) U.S.A.: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation.
ISBN: 0881889008
49
Eiche, J.F. (1990) Guide to Sound Systems for Worship. U.S.A.:

Hal Leonard Publishing Co.
Fry, D. (1992) Live sound mixing. Mix Bookshelf/ Mix Books.

ISBN: 9996352706
Giddings, P. Audio systems design and installation. Focal Press.

ISBN: 0240802861
Hurtington, J. Control Systems for Live Entertainment. Unknown
Moscal, T. Sound check: the basis of sound and sound systems.

U.S.A.: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN: 079353559X
Sokol, M. & Rapaport, D. & Rapaport, W. Acoustic musician's

guide to sound reinforcement and live recordings. Prentice Hall.
ISBN: 0134335090
Stark, H.S. (2002) Live sound reinforcement: a comprehensive

guide to P.A. and music reinforcement systems and technology.
Mix Bookshelf/ Mix Books. ISBN: 0918371074
Trubit, R. Live sound for musicians. Unknown. ISBN:

0793568528
Trubitt, D. Concert sound: tours, techniques & technology. (Mix

Pro Audio). Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN:
0793520738.
Vasey, J. Concert sound and lighting systems. Focal Press.

ISBN: 0240803647
50
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MAGAZINES
Mix
Sound on Sound
Audio Media
Live!
SPL
ARTICLES
Frink Mark (2001). ‘Brooks & Dunn: Neon Circus and Wild West
Show’, Mix, vol. 25 n. 7 (July 2001), pp. 180-183.
Horgan Candace (2002). ‘The Chieftains: the Sound of Ireland

Heard ‘Round the World’, Mix, vol. 26 n. 7 (June 2002), pp. 144-
149.
Mann Mike (2002). ‘Björk - The Vespertine Goddess Makes Her

Debut at Covent Garden’, Mix, vol. 26 n.1 (January 2002), pp. 80-
89.
WEB
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(17/10/02)
51

www.carleton.ca/~tpatters/teaching/climatechange/sciencemethod
.html (7/8/02)
www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa3const.htm
(7/8/02)
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(15/9/02)
www.prosoundweb.com/live/articles/davidweiss/davetobias.shtml
(12/8/2002)

www.prosoundweb.com/studyhall/psw_studyhall/stage_terms.sht
ml (17/10/02)
www.showco.com/products/SRM/ (28/82002)

www.soundcraft.com/pdf/technical%20datasheet/five_monitor_tec
h_data.pdf (29/8/2002)
www.yamaha.com/cgi-
win/webcgi.exe/Features/?gLMC00008PM4000M-44 (29/8/2002)
www.showcase-music.com
www.prosoundweb.com/live/articles/danlaveglia/xl32.shtml
(17/10/02)
www.mediaevalbaebes.com (28/6/2002)
www.prosoundweb.com/live/news_04/bkirk.shtml (12/8/2002)
www.prosoundweb.com/studyhall/lastudyhall/iem.html
(12/8/2002)
52
BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.prosoundweb.com/webexpo/namm02/senn/b_beck.shtml
(12/8/2002)
www.ultimateears.com (12/8/2002)
www.aes.org (15/8/2002)
www.mixonline.com/ar/audio_tool/index.htm (28/8/2002)
www.crestaudio.com/html/lh5m.html (29/8/2002)
www.indie-music.com/print.php?sid=1510 (29/8/2002)
www.jblpro.com/pages/mi/srx/srx_product.htm (29/8/2002)
www.midasconsoles.com/midas02/h3000_cs.html (29/8/2002)
www.soundcraft.com/products/five_monitor.html (29/8/2002)
www.eqmag.com (13/9/2002)
www.cascadesound.com/stagemon.htm (15/9/02)
www.roadieworld.com/show.php?goto=showlivetech&id=19
(15/9/02)
www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/reflecti.htm (5/11/2002)
http://euphrates.wpunj.edu/faculty/kerzner/SEA.html (15/12/2002)
www.crestaudio.com/products/lhseries/lh6m.cfm (18/12/2002)
www.peavey.com/products/proaudio/enclosures/ (18/12/2002)
www.audible-difference.com/images/sensaphonics_2x_small.jpg
(18/12/2002)
53
54
Index
A E
artists 1; 2; 3; 5; 12; 20; 26; 28; Earmolds .........................32; 33
29; 30; 31; 32; 37; 38; 39; 40; EQ section............................. 21
47 Equipment ............................. 17
Audio groups......................... 24 Choosing ........................... 37
Automation/recall .................. 25 Testing ............................... 41
Aux sends ............................. 23
F
B
Feedback……2; 8; 12; 24; 27;
Band members ........... 3; 19; 38 28;44; 46
Björk...................................... 21 Floor wedges......................... 28
BSS Soundweb..................... 25 FOH…………5; III; 5; 9; 12; 18;
Busses ...............see Aux sends 26; 43; 47; 48
C G
Channels (number of) ........... 19 Gain.....................27; 44; 45; 46
Compressor .............. 21; 26; 27 Graphic EQ ...6; 8; 9; 27; 34; 45
Compromising........... 39; 43; 46 Groups................................... 23
Cross Stage Monitors ..... 13; 29
I
D
IEMs………….6; 12; 13; 26; 27;
Delays ................................... 26 30; 31; 32; 34; 39; 40
Digital sound processors ...... 25 Ambience........................... 32
Directivity ........................ 28; 29 Sound-proof....................... 32
Drumfills.......................... 30; 40 Inputs..................................... 18
Dynamic.......................... 26; 27 Quality................................ 20
Dynamics controls ................ 21 Quantity ............................. 19
Insert .........................21; 27; 34
55
L R
Limiter ............................. 26; 27 rehearsals..................25; 41; 47
Line-check....................... 41; 47 Reverbs .................................26
Line-up ............................ 21; 38
S
Location ................................ 44
Loudspeakers ........ see wedges Shakers .................................30
LPF ................................... 5; 30 Sidefills ..................9; 13; 29; 40
Signal………….6; 8; 12; 19; 20;
M
23; 25; 27; 31; 34; 47
Masters ................................. 23 Sound quality...................20; 46
Matrix .............................. 22; 23 Soundcheck.................8; 47; 48
Matrix .................................... 23 Soundcraft .............................20
Microphone preamps ............ 25 Sub-woofers ............6; 8; 29; 39
Midas .................................... 18 Synchronisation.....................25
MIDI ...................................... 25
T
Mixes................. See Aux sends
Mixing consoles .................... 18 Talkback ................................24
monitor system Threshold (setting the) ..........27
Building up......................... 43
Designing .......................... 37 V
Ringing out ........................ 44 VCA faders ............................24
Running ............................. 43 VCA groups ..........................I24
Mute groups .......................... 24
W
N
Wedges .................................39
noise gate ............................. 26 Frequency range................29
Placement..........................28
O
Outboard effects ................... 25 X
Outputs ................................. 21 XLR .......................................20
P Y
Preamps................................ 20 Yamaha .................................18
56
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A HANDBOOK FOR MONITOR ENGINEERS

Cover picture:  Soundcraft

Pictures and diagrams: Guido Tattoni, except where indicated.

 Guido Tattoni, 2003.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

For enquiries and comments, please write to:

IEMs: for In Ear Monitors

(1) there is no specific literature (being it a book, a website or a

(2) if something is said, it is very generic and certainly not as detailed

This constructive criticism is not intended to be based against those

This guide is intended to be read by a sound engineering graduate

I tried to support any theory that I mention with a practical example,

This guide is not intended to make the reader capable of engineering

Guido Tattoni, January 2003

INTRODUCTION TO MONITOR ENGINEERING................................ 1

The purpose of monitor engineering................................................. 2

SIGNAL FLOWS .................................................................................. 5

Mixing monitors from the FOH .......................................................... 5

Mixing consoles .............................................................................. 16

DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM ..................................................35

basic designing principles ...............................................................35

RUNNING THE SYSTEM ...................................................................41

building up the system ....................................................................41

If you are not working, I strongly advice you to start gaining

This guide is intended to be integrated with a certain amount of

THE PURPOSE OF MONITOR ENGINEERING

 To avoid the stage sounds generating feedbacks.

 Making sure that the system is effectively operating on site.

DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER KINDS OF

 The balance required by the artist is often unpleasant to listen to.

MIXING MONITORS FROM THE FOH

of monitors, or when the PA is more demanding (in terms of attention

This is how the system can be configured:

 The PA is fed from the console’s stereo bus, through a stereo

Guitarist Bass player

These are guidelines

Fig. 1: A very basic monitor system, run from the FOH.

Fig. 2 shows how this system can be improved in order to make it

Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ

Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ

Aux. 6: bass player

Fig. 2: A monitor set-up that includes sidefills, a sub-woofer, and

As Fig. 2 shows, it is still possible to run a more complex monitor

- Kevin Conneff: bodhran and vocals

Uillean pipes + whistle

Guest vocals Guest guitar

Mix 4: Kevin Conneff

Mix 2: guest singer

MIXING MONITORS FROM THE STAGE

1-8 splitter 1-16 to monitor desk

9-16 1-16 to FOH

1. mic/D.I. cables 2. multi-core cables 3. two bigger cables

Fig. 4: Functioning of a splitter box.

As Tab. 2 shows, the advantages compensate largely the few weak

Fig. 5 shows a medium sized monitor system, where each member of

Fig. 5: A monitoring system run from Stage box

The equipment of a monitor engineer, with only a few exceptions, can

 Equipment that is employed in other kinds of sound engineering, but

The way a particular piece of equipment is employed, of course,

What follows is a comprehensive list of the equipment used by monitor

 High-quality components of each input module allow the engineer to

Mostly due to budget problems, it is not always possible to have as

that makes a total of 13 channels. But sometimes, you may wish to

To avoid the stage sounds generating feedbacks.

Making sure that the system is effectively operating on site.

The balance required by the artist is often unpleasant to listen to.

The PA is fed from the console’s stereo bus, through a stereo

Equipment that is employed in other kinds of sound engineering, but

High-quality components of each input module allow the engineer to

The way they like to be arranged on stage, if there is any. Some

The kind of monitors they prefer. Wedges, IEMs, or both? If

Is there everything you need? Try to work out if something is

Is everything patched the way you planned? Especially if you do not

Make sure you have rung out the system properly.

A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement voll. I and II. U.S.A.: Audio

A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement. Conference Proceedings.

Ahnert, W. Sound reinforcement engineering. Routledge. ISBN:

Capel, V. (1998) Public address systems. England: Focal Press

Carter, P. & Chiang, G. The backstage handbook: an illustrated

Cunningham, M. (1999). Live & Kicking: the rock concert industry

Davis, G. & Jones, R. (1990) Sound reinforcement handbook.

Eiche, J.F. (1990) Guide to Sound Systems for Worship. U.S.A.:

Fry, D. (1992) Live sound mixing. Mix Bookshelf/ Mix Books.

Giddings, P. Audio systems design and installation. Focal Press.

Hurtington, J. Control Systems for Live Entertainment. Unknown

Moscal, T. Sound check: the basis of sound and sound systems.

Sokol, M. & Rapaport, D. & Rapaport, W. Acoustic musician's

Stark, H.S. (2002) Live sound reinforcement: a comprehensive

Trubit, R. Live sound for musicians. Unknown. ISBN:

Trubitt, D. Concert sound: tours, techniques & technology. (Mix

Vasey, J. Concert sound and lighting systems. Focal Press.

Horgan Candace (2002). ‘The Chieftains: the Sound of Ireland

Mann Mike (2002). ‘Björk - The Vespertine Goddess Makes Her