1.

Study of Behavior and mental processes

2. The view that knowledge comes from experience and science
excels through observation and experiment
3. Old phyc that used introspection to explore the elemental
structure of the mind
4. Emphasized growth potential
5. Does genes or experience effect us more
6. The strongest survive and lead the week to die
7. Different views in phyc for analyzing
8. Combines biological, psychological, and social analyses
9. Increasing scientific knowledge base
10.Study aimed at solving specific issues
11.Helps people achieve better well being
12.Helps people with physiological disorders
13.Counseling and clinical approaches to physiological disorders
14.The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one
would have foreseen it
15.Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusion.
It examines assumptions, discerns, hidden values, evaluate
evidence, and assesses conclusion
16.An explanation using an integrated set of principles that
organizes and predicts observations
17.A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
18.A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define
research variables
19.Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different
participants in different situations, to whether the basic finding
extend to other participants and circumstances
20.An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth
in the hope of revealing universal principles
21.A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or
behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative,
random sample of them
22.The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share
out belief and behaviors
23.All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a
study
24.A sample that fairly represents a population because each
member has an equal chance of inclusion
25.Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring
situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
26.A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and
thus of how well either factor predicts the other
27.A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of
two variable
28.The perception of a relationship where none exists
29.A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or
more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on
some behavior or mental process (the dependant variable)
30.An experimental procedure in which both the research
participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about
whether the research participants have received the treatment or
a placebo
31.Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on
behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or
condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
32.The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the
treatment that is, to one version of the independent variable
33.The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the
experimental condition and serves as a comparison for
evaluation the effect of the treatment
34.Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by
chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those
assigned to the different groups
35.variable- the experimental factor that is manipulated; the
variable whose effect is studied
36.The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent variable
37.The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
38.The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the
scores then diving by the number of scores
39.The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are about it
and half are below it
40.The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a
distribution
41.A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
score
42.A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result
occurred by chance
43.The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared
by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation
to the next
44.A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology
and behaviors
45.A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
46.The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive
messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
47.The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers,
through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or
glands
48.A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many
neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural
impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
49.A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an
axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of
positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s
membrane
50.The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
51.The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the
dendrite or cell body or the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this
junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft
52.Chemical messengers that transverse the synaptic gaps between
neurons. When released by the sending neuron,
neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor
sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that
neuron will generate a neural impulse
53.A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also
triggers muscle contraction
54.“Morphine within”- natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked
to pain control and to pleasure
55.The body’s speedy , electrochemical communication network,
consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central
nervous system
56.The brain and spinal cord
57.The sensory and motor neurons that connect the (CNS) to the
rest of the body
58.Neural “cables” containing many axons. These bundled axons,
which are part of the PNS, connect the CNS with muscles, glands,
and sense organs
59.Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense
receptors to the CNS
60.Neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the
muscles and glands
61.CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between
the sensory inputs and motor outputs
62.The division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
63.The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the
glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic
division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
64.The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the
body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situation
65.The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the
body, conserving its energy
66.A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such
as the knee-jerk response
67.Interconnected neural cells
68.The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of
glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
69.Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the
endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect
another
70.A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals
secrete the hormones adrenaline, and noradrenalin, which help
to arouse the body in times of stress
71.The endocrine system’s most influential gland, under the
influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth
and controls other endocrine glands
72.Tissue destruction
73.An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that
sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by
electrodes placed on the scalp
74.A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive
form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
75.A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images that distinguish among
different types of soft issue; allows us to see structures within the
brain
76.A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity
by comparing successive MRI scans
77.The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where
the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is
responsible for automatic survival functions
78.The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
79.A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in
controlling arousal
80.The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem;
it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex
and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
81.The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; its
functions include processing sensory input and coordinating
movement output and balance
82.A doughnut-shaped system, of neural structures at the border of
the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with
emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those
for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdale, and
hypothalamus
83.Two lima beam-sized neural clusters that are components of the
limbic system and are linked to emotion
84.A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs
several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine
system via the pituitary glands, and is linked to emotion
85.The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the
cerebral hemispheres; the body’s climate control and information
processing
86.Cells in the nervous system that supports, nourish, and protect
neurons
87.The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead;
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans
and judgments
88.The porting of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head
and towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body
position
89.The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from
the opposite visual field
90.The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears;
includes the auditory area, each of which receives auditory
information primarily from the opposite ear
91.An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary
movements
92.The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and
processes body touch and movement sensations
93.Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary
motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher
mental functions such as learning, remembering thinking, and
speaking
94.Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere
damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to
Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
95.Controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually
in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements
involved in speech
96.Controls language reception- a brain are involved in language
comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
97.The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain
reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in
experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
98.The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain
hemispheres and carrying messages between them
99.A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are
isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them
100. All nongenetic influences
101. Study of the limits of genetic and environmental
influences on behavior
102. Made of DNA contain genes
103. Complex molecule that contains genetic info that makes
chromosomes
104. Make up chromosomes, capable of synthesizing proteins
105. Instructions for making a organism
106. Twins that develop from a single identical egg
107. Twins that develop from two separate egg
108. Emotional Reactivity/Intensity
109. The difference among individuals attributable to genes,
heritability varies
110. The effect of one factor depends on another
111. Subfield of biology that studies molecular
structure/function of genes
112. The Study of the evolution of behavior using principles of
natural selection
113. Only the strongest survive because they are the best
adapted
114. Random error in gene replication that causes change
115. Biologically and socially influenced characteristics that
define people as male or female
116. Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and
traditions shared by a group of people passed down
117. What is understood as proper behavior
118. Buffer zone around our bodies
119. Priority to ones own goals and defining ones self in terms
of personal attributes
120. Giving Priority to the goals of the group and defining your
self by that group
121. Behavior intended to hurt someone
122. Found in men and woman-female 2-male 1
123. Found in males and pairs with a X
124. Male sex hormone stimulates growth of male genitalia
and characteristics
125. Norms defining how one should behave
126. Expected behavior for males and females
127. Ones sense of being male or female
128. Accusation of male or female roles
129. Theory that we learn by watching others and being
rewarded or punished
130. Theory Children learn from their culture and adjust
accordingly
131. Studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout
the life span
132. Fertilized egg-2 weeks rapid cell division
133. Developing human- 2 weeks to 2 months
134. Developing human- 9 weeks to birth
135. Chemicals or viruses that can reach the fetus during
prenatal development and cause harm
136. Abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s
drinking
137. Baby’s Tendency when touched on the check to turn
towards the touch and open its mouth looking for milk
138. Biological growth that enables changes in behavior
uninfluenced by experience
139. Framework that organizes and interprets information
140. Interpreting new experience in terms of existing schemas
141. Adapting ones schemas to incorporate new information
142. Thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
143. Birth to age 2 during which infants know the world in
terms of senses and motor activities- Object
permanence/Stranger Anxiety
144. Awareness that things exist even when not perceived
145. Age 2-7 learns language but no concrete logic-Pretend
play/Egocentrism/Language Development
146. Part of concrete stage, conservation of matter
147. Childs difficulty in taking another’s point of view
148. Peoples ideas about their own thoughts, feelings and
perceptions
149. Deficient communication, social interaction, and
understanding of others states of mind
150. Age 7-11 logical thinking-Conservation/Mathematical
transformations
151. Age 12 and on, abstract concepts-Potential for mature
reasoning
152. Fear of strangers infants display starting at 8 months of
age
153. Emotional tie to another person
154. Optimal period shortly after birth when exposure to
certain stimuli produces proper development
155. Way animals form attachments during a critical period
156. Sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
157. A sense of ones identity and personal worth
158. Transition period from childhood to adulthood
159. Period of sexual maturation
160. Structures that make sexual reproduction possible
161. nonreproductive sexual characteristics
162. The first menstrual period
163. Ones sense of self
164. Ability to form close loving relationships
165. Time of natural menstrual cessation
166. Irreversible deterioration of the brain
167. Different ages compared to each other
168. Same people are studied long term
169. Ones knowledge
170. ones ability to reason quickly and abstractly
171. Cultural timeline of events such as marriage parenthood
and retirement
172. The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous
system receive and represent stimulus energies from our
environment.
173. The process of organizing and interpreting sensory
information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and
events.
174. Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works
up to the brains integration of sensory information
175. Information processing guided by higher-lever mental
processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our
experience and expectations.
176. The study of relationships between the physical
characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our
psychological experience of them.
177. The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular
stimulus 50% of the time.
178. A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence
of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there
is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly
on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of
fatigue.
179. Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
180. The activation, often unconsciously, of certain
associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or
response.
181. The minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for
detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference
threshold as a just noticeable difference.
182. The principle that, to be perceived as different, two
stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.
183. Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant
stimulation.
184. Conversion of one form of energy into another. In
sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights,
sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
185. The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to
the peak of the next.
186. The dimension of color that is determined by the
wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue,
green, and so forth
187. The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we
perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's
amplitude.
188. The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through
which light enters.
189. A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of
the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil
opening.
190. The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes
shape to help focus images on the retina.
191. The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to
focus near or far objects on the retina.
192. The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the
receptor rods and cones plus layers or neurons that begin the
processing of visual information.
193. The sharpness of vision
194. A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly
than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the
retina.
195. A condition in which far away objects are seen more
clearly than near objects is focused behind the retina.
196. Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray.
197. Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the
center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit
conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color
sensations.
198. The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the
brain.
199. The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye,
creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located
there.
200. The central focal point in the retina, around which the
eye's cones cluster.
201. The processing of several aspects of a problems
simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information
processing for many functions, including vision.
202. The theory that the retina contains three different color
receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-
which when stimulated in combination can produce the
perception of any color.
203. The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green,
yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.
204. Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color,
even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by
the object.
205. The sense or act of hearing.
206. The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in
a given time.
207. A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on
frequency
208. The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea
containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that
concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval
window.
209. A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through
which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
210. The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea,
semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
211. In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the
place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
212. In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses
traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone,
thus enabling us to sense it's pitch.
213. Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system
that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
214. Hearing loss caused by damage the cochlea's receptor
cells or to the auditory nerves
215. A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and
stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into
the cochlea.
216. The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological
"gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the
brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity in larger fibers or by
information coming from the brain.
217. The principle that one sense may influence another, as
when the smell of food influences its taste.
218. The system for sensing the position and movement of
individual body parts.
219. The sense of body movement and position, including the
sense of balance.
220. The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular
stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect.
221. Failing to see visible objects when our attention is
directed elsewhere.
222. The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.
223. An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized
our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful
wholes.
224. The organization of the visual field into objects (the
figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
225. The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent
groups.
226. The ability to see objects in three dimensions although
the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us
to judge distance.
227. A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants
and young animals.
228. Depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence,
that depend on the use of two eyes.
229. A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing
images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the
greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the
closer the object.
230. A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which
the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The greater
the inward strain, the closer the object.
231. Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective,
available to either eye alone.
232. An illusion of movement created when two or more
adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
233. Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent
lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal
images change.
234. In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or
even inverted visual field.
235. A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not
another.
236. A branch of psychology that explores how people and
machines interact and how machines and physical environments
can be made safe and easy to use.
237. The controversial claim that perception can occur apart
from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and
precognition.
238. The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and
psychokinesis.
239. Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
240. Periodic psychological fluctuations
241. The biological clock
242. A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams
commonly occur
243. The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
244. Periodic natural, reversible loss of consciousness
245. False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in
the absence of an external visual stimulus
246. The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
247. Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
248. A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep
attacks
249. A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of
breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
250. A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an
appearance of being terrified- occur in stage 4
251. According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
252. According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
253. The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM
sleep deprivation
254. A social interaction in which one person suggests to
another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors
will spontaneously occur
255. A suggestion, made during a hypnosis suggestion, to be
carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized
256. A split in consciousness. Which allows some thought and
behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
257. A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
258. The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose
of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses
before experiencing the drug’s effect
259. The discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the
use of an addictive drug
260. A psychological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant
withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
261. A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relive
negative emotions
262. Compulsive drug craving and use
263. Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
264. Drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing
anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
265. Opium and derivatives that depress neural activity,
temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
266. Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body
functions
267. Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up
body functions and associated energy and mood changes
268. A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the CNS;
reduces dopamine levels
269. A stimulant and mild hallucinogen
270. Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke
sensory images in the absence of sensory input
271. A powerful hallucinogenic drug
272. A major active drug in weed; mild hallucinations
273. An altered state of consciousness reported after a close
brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
274. The presumption that the mind and body are two distinct
entities that interact
275. The presumption that mind and body are different aspects
of the same thing
276. Each cycle last about 90 minutes Circadian Rhythm
277. Alpha waves on EEG-lasts only a few minutes-“awake” but
very relaxed; hair grows, new cells are made, chemicals in brain
are restored.
278. Alpha waves disappear; sleep spindles appear on EEG
(about 20 minutes); sleep talking here and in other later stages
279. Transitional stage; sleep walking may occur (non-REM
phase)
280. Delta waves-deep sleep—when you are really resting-(30
minutes for 3 and 4 together); bed wetting, growth hormones.
281. Body is paralyzed but brain is active; 4 or 5 dreams every
night; each one a little longer-last from 5-45 minutes; bp rises,
brain fires, eyes move. About 100 minutes a night is REM sleep.
282. Theories on why we dream
283. Sleep restores depleted levels of energy; eliminates waste
products from muscles, repairs cells, oculomotor system
maintenance=stage 4 sleep increases after excessive physical
exertion. Helps us to “solve problems” (sleep on it). Research
shows people with interpersonal problems enter REM earlier and
stay there longer
284. (Evans/Foulks)-Dreams are the brain’s attempt at
interpreting and assimilating new information. Filing “stuff”
away that senses took in during the day; weaving it together so
you can file in under “dreams.”
285. (Crick/Mitchison)-Dreams/sleep enable the brain to erase
information that is no longer needed and file it is a drawer
marked “of little use.”
286. (Snyder)-wake up briefly at the end of REM to check
environment for danger—(very evolutionary in thought)
287. Dreams are a safety valve where you can have
unacceptable urges or wishes and no one will know.
288. A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior
due to experience.
289. It is when an organism learns by linking two events that
occur close together. The animals learn to predict the immediate
function.
290. A form of learning in which we associate two stimuli and
thus to anticipate events.
291. The school of thought that stresses the need for
psychology to be an objective science. This perspective was first
suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted
psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away
from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's
primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable
and thus, are the only events that can be proven false.
292. In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally
occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus(US).
293. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US or
UCS) is any stimulus that can evoke a response without the
organism going through any previous learning; the response to
the US (the unconditioned response) occurs naturally.
294. The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response
(reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This response
is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now
the reflexive behavior occurs in response to a conditioned
stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus.
295. A formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with an
unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to produce a conditioned
response
296. Initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. In
operant conditioning, the strengthening of reinforced responses.
297. The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in
classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not
follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning
when a response is no longer reinforced.
298. The reappearance after a pause, of an extinguished
conditioned response.
299. The tendency, once a response has been conditioned for
stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar
responses.
300. In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
301. A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if
followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
302. Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some
stimulus; Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical
conditioning.
303. Behavior that operates on the environment, producing
consequences.
304. Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable
consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed
by unfavorable consequences become less likely
305. A chamber also known as a skinner boxy, containing a bar
or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water
reinforcement, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate
of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning
research.
306. An operant conditioning procedure which reinforcers
guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
307. In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows.
308. A stimulus which increases the frequency of a particular
behavior using pleasant rewards.
309. With negative reinforcement the occurrence of a behavior
is increased by removing an unpleasant stimulus.
310. Used in conditioning, and it refers to anything that
provides reinforcement without the need for learning to an
organism.
311. A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer. It is also known as
secondary reinforcement.
312. This is an operant conditioning principle in which an
organism is reinforced every single time that organism provides
the appropriate operant response.
313. Reinforcing a response only part of the time. This results
in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance
to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
314. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that
reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
315. A variable ratio schedule (VR) is a type of operant
conditioning reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is
given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are
made by the organism.
316. With this type of operant conditioning reinforcement
schedule, an organism must wait for a specific amount of time
and then make the operant response in order to receive
reinforcement.
317. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
318. An even that decreases the behavior that it follows.
319. A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout
of one's environment.
320. Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an
incentive to demonstrate it.
321. A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
322. A desire to perform threats of punishment.
323. Learning by observing others.
324. The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
325. Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s
mirroring of another’s action my enable imitation, language
learning and empathy.
326. The positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite
of antisocial behavior.
327. The persistence of learning over time through the storage
and retrieval of information
328. A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment of
event
329. The processing of information into the memory system
330. The retention of encoded information over time
331. The process of getting information out of memory storage
332. The immediate, very brief recording of sensory
information in the memory system
333. Activated memory that holds few items briefly
334. The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the
memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
335. A newer understanding of short-term memory that
involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and
visual-spatial information, and information retrieved from long-
term memory
336. Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as
space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such
as word meanings
337. Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
338. The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain
it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
339. The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield
better long-term retention than is achieved through cramming
340. Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
341. The encoding of picture images
342. The encoding of sound, especially the sound of waves
343. The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
344. Mental pictures
345. Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
346. Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often
occurs automatically
347. A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a
photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a
few tenths of a second
348. A momentary stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds
and words can still be recalled with in 3 or 4 seconds
349. An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after a brief,
rapid stipulation
350. The loss of memory
351. Retention independent of conscious recollection
(procedural memory)
352. Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously
know and “declare” (declarative memory)
353. A neural center that is located in the limbic system and
helps process explicit memories for storage
354. A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve
information learned earlier
355. A measure of memory in which the person need only
identify items previously learned
356. A memory measure that assesses the amount of time
saved when learning material for a second time
357. The activation, often unconsciously, of a particular
associating in memory
358. That eerie sense of “I’ve experienced this before”
359. The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent
with one’s current good or bad mood
360. The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new
information
361. The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old
information
362. The basic defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness, anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories
363. Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory
of an event
364. Attributing to the wrong source an event we have
experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
365. Refers to al the mental activities associated with
processing, understanding, remembering and communicating
366. Refers to the mental grouping of similar objects, events
and people.
367. The mental image or best example that incorporates all
the features we associate with a category
368. Step-by-step procedures that will guarantee a solution.
Usually long.
369. A speedier, more error prone version of algorithms. By
reducing the number of options and then applying trial and error,
the result may be found.
370. Flashes of inspiration.
371. The tendency to search for information that confirms
one’s perceptions.
372. The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, it
impedes our process to problem solve. Influenced by mental sets
and functional fixedness.
373. Predisposes how we think. It refers to our tendency to
approach a problem from a particular way that we have been
successful in the past.
374. The tendency to think of things only in terms of their
usual functions. Stereotypes also limit our thinking.
375. Demands you to use rapid judgment, while leaving out
certain relevant information. By judging the likelihood of things in
terms of how well they seem to represent, or math prototypes.
Overrides the usage of logic and statistics.
376. States that anything that increases the ease of our
retrieving information can increase its perceived availability. If it
comes more easily to our mind, we tend to think that it is more
common.
377. The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our
knowledge and judgments.
378. The way we present an issue
379. It is the tendency for our beliefs to distort our logic.
380. Our tendency to hold onto beliefs even when we are
presented with contradicting evidence. Considering evidence
supporting the opposite position is a remedy for this type of bias.
381. Our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we
combine them to communicate meaning.
382. The smallest sound units in language.
383. The smallest units of language that carries meaning.
Includes prefixes and suffixes.
384. In a language that allows us to properly understand it.
385. How we get meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences.
386. How to combine words into meaningful sentences.
387. (3-4 months after birth) A stage in speech development
where the infant utters sounds unlike the family language.
388. (1-2 years old) A stage in speech development where the
infant speaks single words
389. (2 years old) Infants speak in two-word phrases that
resemble Telegraphic speech – speech like a “telegram” I.e.
Want candy, me play, no eat…etc
390. States language determines how we think.
391. It is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems,
and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
392. Is the statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test
items that measure a common ability.
393. A general intelligence factor that according to Spearman
and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore
measured by every task on an intelligence test.
394. Is the condition which a person is limited in mental ability
has an exceptional specific skill
395. Is the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use
emotions.
396. Is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and
valuable.
397. Is a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes
and comparing them with those of others, using numerical
scores.
398. Was a measure of intelligence test performance devised
by Binet. The chronological age that most typically corresponds
to a given level of performance. So a child with at the age of 9 is
said to have the mental age of 9.
399. Lewis Terman used some parts of Binet’s tests and added
other parts to fit the needs of Californian children. He named it
the Stanford- Binet.
400. William Stern then devised the intelligence quotient also
known as the IQ test. IQ= mental age / chronological age X 100
401. Predict the ability to learn a new skill
402. Reflect what you have learned.
403. Is the most widely used intelligence test. It consists of
verbal and performance subtests. It also separates scores for
verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory
and processing speed. It can also reveal learning/ language
disabilities. Allowing psychologists to reveal a new plan for those
who have suffered strokes, etc.
404. Is defining meaningful scores by comparison with the
performance of a pretested standardization group.
405. The test results from these standardizes tests form a
normal distribution that forms a normal curve.
406. Is the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as
assessed by the consistency of the scores on two halves of the
test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.
407. It the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is
supposed to
408. Is the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is
of interest.
409. Is the behavior that a test is designed to predict. The
measure is used in defining whether the test has predictive
validity.
410. Is the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is
designed to predict. It is assessed by computing the correlation
between test scores and the criterion behavior.
411. Is the condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an
intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the
demands of life varies from mild to profound
412. Is a condition of retardation and associated physical
disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic
makeup.
413. Is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated
based on a negative stereotype.
414. A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
415. A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a
species and is unlearned
416. The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused
tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the
need
417. A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal
state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as
blood glucose, around a particular level
418. A positive or negative environmental stimulus that
motivates behavior
419. Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base
with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before
higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become
active
420. The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and
provides the major source of energy for body tissues
421. The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is
supposedly set
422. The body's resting rate of energy expenditure
423. An eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets
and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat,
continues to starve
424. An eating disorder characterized by episodes of
overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting,
laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
425. The four stages of sexual responding described by
Masters an Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
426. A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot
achieve another orgasm
427. A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or
functioning
428. A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females
than by males
429. The most important of the male sex hormones
430. An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either
one's own sex or the other sex
431. A completely involved, focused state of consciousness,
with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from
optimal engagement of one's skills
432. The application of psychological concepts and methods to
optimizing human behaviour in workplaces
433. A subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee
recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and
development
434. A subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational
influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates
organizational change
435. Interview process that asks the same job-relevant
questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established
scales
436. A desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of
things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
437. Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes
work, and focuses attention on goals
438. Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates
conflict, and offers support
439. A response of the whole organism, involving (1)
physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviours, and (3)
conscious experience
440. The theory that our experience of emotion is our
awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing
stimuli
441. The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus
simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the
subjective experience of emotion
442. Schachter-Singer's theory that to experience emotion one
must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the
arousal
443. A machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies,
that measures several of the physiological responses
accompanying emotion
444. Emotional release
445. People's tendency to be helpful when already in a good
mood
446. Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life
447. Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of
income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior
experience
448. The perception that one is worse off relative to those with
whom one compares oneself
449. An interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and
medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and
disease
450. A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's
contribution to behavioral medicine.
451. The process by which we perceive and respond to certain
events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or
challenging.
452. Seylye's concept of the body's adaptive response to
stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion
453. The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle;
the leading cause of death in many developed countries.
454. Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-
driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
455. Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed
people
456. Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical
illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.
457. The two types of white blood cells that are part of the
body's immune system
458. Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral
methods.
459. Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the
stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
460. Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a
stressor and attending to emotional needs related to ones stress
reaction
461. Sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness;
may also alleviate depression and anxiety.
462. A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and
feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state,
such as blood pressure or muscle tension.
463. Unproven health care treatments not taught widely in
medical schools, not used in hospitals, and not usually
reimbursed by insurance companies
464. An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and
acting.
465. In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in
which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no
matter how trivial or embarrassing.
466. Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that
attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and
conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations,
resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's
 interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings,
allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
467. According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts,
wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary
psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
468. Contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that,
according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive
drives. Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate
gratification.
469. The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that,
according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id,
superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle,
satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring
pleasure rather than pain
470. The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents
internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the
conscience) and for future aspirations.
471. The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic,
latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's
pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
472. According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother
and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
473. The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate
their parents' values into their developing superegos.
474. According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking
energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were
unresolved
475. In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of
reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
476. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that
banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings,
and memories
477. Psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced
with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage,
where some psychic energy remains fixated
478. Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego
unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their
opposites.
479. Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise
their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
480. Defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in
place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for ones
actions
481. Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or
aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less
threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a
safer outlet
482. Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory
traces from our species' history
483. A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides
ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner
dynamics
484. A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and
interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous
scenes
485. The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots,
designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
486. Proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-
esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death.
487. According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises
after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-
esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.
488. According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward
another person
489. All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the
question "who am I?"
490. A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and
act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
491. A questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to
gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess
selected personality traits.
492. The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality
tests – originally designed to identify emotional disorders
493. A test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting
those that discriminate between groups.
494. Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between
persons and their social context.
495. The interacting influences between personality and
environmental factors.
496. Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling
helpless.
497. The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our
personal control determine our fate.
498. The belief that an individual has more control over life
circumstances than the environment does.
499. Lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has
failed before to escape similar stimuli
500. A psychology concerned not only with weakness and damage
but also with strength and virtue.
501. Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance,
performance, and blunders.
502. One's feelings of high or low self-worth
503. A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.
504. Deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional behavior patterns
505. A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of
one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsivity
506. The concept that diseases have physical causes that can be
diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured. When applied to
psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these
mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their
symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include
treatment in a psychiatric hospital.
507. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, a widley used system for classifying
psychological disorders.
508. Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent
anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.
509. An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense,
apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system
arousal
510. An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long
episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror
and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening
sensations.
511. An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and
avoidance of a specific object or situation
512. An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive
thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)
513. An anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories,
nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia
that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
514. Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated
(dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.
515. Rare and controversial dissociative disorder in which an
individual experiences two or more distinct and alternating
personalities.
516. Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.
See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.
517. A mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason,
experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of
worthlessness, and diminishes interest or pleasure in most
activities
518. A mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic
state
519. A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the
hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited
state of mania
520. A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and
delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate
emotions and actions.
521. False beliefs, often of persecution of grandeur, that may
accompany psychotic disorders
522. Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring
behavior patterns that impair social functioning.
523. A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man)
exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends
and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever
con artist
524. An emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained
therapist and someone who suffers from psychological
difficulties.
525. Prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly
on the patient's nervous system.
526. An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's
problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.
527. In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-
laden material.
528. In psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream
meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and
events in order to promote insight.
529. In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of
emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred
for a parent)
530. A humanistic therapy based on Carl Roger's beliefs that an
individual has an unlimited capacity for psychological growth and
will continue to grow unless barriers are placed in the way.
531. Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and
clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
532. Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of
unwanted behaviors.
533. A behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to
stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical
conditioning. Includes exposure therapies and aversive
conditioning.
534. Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that
treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to
the things they fear and avoid
535. A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed
state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli
536. An anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to
simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying,
spiders, or public speaking.
537. A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant
state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as
drinking alcohol)
538. Conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with
valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for
valued rewards
539. Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of
thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts
intervene between events and our emotional reactions
540. A popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy
(changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy
(changing behavior).
541. Therapy that treats the family as a system. views an individual's
unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family
members; attempts to guide family members toward positive
relationships and improved communication
542. The tendency for unusual events to 'regress' toward their
average state.
543. A procedure for statistically combining the results of many
different research studies
544. The study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.
545. Involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs;
a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic
drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors
546. A biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a
brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized
patient.
547. The application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the
brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.
548. Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to
change behavior.
549. A now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm
uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. the procedure cut
the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-
controlling centers of the inner brain
550. The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate
to one another.
551. Suggests how we explain someone's behavior- by crediting
either the situation or the person's disposition.
552. The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior,
to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate
the impact of personal disposition.
553. Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to
respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
554. The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small
request to comply later with a larger request.
555. The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when
two of our thoughts are inconsistent.
556. Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group
standard.
557. Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or
avoid disapproval.
558. Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others'
opinions about reality.
559. Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the
presence of others.
560. The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when
pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when
individually accountable.
561. The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group
situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
562. The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through
discussion within the group.
563. The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in
a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of
alternatives.
564. An unjustifiable attitude toward a group and it's members.
565. A generalized belief about a group of people.
566. Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or it's members.
567. People with whom one shares a common identity- "Us"
568. Those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup "Them"
569. The tendency to favor one's own group.
570. The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing
someone to blame.
571. The principle that frustration-the blocking of an attempt to
achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate
aggression.
572. A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
573. A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally
pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually
destructive behavior.
574. The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli
increases liking of them.
575. An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another,
usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
576. The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom
our lives are intertwined.
577. A condition in which people receive from a relationship in
proportion to what they give to it.
578. Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
579. Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
580. The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give
aid if other bystanders are present.
581. The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the
aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
582. An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have
helped them.
583. An expectation that people will help those dependent upon
them.
584. Shared goals that override differences among people and
require their cooperation.
585. A strategy designed to decrease international tensions.