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It was by analysing the nature of All the continental portions came into
movements of the seismic waves being about 3600 million years ago, and
produced at the time of earthquakes in have not undergone much changes over
the interior of the earth that the scientists the ages. The ocean floors that we see
inferred much about the structure of today are of more recent origin. No
the earth. portion of the seafloor is more than 200
million years old. The ocean floors are
The radius of the earth, that is the
made by more denser rocks than those
distance from the centre of the earth to
of the continents.
its surface is about 6371 km.
Lithosphere
Crust and the
Crust upper portion of
Aesthenosphere mantle
Mantle
Mantle
Outer Core
Core
Inner Core
Interior of Earth
Fig 2.1
Table 2.1
The outermost layer of the earth is the Below the earth's crust is the mantle.
crust. Rocks containing minerals like The upper portion of the mantle is in a
silica, and aluminia make up the solid state.
continents and rocks containing silica The upper potion of the mantle and the
and magnesium make up the ocean crust together is called the lithosphere.
floors; these together make up the The maximum thickness of the
earth's crust. These are known as 'Sial' Lithosphere is about 100 kilometres.
and 'Sima' respectively. Earth came into Lithosphere exists like a broken
existence about 4500 million years ago. eggshell. When you compare the
thickness of the earth's crust with the
20 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
distance to the centre of the earth, the From the fig 2.2, find the
thickness of the lithosphere is much major plates and the minor
less. The lithosphere consists of 7 major plates and note them down.
plates and about a dozen of minor Major plates Minor plates
plates. They stretch thousands of
kilometres in aerial extent and are about
hundred kilometres thick.
Just below the upper mantle the rocks
are found in a molten stage. This is due
to the high temperature in this region.
This part of the mantle is called All these plates are clustered together
aesthenosphere. The rocks that melt in to exist. It has been noted that three
this sphere, move constantly as types of plate margins can be
convectional currents. The pressure recognized on the basis of the relative
exerted on the margins of the plates by motions of plates with respect to their
the convectional currents cause plates adjacent plates. They are,
to move. Below the aesthenosphere is
the lower mantle. • Plate margins where two adjacent
plates move away from each other -
Lower mantle is followed by the core. Divergent Margins.
This part is made up of mainly rocks
formed by nickel and iron and hence it • Plate margins where two plates meet
each other - Convergent Margins.
is also called Nife. The core has two
parts, an outer core and an inner core. • Plate margins along which the plates
The outer core exists in a molten state. slide past each other - Shear Margins.
In the centre of the earth, the Divergent Plate Margins
temperature is almost 11000° C and the
pressure is very high. Hence the inner As two adjoining plates slowly move
core is in a solid state. away from each other, very long fissures
develop in the lithosphere between
Moving Plates them.When this happens to the plates
Most of the plates include both of the near the ocean floor, the molten rock
continental crust and oceanic crust. (magma) from the underlying mantle
There are also plates which include comes up through these fractures and
either oceanic crust or continental crust
alone.
60 Eurasian
Plate
North
45 American Arabian
Plate Plate
Carribbean
30 Plate
African
15 Cocos Plate Philppine
Plate Plate
0 South
Pacific American Indo-
15 Plate Plate Australian-Plate
30 (Indian Plate)
Nazca
45 Plate
Antarctica
Scottia Plate
60
Plate
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Plate margins
Lithospheric Plates
Fig 2.2
cools down. It consolidates and joins Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean
with the trailing edges of the plates and is one such. Volcanoes are more
form the youngest portions of the sea frequent and extensive along these
floor. This is called seafloor spreading. regions.
Such plate margins passing through the b.The margins where seafloor of one
continents result in the formation of rift plate meets the continental portion
valleys. In these areas, earthquakes and of adjacent plate, the denser ocean
volcanoes are frequent, even though of floor sinks. This causes earthquakes
moderate to low intensity. of high intensity.
Convergent Plate Margins c. Due to the collision of the plate
Convergent margins are of three types. margins where continents occur on
a. When the margins of one oceanic both sides of the plate margin fold
plate collide with another, one plate mountains are formed. The
descends under the adjacent plate Himalayan ranges were formed this
and melt down to form the part of the way. The collision of the Indian plate
mantle. This may lead to the with the Eurasian plate has produced
formation of oceanic trenches. The the Himalayas.
The land near the Pacific Ocean is well known for its volcanoes. This area is called
'The ring of fire'. 90% of earthquakes and 80 % of volcanoes occur here. There are
more than 452 volcanoes in this region. The reason for the formation of this region is
the movement of the plates.
22 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
The earthquake that occurred on 26th January 2001 at Bhuj in Gujarat (Richter scale
7.7) caused a loss of almost 13,000 lives and great devastation in the surrounding
areas. It is reported that this also caused immense damage and loss in nearby areas of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and also in the Sind province of Pakistan.
This earthquake is described as the worst that has happened in the Indian Subcontinent.
The severe quake lasted 85 seconds but the tremors were felt for some more minutes.
The greatest destructions was seen on the western side of Kutch, and the Batchua
town was completely destroyed. The collapse of multi storied buildings in Ahmadabad
and Surat led to the loss of many lives.
The processes that take place in the above the focus on the surface of the
interior of the earth causes in the storage earth is known as epicenter. The energy
of energy in some portions in the earth. being released from the focus
Earthquakes occur on those instances propagates as waves. These cause
when these energy is being released. tremors on the surface of the earth and
The point of origin of the earthquakes cause destructions.
is known as focus and the point just
Fig 2.3
24 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Primary waves move very fast through solids, and very slowly through liquids. These
waves reach the epicenter from the focus first. But secondary waves move only through
solids. They do not travel through liquids. These reach the epicenter following the primary
waves. These two waves travel to the interior of the earth. So they are known as body
waves. Depending on the density of the material they pass through, there is a difference
in their speed. Where the material traversed is more dense, the speed is more and
where the density is less, the speed is also less. According to the density, the direction
of the waves change. Surface waves reach the epicenter last. They travel through the
surface of the earth and cause destruction on the earth's surface.
The tsunami that took origin in the Indian You must have now understood the
Ocean on 24th December 2004, is role played by earthquakes in bringing
considered as one of the most destructive about changes on the earth. This
in the history of the world. According to a phenomenon causes huge losses in
report by the U.S Geological Survey, an densely populated regions. In the
energy 23,000 times more than that present scenario when the population
released by the nuclear bomb that is widely distributed, the people
devastated Hiroshima, caused this staying in the earthquake prone areas
tsunami. Reports say that 1,50,000 should take precautions to face this
people were dead or missing and more calamity.
than ten lakh people belonging to 11 Precautions
countries lost their homes. • There should be earthquake
surveillance centres.
The earthquake which was recorded as • People should be warned promptly
having an intensity of 9 on the Richter about possible earthquakes. This
Scale, originated on the western side of will help people to move to safer
the Sumatra islands of Indonesia. This places and reduce the loss of life.
caused to develop a Tsunami in the Indian • In earthquake prone areas,
Ocean. The Indian plate slipped a little preference should be given to those
under the Burma plate; according to construction technologies which can
scientists, this was the cause of the withstand the impact of earthquakes.
earthquake.
26 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Creater
Lava
Vent
Magma
chamber
Fig 2.5
Some volcanoes erupt the lava out with The molten rock produces various
a great explosion and some others, landforms not only on the surface of the
silently. earth but also inside the earth. The
molten magma that tries to come on to
Watch a video clipping of an the surface of the earth gets stopped at
active volcano using the some points. As a result of this, this
internet. molten material gets solidified within
the crust. These landforms have been
It is believed that the Deccan plateau
named according to the shapes in which
was formed by the lava which errupted
they are formed. See the fig. 2.6 and
silently in prehistoric times.
notice the names given to the
formations.
Sill Laccolith
Dyke
Sill
Fig 2.6
Based on the chances of eruption the volcanoes are classified
into three.
↓ ↓ ↓
Active Extinct Dormant
28 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
With the help of the internet Forces that cause changes on the
and the encyclopeadia, collect Earth's Surface
information about the active volcanoes in the
world and make a note of it. `We saw how the movements inside the
earth cause changes on the earth's
Volcanoes and Man surface. Like the forces that act on the
Volcanoes are helpful in many ways. interior of the earth, some forces act on
Though volcanic eruptions are threats the surface of the earth causing changes.
to human life, the areas where the The forces that act inside the earth are
eruptions have taken place are useful called endogenic forces and those that
too. These areas are rich in minerals. The act on the surface of the earth are called
black soil that formed as a result of a exogenic forces. Endogenic forces cause
volcanic eruption is very suitable for compression and tension on the layers
cotton cultivation. The hotsprings that of rocks.
are found on volcanic mountains are The forces that act on the rock layers of
supposed to have healing properties. the crust of the earth cause folds to form
These places have been developed as on them. These are known as folding.
well known tourist spots. They are Folding cause ups and downs and they
known as spas. are called anticlines and synclines,
Deccan Plateau- storehouse respectively. At all times and
of minerals everywhere, it may not be the
compressional forces with same
The lava deposits of the Deccan plateau intensity that act on either side of the
is rich in minerals. In Chota Nagpur there
rocks. When the force increases on one
side, according to the intensity of forces,
is iron ore and mica, and in Golconda gold
it can be seen that the fold acquires
and diamonds.
Fig 2.7
THE EARTH WHICH SUPPORTS 29
Standard - IX
different forms(fig 2.7). At times, the broken rock layers are raised or
endogenic forces create a tensional lowered along the plane of fracture.
force. This tensional force causes This action is called faulting.
fractures on the rock layers and the
Fig 2.8
Look at the fig 2.8 and write for the creation of the physical world
a note on the formations that which bear soil and minerals. Actually
result from faulting. these are the forces which made the
earth an hospitable one.
Folding and faulting changes the form
of the surface of the earth. The Weathering
Himalayas were fromed through
Look at fig 2.9 and 2.10. Don't you see
folding. It is believed that the Indo-
the cracks and fissures in the rocks?
Gangetic plain was formed by the
When the rocks break into small pieces
alluvials from the Himalayan rivers
like this it is called weathering. As this
deposited in the geosyncline formed at
action continues, the size of the rocks
the foot of the Himalayas. The rivers
reduces and makes way for soil
Narmada and Tapti flow through the
formation.
rift valleys formed between the
Vindhya Satpura range. As a result of weathering, rocks
The running water, the sea waves, the disintegrate and become small pieces
wind and the glaciers are examples for and when the organic content mix with
the external agents that change the this, in course of time, soil is formed. For
earth's surface. These are known as the formation of one inch of soil, it takes
erosive agents. The endogenic forces about a thousand or more years.
and exogenic forces are responsible Weathering is mainly of three types.
mechanical weathering, chemical
weathering and biological weathering.
30 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Fig 2.9
Black Forest is a fault mountain situated The Himalayas, the Vindhyas and the
on the south -west of Germany. It is about Satpuras have a major influence in
200 kilometres long and 60 kilometres controlling the flora and fauna of our
wide, and 12,000 sq. kilometres in area. country.
Danube is one of the major rivers rising The Influence of Mountains on
from this mountain range. The mountain Man
sides were thick with pine and fir but due
• Climate :
to rapid deforestation, the forests were
denuded. Most of the beautiful peaks there The Himalaya ranges obstruct the
have now turned bald. flow of the extreme cold wind from
Central Asia to India and make the
Due to the different weathering
climate pleasant and also to block
processes of prolonged duration, the
the monsoon winds to cause rainfall
rocks that are not very resistant get
in the north-east parts of the country.
disintegrated and only those resistant
parts remain. These mountains are In the Himalayas, different types of
called residual mountains. Eg. The vegetation from evergreen to alpine
Aravalli ranges and the Nilgiris in India. forests can be found. Logging is one of
Mount Abu the main occupations of the people here.
Steep slopes and snow are not conducive
Mount Abu which was ones called to agriculture. But where it is possible,
Arbudanchal is the highest peak in the terrace farming is carried out. Plantations
Aravalli ranges. Gurusikhar is the highest have taken over most of the cultivable
peak in this range. This is one of the areas; tea is the main cultivation. These
summer resorts of Rajasthan, and it is plantations generate maximum employ-
1220 metres above sea level. Many ment. Sheep rearing is also a very
people come here to enjoy the scenic lucrative business as the climate suits
beauty and to get relief from heat. Mount them and the wool industry has grown to
Abu is situated about 58 kilometres from the status of a cottage industry here.
Palampur, Gujarat. Places of worship of different religions are
also found here which attracts pilgrim
The mountains play a vital role in making
tourism. There are also many resorts
the earth a hospitable one for all living
which create employment for many
beings.
people and trade also flourishes due to
this.
34 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Indo-Gangetic plain
The Indo-Gangetic flood plain is formed by the deposits brought there, for centuries, by
the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Known as the Great Plain,
this is about 7 lakh sq.kilometres in area. This is one of the biggest alluvial plains in the
world. The river valleys where ancient civilizations came into existence are on the banks
of this Great Plains. This land is one of the most important agricultural areas in the
world. Wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cotton and many other crops are grown here.
Since most of the land here is flat, canal irrigation is widespread. This is one of the
densely populated areas in the world. Kanpur, Agra, Varanasi, Lucknow, Allahabad are
some of the important cities in this area.
the lateral cutting of the valleys and due Which are the main waterfalls
to this, the depth of the river increases. in Kerala? Find out and make
a note of them. Also mark the ones that you
They cause the valleys to take the "V"
find out on the map of Kerala.
shape.
River
'V' shaped valley
Fig 2.11
Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is situated in Arizona in the United States of America. This was
formed by the erosive action of Colorado river. This is one of the National parks of
America. It is 446 kilometres long and 6 to 29 kilometres wide. The average depth of this
steep valley is about 1830 metres.
Waterfall
Waterfalls always attract man. Water falls vertically down from steep places in
the hilly regions, as you can see in fig 2.12. This kind of flow of the river is called
waterfall. The Jog falls of Karnataka is the biggest in India.
36 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Fig 2.12
Meanders
Do you see the picture (fig.2.13)
of a river that flows in a zigzag
manner. As the river flows
further from the foot of
Flood Plains
mountains and it grows older, the speed
During monsoon, when the river of the flow reduces and the river twists
overflows its banks there is flooding. As and turns as it flows along the flood
a result of this, there is a deposit of silt plains. Big and small twists and turns
on the banks. This evolves as flood which occur thus are called meanders.
plains. They continually change their forms. At
(I) (II)
(III) (IV)
Fig 2.13
THE EARTH WHICH SUPPORTS 37
Standard - IX
Delta
River
38 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Barchans
Fig 2.16
Fig 2.17
40 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2
Fig 2.18
Fig 2.19
Fig 2.20
Fig 2.21
42 Social Science - II
Chapter - 2