Maisonneuve & Larose

al-Husayn ibn Hamdân al-Khasîbî: A Historical Biography of the Founder of the Nusayrî-
'Alawite Sect
Author(s): Yaron Friedman and Yaron Frieman
Source: Studia Islamica, No. 93 (2001), pp. 91-112
Published by: Maisonneuve & Larose
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Studia Islamica, 2001

al-Husaynibn Hamdanal-Khasibi
A historicalbiography
of the founderof the Nusayri-'Alawitesect

This article is based on a research (in Hebrew)by the present writer, ? al-Husavn ibn Hanmdin
al-Khasibi- His Figure and his Part in the Foundationof the Nusayri-'AlawiteSect ?, prepared
in 1998 under the supervisionof Dr. M. M. Bar-Asherat the Hebrew Universityof Jerusalenm,
read also by Prof. A. Kofskyfrom Haifa University.I would like to thankDavid Cookwho read
an earlier draft and added importantadvises, and Leigh Chipnan for translatingthis article
andfor her helpful comments.Also I would like to thankTarekabulRajabfor drawingmy
attention to al-Muntajabal-'Ant.

The circumstancesof the developmentof the Nusayri-'Alawitesect are

shroudedin mystery.The acceptedview today is that the sect was formedin
Iraqduringthe 3rd/9thcentury,and thatit is connectedto the personof Abu
Shu'aybMuhammadibn Nusayr.(') In this paperI will attemptto prove that
IbnNusayris not the founderof the sect in a historicalsense, andis not so per-
ceived by the Nusayrisin a religioussense. His statusin the Nusayrireligion
is higherthan thatof the founder,and reachesthat of divinity. The sect was
foundedafterIbnNusayr'sdeath,by a man who has almostdisappearedfrom
the pages of history:al-Husaynibn Hamdanal-Khasibi.This paperaims to
draw as completea pictureas possible of his historicalactivity,using all the
availabledata,in orderto shed light on the studyof the Nusayriyya,still a sha-
dowy and little-knownsect. In a forthcomingpaper,I will focus on the theo-
logical aspectof these developments,which will not be expandeduponhere.

1. Introduction

The Nusayriyyaare a syncretisticsect characterizedby mystic beliefs ori-

ginating in ghuldt (2) circles within the Shi'a, among which the idea of the
(1) Accordingto the Nusaynrtradition,Ibn Nusayrwas one of the followers of the eleventh Imam,Hasan
al-'Askari(d. 260/874), and received from him a new religious dispensation.See H. Halm, "Nusayriyya,"El'
VIII (1995), pp. 145-146.
(2) ghdli, pl.ghult: exaggerator.The appellationof Shi'ite groups who were accused of exaggeration
(ghuluww)in their adorationof the Imam;the ghulit attributedsuperhumanabilities to him, to the point of
deification (M.G.S. Hodgson, "Ghulat,"El2 II (1965), pp. 1093-1095).

91
 YARON FRIEDMAN

divinity of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib is central. To these beliefs was added the
influence of Persian,gnostic andpaganreligions. (3)Rene Dussaudassumed
thatduringthe Nusayris' stay in Syriaand Iraq,externalinfluenceshad been
at work upon them: Isma'ili Shi'ism, (4) the Sabaeans, (5) gnostic sects (6)
and pagan remnantswhich had not yet convertedto Islam. (7) Heinz Halm
admitsthe paganand gnostic influences,but emphasizesthe role of the ghu-
lat in the formationof the Nusayriyya.(8) Halm describes the preservation
of ghulat traditionsfrom Kufaup to the time of Ibn Nusayr (the 3rd/9thcen-
tury). (9) His own pupils, in turn,kept alive certainmystic traditionsthat in
the course of time became the principlesof the Nusayri faith. (20)
It would seem that Halm's view should be accepted with regardto the
beginningsof the Nusayriyya,and Dussaud's,with regardto the laterperiod
(from the end of the 11th century)duringwhich the Nusayriyyamigratedto
the areaof Latakia and the Lebanon,where they came into contact with the
various groups mentionedabove.
The sect, whichseems to havebrokenoff fromthe Shi'a, formedtwo centers
in the 4th/10thcentury,in Baghdadand in Aleppo. (") In the 5th/IIth century
the Nusayriswere forcedto move theircenterto Latakia,due to conflictswith
othergroupsandMuslimpersecution.Therethey haveremainedto thisday. (12)
The Nusayriyyahave neverbeen consideredMuslims. The Shi'ites consi-
der them ghulat, while the Sunnis regard them as complete infidels. (13)
(3) H. Halm. "Nusayriyya,"pp.147-148.
(4) e.g., RendDussaud,Histoire et Religion des Nosairis (Paris:LibrairieEmile Bouillon, 1900), pp. 22-
23, 25-27, 43-44.
(5) ibid., pp. 20, 44-45, 105. On the "Sabaeans,"see T. Fahd, "Sabi'a."El' VIII (1995), pp. 675-678.
(6) Dussaud,pp.125-127.
(7) Syrian-Phoenicianinfluence: ibid., pp. 14. 17, 19-20. Influence of Persian religions: ibid., pp.120-
125.
(8) Halm, "Nusayriyya,"p. 145: "A Shi'i sect ... The only branchof extreme (ghuluww)KufanShl'ism
which has survivedinto the contemporaryperiod."
(9) H. Halm, "Das Buch der Schatten:Die Mufaddal-Traditionder Gulat und die Ursprungdes Nusai-
riertums,"Der Islam 55 (1975), pp. 224-258. In contrastto Halm's concept of the Nusayriyyaoriginatingin
the ghuflat,Dussaud states that the Nusayris form an interestingexample of a populationthat moved from
paganismdirectly to Isma'ilism. (Dussaud,p. 51)
(10) Dussaud,pp. 258-260.
( l) ibid., pp. 260-261.
(12) Halm, "Das Buch der Schatten,"pp. 261-263; C. Cahen, "Note sur les origines de la communaute
syriennedes Nusayris,"REI 38 (1970), pp. 243-248.
(13) The comparisonof Shi'ite and Sunnite sources relatingto the Nusayriyya brings us to the conclu-
sion thatthe formerwere more toleranttowardsthe Nusayriyya,and indeed were carefulnot to call theminfi-
dels, becauseof theircloseness to the Shi'a. See, e.g., among the Shi'a: al-Nawbakhtiincludes the Namiriyya
(the earliernameof the Nusayriyya,see below) among the Shi'ite sects and accuses themof ghuluww:Hasan
ibn Mfsa al-Nawbakhti,Firaq al-Shi'a (Beirut:Dar al-Adwa', 1984), pp. 93-94; al-Shahrastni refersto the
Nusayriyyaas ghulit al-Sht'a: Muhammadibn 'Abd al-Karimal-Shahrastani,al-Milal wa-'I-Nihal (Beirut:
Dar al-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya, 1992), p. 192. Among the Sunna:'Abd al-Qadiral-Baghdadiwrites thatthe Nami-
riyya are not a partof Islam at all: 'Abd al-Qadiral-Baghdadi,al-Farq bayna al-Firaq wa-Bayan al-Firaq
al-ndji'a minhuml (Beirut:Dr al-Jil/Daral-Afiq al-Jadida,1987). pp. 220. 239; Ibn Taymiyya composed a
fatwa (legal opinion) accordingto which ". the Nusayrisand the rest of the Carmathians[an Isma'il sect]
are greaterinfidels thanthe Jews,the Christiansand the otheridolaters.." See the originalArabic:S. Guyard,
"Le Fetwa d'Ibn Taymiyyahsur les Nosairis,"Journal asiatique (septieme serie) 18 (1871), p. 167.

92
 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASiBI

1.1. The sect's name:

Dussaud noted that various suggestions have been put forwardas to the
origin of the sect's name, and found that the Nusayris themselves connect
their name to Ibn Nusayr. (14) When following the history of the sect, they
are found under several different names. Probably the Nusayriyya were
named,like many other Shi'ite splintergroups, after the object of theirado-
ration.
The earliest evidence we have for the existence of the sect is the Shf'ite
literatureof the 3rd/9thcentury.According to Firaq al-Shi'a by Hasan ibn
Musa al-Nawbakhtl (d. 288/900), one of the Shl'i sects was called Nami-
riyya, afterMuhammadibn Nusayral-Namiri.He claimed, accordingto this
source, to be a prophetsent by the Imam Hasan al-'Askari. He considered
the Imam to be divine and believed in reincarnation.(15) More than a hun-
dred years later, 'Abd al-Qadiribn Tahir al-Baghdadi(d. 429/1037), in his
book al-Farq bayna al-Firaq also called Ibn Nusayr's sect by the name of
"Namiriyya." (16)
Despite this, accordingto the Nusayrl literature,the membersof al-Kha-
stbi's sect referredto themselves as al-muwahhidun(the monotheists)or ahl
al-tawhid (the people of monotheism),which signifies that they saw them-
selves as such, that is, trueMuslims and not infidels. This literaturetells us
that from the 5th/llth century onwards, they called themselves "Khasi-
biyya." In a Nusayri source dating from the 19th century, we find a prayer
"for the downfall of the Ottomandynasty and the victory of the sect of the
Khasibiyya-Nusayriyya." (17) Only in the 6th/12th century was the sect also
called by the name Nusayriyya,in Muhammadibn 'Abd al-Karimal-Shah-
rastani's(d. 548/1153) book al-Milal wa-'l-Nihal. (18)

1.2.The sources:

The modem researcherhas available original Nusayri material,which is

helpful for the understandingof the history and beliefs of the sect. Most of
this materialwas inaccessible until the 19th century,due to its concealment
by members of the sect. During the 19th and 20th centuries, a numberof
sources were uncovered,largely due to France's influence in the Levant.In
the 20th century, the Nusayris became more open to their surroundings,

(14) Dussaud,pp. 1-16.

(15) Nawbakhti,pp. 93-94.
(16) al-Baghdadl,p. 239.
(17) al-Tabarni, in the I th century,is our earliest source of evidence that the sect was called Khasi-
biyya: Abu Sa'id Maymun ibn al-Qasim al-Tabarani,MajmQ'al-A'yad (in: Der Islam 27 [1946]), pp. 19.
131. For ahl al-tawhid, see ibid., p. 54. On the 19th-centuryprayer,see Sulaymanal-Adhani,al-Baktra al-
Sulaymini)nafi KashfAsrir al-Diydna al-Nusavriyya(Beirut:[n.p.], 1864), p. 53. Early beliefs and rituals
are reflected in this book, see the discussion below.
(18) al-Shahrastani,pp. 192-193.

93
 YARON FRIEDMAN

hoping to become assimilatedand to end the long periodof persecution. As

a result,they began to publishbooks relatingto theirhistoricaland religious
identity. This literaturemust be used with caution, due to its attemptsto
prove that the Nusayris are in fact Muslims. (19)
This paperattemptsto combine Nusayri and non-Nusayrisources, and to
ascertainwhat theirlevel of agreementis. The Nusayri sources used were:
1. al-Hidaya al-Kubra: (20) Apparentlythe only book writtenby al-Kha-
sibi that has survived in its entirety to the modern period. According to
Shi'ite sources, he composed additionalworks. This book, containingtradi-
tions about the Prophet Muhammad,his daughterFatima and the twelve
Imams,was printedin Beirutin 1986, and seems to have been translatedinto
Persian, too. The likelihood that al-Khasibi indeed composed the book is
high, as partsof the book are quoted as having been related by him both in
Twelver Shi'ite and in Nusayri writings(in Majmu'al-A'yddand MS Ham-
burg 303 - see below). Few autobiographicaldetails appearing there are
highly important.
2. Majmu' al-A'yad: (21) The book of Nusayri festivals. Composed by
Maymunibn al-Qasimal-Tabarani,the leaderof the Nusayrisin Syriain the
generationafteral-Khasibi.The fact thatit was writtenonly some yearsafter
al-Khasibi's death makes it a most importantsource for the study of the
early Nusayriyya,and especially of al-Khasiblhimself. The book contains
many quotations,in poetry andprose, of al-Khasibl'swords, the most exten-
sive being al-Qasida al-Ghadiriyya.
3. MS Paris 1450: (22)This manuscript has not yet been fully studied. (23) It
dealsmainlywiththeologicalquestions,andthreesectionsof it areconnectedto
al-Khasibi:(1) Folios 42-47: Risalatal-Tawhid(The Epistleof Unity),al-Kha-
sib's answersto the questionsof his Iraqidisciple 'Ali ibn 'Isa al-Jisri;(2)
(19) See, e.g., Hashim 'Uthman,al-'Alawily2unbayna al-Ustara wa-'l-Haqiqa (Beirut: Mu'assasatal-
A'la, 1985). 'Uthmanattemptsto prove thatthe Nusayris-'Alawitesare Shi'ite Muslims. He deals with accu-
sations of heresy by quoting medieval sources and moder research,aiming to show the contradictionsbet-
ween them. He quotes Nusayri sources from the past and the presentwhich supporthis claim, such as a late
chapterof al-Hiddyaal-Kubra,and an articlepublishedby a Nusayrishaykhfrom Latakiain 1930, in which
he claims that the Nusayris are Muslims (ibid., pp.156-173). A blatantexample of the attemptto prove the
Nusayristo be Muslimsis the traditionaboutthe origin of the name Nusayriyya,which 'Uthmanquotesfrom
MuhammadAmin Ghalibal-Tawil, Ta'rikhal-'Alawi!yin (Latakia:[n.p.], 1924). According to this tradition,
Nusayriyya(from the verbnasara, to help) is the name of an auxiliaryforce thatcame to the aid of the gene-
ral Abi 'Ubayda at GhadirKhumm(the site where Muhammad,according to Shi'ite tradition,nominated
'Ali as his heir) and enabled the Muslim conquestof Ba'alabakkand Hims (ibid., p. 148).
(20) al-Husaynibn Hamdanal-Khasibi.al-Hiddyaal-Kubrd(Beirut:Mu'assasatal-Bulugh, 1986).
(21) Publishedin a critical edition by Rudolf Strothmannin Der Islam 27 (1946). The original name of
the book is Sabil Ra^hat al-Arwdhwa-Dalil al-Surtirwa-'l-Afrdhila Fdliq al-Asbdh.
(22) BibliothequeNationale,FondsArabe 1450, entitledEcritssacres des Nosairis (hereafter:ES). Cata-
logued in de Slane, Cataloguedes manuscritsarabes de la Bibliothlque Nationale (Paris:ImprimerieNatio-
nale, 1883), p. 277. A photocopyof the originalmanuscriptwas used for this paper.
(23) On sections of the manuscriptthathave been studied,see: M.M.Bar-Asherand A. Kofsky, "Anearly
Nusayri theological dialogue on the relation between the ma'na and the ism," Le Museon 108 (1995).
pp. 169-180; idem., "Thedoctrineof 'Ali's divinityanf the Nusayritrinityaccordingto an unpublishedtrea-
tise from the 7th/13thcentury,"Der Islam 72 (1995), pp. 258-292.

94
 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

Folios48-53: al-Khasibi'sanswersto thequestionsaskedby his disciple'Abdal-

lah ibnHaruinal-Sa'ighwhentheformerconvenedhis majlisandreadanepistle
to those present(This epistlemay have been al-Jisri'sTawhtd,as the subjectis
the same); (24)(3) Folios 176-179:A descriptionof 'Abdallahibn Harunal-
Sa'igh's visit to al-Jisriin 340/951, afterthe latterhadcollectedthe "questions"
(which probablywere Ibn Haruin'squestionsto al-Khasibi,as can be deduced
fromthe fact thatthereis a passagethatis almostidentical to one of al-Khasi-
bi's answersto Ibn Haruin).(25) At the end of the manuscriptis a list of its
copyists, going back to 636/1238. This may hint thatthe manuscriptwas pre-
servedby being copied and transferred to Syriabeforethe Mongol destruction
of Baghdadin 1258. There are similaritiesof content between al-Khasibl's
wordsin this epistle and in otherplaces.This manuscriptmay be a remnantof
the Nusayrntraditionof Iraq,wherethe sect has completelydisappeared.
4. The poems of al-Muntajibal-'Ani: (26)A group of diwans collected in
a manuscriptkept at the Asad Libraryin Damascus. al-'Ani seems to have
been one of the muwahhidan,and he praises them in his poems. (27) Verses
from his qasidas hint at al-Khasibi'sactivity. al-'Ani is also mentionedby
al-Adhani(see below) as one of the saints of the Nusayriyya.(28) The diwans
have been studiedby As'ad 'Ali, a scholarfrom Damascus,who mistakenly
believes al-Khasibito have been a Sufi shaykh. (29)
5. MS Hamburg303: Partof this manuscripthas been publishedin a cri-
tical edition by Strothmannin 1958, and was called after its copyist,
Shaykh Mahmud Ba'amra. (30) Its title is Akhbar wa-Riwayat 'an Mawa-
lina Ahl al-Bayt minhumal-salam. This is a collection of Nusayri religious
traditionson various subjects, recordedin no particularorder.The manus-
cript seems to reflect the traditionof the Nusayris of Syria, as most of al-
Khasibi's traditionsare transmittedthroughhis Aleppan disciple, al-Jilli.
(24) Bar-Asherand Kofsky, "An early Nusayritheological dialogue,"p. 169.
(25) This assumptionis based on the following comparison:In ES fo. 177a, Harunquotes from a book
edited by al-Jisri:"Whoeverhas worshippedthe ism throughthe truth,has in fact worshippedthe ma'na."In
al-Khasibi'sanswer to Harun,ES fo. 50a, we find "Whoeverhas worshippedthe ma'na throughthe truthof
the ism, has declared that there is only one God." The worship of the ma'na is discussed in Bar-Asherand
Kofsky, "An early Nusayri theological dialogue,"pp. 171-172.
(26) As'ad Ahmad 'Ali, Fann al-Muntajibal-'Ani wa-'Irf anuhu (Beirut:Dar al-Nu'man, 1967). On al-
Muntajib'sdwadn,see: C. Brockelmann,Geschichte der arabische Literatur(Leiden: Brill, 1937), vol. 4,
p. 327.
(27) On the possibility that he was one of the muwahhiduin,see As'ad 'Ali, p. 242. The line in which he
praises the family of Muhammadibn Nusayr:avyamukumfa-hiyna aynamiwa-qawlukum/qawliwa-ma'bi-
dukumn bi-'l-sirri nma'bidi(Your days are my days, your saying/is my saying and your secret worshipis my
worship).
(28) al-Adhani,p. 4.
(29) This error resulted from the fact that the muwahhidanare also called a tariqa, meaning that the
Nusayris saw al-Khasibias shaykhnawa-tariqatunaila mawlanaS "ourleaderand our pathto our lord,"i.e.
to Ibn Nusayr or to 'Ali. See ES fo. 42a. However, the possibility of Sffi influence on the Nusayniscannot
be completely excluded.
(30) al-ShaykhMahmid Ba'amraibn al-Husaynal-NusayriL"Risalatal-ShaykhBa'amrahibn al-Husayn
(MS Hamburg303," in: R. Strothmann,EsoterischeSonderthemenbei den Nusairi (Berlin :Akademie-Ver-
lag, 1958).

95
 YARON FRIEDMAN

Some of the traditionsappearin the early al-Hiddya al-Kubrdand Majmu'

al-A 'yad.
6. al-Bakuraal-Sulaymaniyyafi Kashf Asrdr al-Diydna al-Nusayriyya:
This book was writtenby Sulaymanal-Adhani,who was initiatedinto the
secrets of the Nusayri religion, but left the faith and converted in turn to
Judaism,Islamandto Christianity,andfinallypublishedthe sect's secrets.(3)
The book has been intensivelystudiedand forms the main source of know-
ledge aboutthe Nusayrnreligionin modernresearch.The most importantpart
of it is Kitdbal-Majm ', a book holy to the Nusayris(32)whose date of com-
position is unknown.The book includesprayers,and is divided into sixteen
parts.Thereare certainQur'anicelementsin Kitdbal-Majmu',e.g. each part
is called a sura, thereare sectionsin rhymingprose, the use of Qur'anicter-
minology (bismillah,subhana allah) and even (inaccurate)quotationsfrom
the Qur'an.(33)Theologicalideas are expressedin Kitdbal-Majma',and the
saints of the sect are mentioned,among whom one may find figures from
Greek, Persianand Muslim legends. al-Adhani'scommentary,which some-
times can be useful for the understandingof unclearphrases,appearsat the
end of each sura. In additionto Kitdbal-Majmu',al-Adhani'sbook includes
descriptionof Nusayriholy days, varioustheologicalprinciples,prayers(each
called quddds,i.e. Mass) said on differentoccasions, and Nusayri hymns of
many periods.(4) al-Adhani'sbook can be linked to early Nusayriliterature
in terms of both ideas and specific contents. al-Adhani was familiar with
Majmu'al-A'ydd and quoted it. He even remarkedon differencesbetween
variousNusayri groups in the interpretationof certain verses of it. (35)The
book includes detailed descriptionsof religious ceremonies that al-Adhani
underwentin his home village a centuryand a half ago. Although the book
was composedduringthe 19thcentury,it has preservedvery ancientNusayri
ideas andprinciples.
7. Ta'rikhal-'Alawiyyin:(36)A collection of quasi-historicalNusayritra-
ditions. The 'Alawite author,MuhammadGhalib al-Tawil, served as the
Ottomangovernorof Tartusat the beginningof the nineteenthcentury,and
made every effort to lessen the differences between the Shi'ites and the
Nusayris,even calling them by the same name: 'Alawiyyin.It seems thatal-
Tawll wove togetherpopulartales and Shi'ite history.This bias, and the lack
of sacredtraditionsin the book, areevidence thatthe book is not particularly

(31) E.E. Salisbury,"Notice of the Book of Sulaiman'sFirstRipe Fruit,Disclosing the Mysteriesof the
NusairianReligion,"JAOS8 (1866), p. 228.
(32) Dussaud(p. xiv) statesthatthe NusayrisconsiderKitabal-Majmun' the cornerstoneof theirfaith,and
that it contains all their doctrines. According to a folk legend, it was given by the prophetMuhammadto
twelve Nusayriholy men (nuqabd',sing. naqib), and contains the words of the god 'Ali.
(33) Dusaud(p. xv) claims thatthe Qur'anicverses became corruptedduringa process of oral transmis-
sion.
(34) Dussaud,p. xvi.
(35) ibid.
(36) Accordingto Hashim 'Uthman(p. 146), the first edition was printedin Turkeyin 1919.

96
 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

reliable, historicallyspeaking. However, authentichistoricalfacts are often

hinted at, or referredto inexactly.

2. The biography of al-Khastbi

2.1. Childhood:

Abu 'Abdallahal-Husaynibn Hamdanal-Khasibial-Junbalaniwas bornin

the 3rd/9thcentury,accordingto one sourcein 260/873. (37) His familyresided
in Junbala,an Iraqitown locatedbetweenKufaandWasit.(38) He was nickna-
med al-Khasibiafter his grandfather,al-Khasib. (39) Hamdan,al-Khasibi's
father,was a transmittorof Shi'ite traditions,mostlyconnectedto the stra (bio-
graphy) of the prophetMuhammad. His uncle, Ibrahimibn al-Khasib,was a
murdbit(40)of the Imamal-'Askari.Both are mentionedin al-Khasibi'sbook.
(41)Anotheruncle,Ahmadibn al-Khasib,appearsin Shi'ite literatureas one of
the faithfulwho went to Samarrato congratulateal-'Askarion the birthof his
son al-Mahdi(the twelfthImamand Shi'ite messiah).Like his brotherHam-
dan,he seems to have excelled in sira literature.(42)
al-Khasibigrew up in a Shi'ite family that was close to the Imam, and
thus was exposed to religious experiencesfrom an early age. In his book, he
states that alreadyin 273/886 (perhapsaged 13) he prayedwith the congre-
gation of the mosque in western Medina in which the prophetMuhammad
and his cousin 'Ali had prayedtogether.(43) In anotherplace in his book, he
states that he performedthe hajj in 282/895, and before that had ascended
Mt. Abi Qabis, where he saw the Prophet'sfootprint.(4)
al-Khasibihad a broadspiritualworld. His writingsreveal a man with a
rich command of Arabic, learned in the religious sciences (especially
Qur'an, exegesis and had?th),and a talented poet equally knowledgeable
aboutpre-Islamicand Islamic-periodpoetry. (45)
(37) al-Tawil, p. 259. Accordingto al-Tawil, al-Khasibiwas bornin 260/873, perhapsaiming to connect
this to the death of the Imam al-'Askariin the same year.
(38) Yaiqt al-Hamawi,Mu'jamal-Buldan (Beirut:Dar al-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya, 1990), vol. 2, p. 195.
(39) Muhammadal-Amin al-Husayn al-'Amili, A 'vn al-Shi'a (Damascus: Matba'atal-Itqan, 1947),
vol. 15, pp. 345-346.
(40) murabit(pl. murabitun)is the namefor volunteerswho dedicatedthemselvesto defendingIslam'sbor-
ders,living lives of asceticismand religiousdevotion.The murabitof a Shi'ite Imamwas dedicatedto defending
the ImAmand to living as a religiousascetic in his proximity.See Georges Marcais,"Ribft,"El VI (1936),
pp. 1151-1152;CyrilGlasse,The ConciseEncyclopediaof Islam(New York:Harper& Row, 1989),p. 335.
(41) On Hamdan,see al-Khasibi,pp. 54, 59, 60,67, 69, 151-153, 159. On IbrShim,see ibid., p.67.
(42) On the travelsof 70 disciples of the Imamal-'Askari(among them Ahmadibn al-Khasib)to Samarra
to congratulatehim on the birthof al-Mahdi,see ibid., pp.344-349; MuhammadBaqir al-Majlisi,Bihdr al-
Anwcr (Beirut:Mu'assasatal-Wafa', 1983), vol. 78, pp. 395-397. Ahmadappearsmainly is the isnads of tra-
ditions about the Prophet,cf. e.g. al-Khasibi,pp. 54, 59, 162.
(43) al-Khasibi,p. 121.
(44) ibid., pp. 67-68.
(45) Forexamples of quotationsof pre-Islamicpoetry,see ibid., pp.110, 111,197;for Islamic-periodpoe-
try, see ibid., pp. 106-107, 406.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

2.2 His first mystical guidance:

While still young, his educationtook a radicalturnwhen he met 'Abdal-

lah al-Jannan,a fellow townsman,perhaps at the instigation of his uncle
Ahmad. (46)al-Jannan was nicknamed "al-Farisi"(the Persian) and "al-
Zahid"(the ascetic), and his writings betray the influence of Iranianreli-
gions. (47) According to the Nusayri literature,al-Jannantransmittedto al-
Khasibithe principlesthat he had received in the 3rd/9thcenturyfrom Abu
Shu'ayb Muhammadibn Nusayr al-Namiri, who claimed that he was the
Bab (i.e., the "gateway"- see below) to the secret of the Imam Hasan al-
'Askari. al-Jannandied in 287/900. (48)His influence on al-Khasibi was
decisive. al-Khasibi decided to follow in his teacher's footsteps, in the
knowledge that this was not the path of the majorityof Shi'ites, including
his own family. In the absence of a guide, al-Khasibisearchedfor someone
else, who would be capable of continuing his study of Muhammadibn
Nusayr's mystical teachings.This searchseems to have lasted twenty-seven
years.

2.3. His second mysticalguidance:

Accordingto the Nusayriliterature,in 314/926 al-Khasibimet an ancient

mystic named 'Alu ibn Ahmad, a disciple of Ibn Nusayr's, in the town of
Turba near Karbala'. At their meeting, which took place on the tenth of
Muharram,'Al revealed to al-Khasibithe hidden meaning of that day, the
day of 'Ashura'.It is statedthat 150 of the mystic's pupils also participated
in this meeting, whose purposewas al-Khasibi'sinitiation. 'Ali revealedto
al-Khasi^bi that the Imam Hasan al-'Askari had chosen, out of all his dis-
ciples, to bless Ibn Nusayr (and not Ishaq ibn Muhammadal-Nakha'i al-
Ahmar,the object of the devotion of the contemporaryIshaqiyyasect). The
Imam even declared that Ibn Nusayr was bab allah wa-wali al-mu'minin
(the gateway to Allah and the leaderof the faithful). (49)
The period following the disappearanceof the twelfth Imam was charac-
terizedby greatconfusion among the Shi'ites. The questionof the continua-
tion of the Imam's spiritualleadershipengaged all the Shi'ite sects, and the
Namiriyyain particular.While the Imamwas absent,the Shi'a were in need
(46) A connectionbetween al-Khasibi'suncle, Ahmad,and al-Jannanis hintedat by theirboth appearing
amongthe representativesof Junbalain the groupof 70 disciples who travelledto Samarra(see above, n. 42).
(47) On al-Jannan,see Halm, "Das Buch der Schatten,"pp. 257-258.
(48) al-Adhani, pp. 15-16. According to Kitab al-Majmai',the principles of the Nusayri religion were
transmittedas follows: Muhammadibn Nusayr> Muhammadibn Jandab> 'Abdallahal-Jannan> al-Kha-
sibi; cf. Halm, ibid., pp. 256-258. The sources indicateadditionalpaths of transmission.
(49) al-Tabarani,pp.126-131.0n the Ishaqiyya and their conflict with the Nusayriyya, see al-Tawil,
pp. 262-264; Bar-Asherand Kofsky, "Anearly Nusayritheological dialogue,"pp. 268-269, n. 65. In another
anti-Ishaqiyyatradition,transmittedby al-Khasibifrom al-Jannan,Hasan al-'Askari gatheredhis disciples,
and chose Ibn Nusayr, not Ishaq al-Ahmar,in orderto performthroughhim a miracle that would repel the
'Abbasidattack.See Ba'amra,p. 18.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASiBI

of spiritualguidance. Several sects, among them apparentlythe Namiriyya,

refused to accept the authorityof the sufard'. (50)In this context, it is worth
noting that according to Nusayri tradition, al-Khasibi's guide 'Ali ibn
Ahmad al-Turba'iclaimed to have been appointedas a safir by the Imams
'Ali al-Hadi and his son Hasanal-'Askar. (51)
al-Turba'icarriedout a ceremonythroughwhich he appointedal-Khasibi
to be his successor as the leader of the communityof the faithful in Turba.
al-Turba'iand al-Jannanmadeal-Khasibiresponsiblefor the continuationof
Ibn Nusayr's path by transmittinghis secrets. al-Khasibl inherited the
Imam's esoteric knowledge. It is, therefore,possible that al-Khasibiconsi-
dered 'AlI al-Turba'ithe sole legitimate safir.

2.4. al-Khasibtbecomes a spiritual leader:

al-KhasEbT did not regardhimself as the leaderof a Shi'ite splintergroup,

but ratheras the guide of the communitythat still followed the true path of
the Shi'a in accordancewith the will of the Imam and his bab, Ibn Nusayr.
Convinced of his own righteousness,al-Khasibiin his poems refers to his
disciples as shl'at al-haqq (the true Shi'a) (52) and shi'at al-huda (the right-
path Shi'a). (53)
From the Nusayri traditionswe learn that as a result of his mystical stu-
dies, al-Khasiblsaw himself as a mediatorbetween the humanworld of his
disciples and the spiritualworld. His poems are filled with religious enthu-
siasm. In a certainsection of his Qasida al-Ghadiriyya, he describesa mys-
tical experienceof his, referringto himself in the thirdperson:

YourJunbalamn is a descendant
of KhasTb
Theslaveof slavesto twelvefull moons[= thetwelveImams]
fed withthemostsecretof secrets
His father'was
From the exegesis of the Exegete [= 'Ali ibn Abi Talib] (54)
And[al-Khasibi]roseupto thehijdb [veil,see below],thehijdbof Allah
Untilhe castanchorin thesea of hearts
Andwas wateredwiththefinewineof Salsali[anepithetof Salman,thehijab]
Andhe wasgivento drinkby theLordof SufficientTruth
(50) safir, pi. sufard' (also wakil, pl. wukala'):The representativeswho accordingto the Shi'a remained
in touch with the Imam al-Mahdiduring the lesser occultation,until his final disappearancein the greater
occultation(260-329/874-941). See E. Kohlberg,"Safir,"E2 VIII (1995), pp. 811-812. Accordingto Shi'ite
traditions, the second safir, Abi Ja'far Muhammadibn 'Uthman, rejected and cursed Ibn Nusayr. See
E. Kohlberg,"Bara'ain Shi'i Doctrine,"JSAI7 (1986), p. 166.
(51) al-Tabarani,p. 128.
(52) ibid., p. 113.
(53) ibid., p. 112. In the same qasida, al-Khasibialso blesses the 70 muwahhidainof the "greatShi'a"(al-
sht'a al-kubri), probablyreferringto the 70 disciples of Hasan al-'Askari, including his uncle Ahmadand
his teacheral-Jannan.
(54) sahib al-tafstror al-ta'wil is an epithet of 'All among the Shi'a. See, e.g., al-Majlisi, vol. 39, p. 93;
vol. 40, p. 53.

99
 YARON FRIEDMAN

And he swore to give the careless [= the Shi'ites] (55)to drink

In the name of the slaughterer,the drinkof the slaughtered[hints at Husayn's
martyrdom]
And he will be seen by anyone who gazes upon him clearly
While he remainswithoutbeing present[hints at docetism (56)]
And the glorious grandsonof al-Khasibwill stand
At the head of the holy ones in the impressivearray
When he tells those who wanderedand strayed[again, hints at Shi'ites]
About Abui Shabbir [=Husayn or 'Ali] (57)and the Light of Giving... (58)

The verses of the qasida show that al-Khasib underwent a mystical expe-
rience that convinced him that he was right, and caused him to feel that a higher
being (perhaps the hijab Salman) had appointed him as leader of his community.
In this early stage of the development of the cult, the pillars of the Nusayri
theology (59) already appearin citations from al-khasibi: The Holy Trinity and its
appearance in human history (60),the docetism of al-Husayn (61), bdtin (secret or
mystical) meaning of Persian and Islamic holidays (62), and reincarnation.(63)

2.5. The beginning of propaganda:

al-Khasibi seems to have spread his message via open propaganda, and thus
to have placed himself and his disciples in severe danger. The center of the Isla-
mic Empire, Iraq, was extremely unstable, and this instability reached its height
in the first half of the 4th/lOth century. Yet the execution of al-Hallaj, the wides-
pread arrests initiated by the authorities in Baghdad and the liquidation of those
suspected of aiding the Carmathianrebels, did not deter al-Khasibi. (6) It would
(55) The Nusaynrscall the Shi'itesmuqassiraor dhlial-taqsir,since they believe thatonly they havepreser-
ved the originalreligionaccordingto the instructionsof the Imrm,while otherShi'ites performonly some of the
commandments.See H. Modarressi,Crisisand Consolidationin the FormativePeriod of Shii Islam (Princeton:
The DarwinPress, 1993),p. 41.
(56) On Docetismsee F. L. Crossand E. A.. Livingstone,The OxfordDictionaryof the ChristianChurch
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 1997),p.493;The Qur'anal-Nisa' (4):157.
(57) Abf Shabbiris Husayn'sepithetin a lamentin his memorysungat Karbala'.See, e.g., al-Majlisi,vol. 42,
p. 241. Abf Shabbirmightbe 'Al, as Shabbarand Shabbirare nicknamesof his sons Hasanand Husayn.Accor-
ding to a Shi'ite tradition,the two were given the same namesas Aaron'ssons (Sheferand Shafir)beforethese
nameswere translatedinto Arabicas Hasanand Husayn.See M. Bar-Asher,"Onthe place of Jews andJudaism
in earlyShi'itereligiousliterature,"Pe'amim61 (1994), p. 29 [in Hebrew].
(58) al-Tabarami, p. 59.
(59) Al-Adhaniattributeto Khasibithe foundationof the Nusayritheology,see:al-Adhani,p. 27.
(60) On the Nusayritrinity:Ma'na - Ism/Hijab- bab, see: Dussaud,pp. 41-67; ES, p.45b.On its appearance
as Ali - Muhammad- Salman,see for example:ibid., al-Tabarfni,p.56, ES, pp. 47a+b. On the last appearance,
thatof al-'Askari-al-Mahdi- ibn Nusayr,see:ES,p. 44a
(61) al-Hasibicomparesbetweenthedocetismof Jesusandthatof al-Husayn.See:al-Tabarani, pp.58,110-1111.
(62) On the nornzi,see: al-Tabarani,pp. 198-199;'Asheiri':ibid., p. 127;al-Ghadir:ibid., pp. 56-57.
(63)ibid.,p. 56.
(64) On the situationin Iraqin general,andin Baghdadin particular,
in thisperiod,see: Ibnal-Athir,al-Kdail
fi '-Ta'rikh(Beirut:Dar al-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya,1987), vol. 7, pp.l, 23, 34, 64, 74; A.A. Duri,"Baghdad,"El1 I
(1986), pp. 899-900:D. Sordel,"'Irak,"El2ml (1986), p. 1255.On al-Hallaj,see J. Baldick,MysticalIslam-An
Introductionto Sufism(London:I.B. Tauris,1989).pp. 46-49.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

seem thatthe Nusayritradition,accordingto which the governorof Baghdad

imprisonedal-Khasibiforopenlypreachinghis message,canbe datedto theper-
iod between 314-333/926-945. The end of the traditiondemonstratesthe
Nusayninatureof his teaching:"...Whenhe had the chance he ran away and
spreadamonghis disciplesthatthe lordMessiah[Jesus]had rescuedhim, and
thathe [Jesus]was [the reincarnation
of] Muhammadand of the eleven sons of
Muhammad'sdaughter[i.e., the ImamsdescendedfromFatima,the daughterof
the prophet Muhammad] ..." (65)
It would seem, then, that the cause of al-Khasibi'simprisonmentwas his
public preachingof his beliefs, which clearly denied Islamic principles.
2.6. The move to Syria and foundingof the sect:

al-Khasibi's persecution and imprisonmenton the one hand, and his

attractionto Jesus on the other,were probablythe reasonsfor his decision to
move to al-Sham ("greaterSyria"),where he acted with great circumspec-
tion, having learned his lesson in Baghdad.In a verse that appearsin two
Nusayrisources, al-Khasibiblesses al-Sham,the land where Jesus was born
and Muhammadascended to heaven, but curses its inhabitants.(66)This
shows that the Iraqi, of foreign origin and outlandishfaith, was confronted
by no few difficulties. Accordingto one source, the only place in which al-
Khasibiwas able to establisha communityin the region was Harran.(67) The
members of the community were called muwahhidun(monotheists). (68)
According to this source, the membersnumbered51: 17 Iraqis, 17 Syrians
and 17 "people of the secret standingat the gates of Harran."(69) Among
these muwahhidunwere future leaders of the community after al-Khasibi:
Muhammadibn 'All al-Jilli and 'Ali ibn 'Isa al-Jisrial-'Iraqial-Qatan. (70)
(65) al-Adhani,p. 16: wa-lammalaha[t - Middle Arabic,Y.F.] lahu fursatan haraba wa-ash'ara bavna
atbd'ihi bi-anna al-sawvidal-masih khalasahulavlan wa-annahumuhammadwa-abna' bint muhammadal-
ahad 'ashar.One should take care not to identify this descriptionwith a similarstoryaboutthe imprisonment
of HamdanQarmat,a mistake which repeatsitself among scholars. See, e.g., M. Moosa, ExtremistShiites -
The GhulatSects (New York: SyracuseUniversityPress, 1980), pp. 262-266, 504 (n.56). In this tradition,al-
Adhaniquotes verses in which al-Khasibiclains thatthe hijdbfreed him: A mercifulfathertold me O son of
al-Khasib,you arefree and releasedThroughthe veils (hujub)of the family of Ahmad[=the prophetMuham-
mad] So long as you live you are free, and full of their love.
The special relationship between al-Khasibi and the hijab is hinted at in the first sara of Kitab
al-Majnm':see al-Adhani,p. 9. On Middle Arabicin Nusayrnmanuscripts,see Bar-Asherand Kofsky, "An
early Nusayritheological dialogue,"pp. 261-262.
(66) al-Adhani,pp. 16, 23, 83. An almost identical version is in al-Tabarani,pp. 176-177.
(67) Yaqit, vol. 2, pp. 271-273. Yaqiit's commentthatthere is also a village near Aleppo called Harran
(wa-harrdnaydanmin qurtihalab) is worthyof note. The muwahhidfinmay have settlednearAleppoalready
at this stage, and this may hint as to why al-Khasibichose to move to this city shortlybefore his death.
(68) The city of Harranwas the center of the Sabaeansect, who were star-worshippers,and may have
influencedal-Khasibi.However, Dussaud's claim of Sabaeaninfluence on the Nusayriyyaremainsa theory
only. See Glasse, p. 340, al-Shahrastam,p. 660.
(69) al-Adhan, ibid. The number 17 is presumablyconnected to a ceremony describedby 'Ali al-Tur-
ba'i to al-Khasibi,in which the mnamHasan al-'Askariblessed 'Ali al-Turba'iand his disciples, and gave
him seventeendates. See al-Tabarfni,p. 129.
(70) al-Adhani,ibid.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

Abu '1-FadlMuhammadibn Husaynal-Muntajibal-'Ani mentionsHarranin

one of his verses, and in anotherpoem he states that "the sons of Namlr"
keep their faith in secret. (71)

2.7. The returnto Iraq:

Circumstancesin Baghdadchangedin 336/947, when the Persian-Shi'ite

Buyid dynasty seized power. (72) The new governmentwas an opportunity
for al-Khasibito returnto Iraq.A Nusayrisource statesthatal-Khasibiretur-
ned to Turbain 336/947, and found that the muwahhiduncommunitynum-
bered 140 persons. (73)According to the historianIbn al-Athir, a group of
infidels, whose views were similar to those of the muwahhidun,was arres-
ted in Baghdadin 340/951, afterthe deathof theirleaderAbufJa'farMuham-
mad ibn 'All ibn Abi Qaraqir.They addressedthe Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-
Dawla in the simple words nahnu sh"'at 'all ibn abl tdlib (We are the
supportersof 'Ali ibn Abi Talib), and were released. This incident could
indicate the ability of extremistShi'te groups to survive in Buyid Iraq.(74)

2.8. al-Khasibi's taqiyya- Posing as a Shi'ite tradent:

Despite his activity among the muwahhidin,surprisinglyenough al-Kha-

sibi appearsin Shi'ite literatureas an importanttransmittorof traditions.
Shi'ite traditionson his authoritywere recordedin the canonicalbook com-
posed by MuhammadBaqiral-Majlisi(d. 1267/1700).Traditionsin which al-
Khasibi appearsin the isnad deal, among others, with the transferenceof
divine light from one Imamto another,(75)the miraculousbirthof the twelfth
Imam, (76)and the importance of silence during prayer. (77)Traditions in which
he is the final link to Hasanal-'Askariincludethe tale of thejourneyof 70 dis-
ciples to Samarrato congratulatethe Imam on the birthof al-Mahdi(78)and
the date of al-'Askari'sdeath.(79)al-Khasibi'sbook Kitabal-Hiddyais men-
tioned in a list of books "aroundwhich the millstonesof the Shi'a turn"and
"thereis no Shi'ite householdfrom which they are absent."(80)"Thebook of
al-Husaynibn Hamdan"is describedas a praises-of-the-Imams work,buthere
(71) As'ad 'Ali, pp. 239-240.
(72) On the Buyids, see: M.G.S. Hodgson, "The Buyid Era,"in: S.H. Nasr et al. (eds.), The Expectation
of the Millenninum S Shiism in History (New York: SUNY Press, 1988), pp.155-158; J.L. Kraemer,Huma-
nism in the Renaisanceoflslam: The CulturalRevivalDuring the BuyidAge (Leiden:Brill, 1986); C. Cahen.
"Buwwayhids,"El2 I (1986), pp. 1350-1357; Modarresi,pp. 96-105.
(73) al-Tabarani,p. 131.
(74) Ibn al-Athir,p. 34.
(75) al-Majlisi, vol. 15, p. 4.
(76) ibid., vol. 15, pp. 25-28.
(77) ibid., vol. 82. p. 27.
(78) ibid., vol. 78, pp. 395-397.
(79) ibid., vol. 50. p. 335.
(80) ibid., vol. 102, pp. 37, 102.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

al-Majlisiaddsthata numberof biographersrejectedit (eitherthe book or al-

Khasibi himself). (81)
al-Khasilbihimself relatesin his book that, duringthis period of the crys-
tallizationof the Shi'a, he supportedthe Twelver view of the succession to
the Imam. In a house in east Baghdad, 'Askar al-Mahdi, he tried through
logic and analogy to prove to Ja'far's disciples that the Imam after al-
'Askartmust be his son Muhammad,and not Ja'far,the Imam's brother.(82)
Acording to this and anotherNusayri source, al-Khasibi heard a tradition
from Yahya ibn Muhammadal-Kharqi(or al-Barqi)in east Baghdadon al-
khattdabn(or: al-hattbin) fi qati'at malik ("the khattabinin Malik's land).
(83) Abu 'l-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Abu 'l-Hasan heard a traditionfrom al-Kha-
sibi in his house (it is unclearwhetherthis is Abu 'I-Tayyib's or al-Khasi-
bi's house) in the Bab al-Kuifaroad in Baghdad. (4) In 344/956 al-Khasibi
arrivedin Kufa, where he gave an ijdza (teaching permit) to Haruinibn
Musa al-Tal'akbarf,one of the most reliable and importantof Shf'ite tra-
dents. (85)Another respected Shl'ite of Kufa, Abu 'l-'Abbas ibn 'Uqda al-
Hafiz transmittedtraditionsfrom al-Khasibiand praisedhim. (86) However,
in later Shi'ite literatureal-Khasibiis considered less reliable. Ahmad ibn
'Ali al-Najashi's biographicaldictionaryshows that al-Khasibi was seen as
a transmittorof unreliabletraditions,and of faulty opinions (fdsid al-madh-
hab). (87)In his book Lisan al-Mizan,Ibn Hajaral-'Asqalanlquotes a Shi'ite
called Ibn al-Najashi, as saying of al-Khasibi: "He mixed and composed
[books] of the Nusayri religion and broughtevidence for them. He said: He
believed in the reincarnationof men and in the incarnationof the deity."(88)
Whetherhe was consideredreliable or not, we can conclude that al-Kha-
sibi succeeded in constructinga new image for himself in Baghdad, the
image of a learned Twelver Shi'ite. However, we should not jump to the
conclusion that al-Khasibi abandoned his secret principles. Rather, his
image should be seen as a useful cover for his activity (doubtlesslyclandes-
tine) meantto establishthe muwahhidunsect. In otherwords, he adoptedthe
Shi'ite principle of taqiyya, accordingto which the believer must keep his
faith secret, while outwardlybehavingas if he were one of his opponents.

(81) ibid., vol.1, p. 39.

(82) al-Khasib,ipp. 384-386. On Ja'far'ssupporters,see Muhammadibn Nu'man al-'AkbariShaykhal-
Mufid, al-Fusul al-Mukhtdra(Beirut:Dar al-Adwa', 1986), pp. 260, 262; Modarressi,pp. 84-86.
(83) al-Khasibi, pp.328-331, using the words al-kharqi, al-khattdbin;Ba'amra, pp. 18-19, using the
words al-barqi, al-hattdabn.
(84) al-Tabaram^, p. 133.
(85) Muhammadibn 'All al-Astarabadi,Minhaj al-Maqdl (Tehran:Mutabbi' Karbala'i Muhammad
Husayn al-Tahrani,1307 AH), p. 112. On al-Tal'akbari,see Agha Buzurg al-Tahrani,TabaqatA'l1m al-
Shi'a (Beirut:Dar al-Kutubal-'Arabiyya, 1971), vol. 2. pp. 188-189.
(86) Ibn Hajaral-'Asqalmni,Lisdnal-Mizdn(Beirut:Dar al-Fikr, 1987), vol. 2, pp. 343-344. On Abu '1-
'Abbas ibn 'Uqda, see ibid., vol. 1, pp. 287-289.
(87) See. e.g., Ahmadibn 'Ali al-Najashi,Rijal al-Najiishi (Beirut:Dar al-Adwa', 1988), vol. 1, p. 187.
(88) al-'Asqalani,p. 344: wa-dhakaraibn al-Najdshfannahu khallatawa-sannafafi nmadhhab al-Nusay-
rivya wa-ihtajjalahurnqdla wa-kAnayaqilui bi-'l-tandsukhwa-'l-hulll.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

2.9. The establishmentof the Iraqi center:

Togetherwith the Shi'ite activitiesdescribedabove, al-Khasibicontimued

to nurturehis community.The new atmosphereenabledal-Khasibito become
active in Baghdadonce more,and he appointedhis pupil 'All ibn 'Isa as head
of the muwahhidancommunitythere.(89)al-Khasibi'steachingsto al-Jisrican
be learnedfrom the Risalat al-Tawhidcomposed by one of al-Jisri'spupils.
This epistle is in the form of al-Jisri'squestions and al-Khasibi'sanswers,
mainlyon the subjectof the Nusayriholy trinity.(90)In this epistle al-Khasibi
explainsto al-Jisrnthatin the most recentmanifestationof the trinityto huma-
nity, IbnNusayrwas the bab, the thirdelementof the trinity.(91)

2.10. The connection with the Buyids:

al-Khasibi composed another epistle, entitled Rast Bash (Persian: Be

righteous!),which indicates its didactic purpose.Nothing of this epistle has
been preserved,except for two quotationsin Majmur'al-A'yad by al-Taba-
rani, al-Khasibi'ssuccessor. The two quotationsrefer to the mystic meaning
of the monthof Ramadan.(92) The epistle's Persiantitle might indicatethat
it was not intendedfor Arab muwahhidun.It connot be establishedwhether
the contents were written in Persian or in Arabic. (93)In Ta'rikh al-'Ala-
wiyyin it is reportedthat the epistle was dedicated to Adud al-Dawla, the
Buyid ruler of Iraq, who was therefore nicknamed rast bash al-daylami,
information that is unique to this source. (94)
al-Tawilpreferrednot to mentionin his Ta'rikhal-'Alawiyyitnthatin rea-
lity, the epistle was not dedicated to the famous ruler Adud al-Dawla, but
ratherto his brotherand rival, Abu Mansur 'Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar.(95)
Bakhtiyar,who was a successful poet and patronof poets, but a failureas a
ruler, is describedby the historianIbn al-Kathir(d. 774/1372) as "feeble-
minded and little [bothered] by religion," (96)and in Shi'ite traditionas
"pamperedand a seeker of pleasureand wine." (97)
In Arabic Bakhtiyar's nickname was corrupted,and he was called ras
bash, as evinced by the poet al-Muntajib's596-line panegyric dedicatedto
(89) He is called "al-Jisri"in two sources,see ES fo. 42b; al-Tawil, p. 259; Accordingto Ta'rkh al-'Ala-
wiv'vin(ibid.), this was because he was the inspectorof the bridges of Baghdad.
(90) It can be assumed,from the wordingof the beginningof the epistle, thatit was transmittedby a pupil
of al-Jisri.See ES, fo. 42. On the Nusayri trinity,see Halm, "Nusayriyya,"p. 148.
(91) ES, fo. 44a.
(92) al-Tabarani,pp. 12-13, 154.
(93) The possibilitythatal-Khasibi'sepistle was translatedto Persianis not unlikely. Brockelmannstates
that Massignonreadal-Hidaia al-Kubrdin Persian(Brockelmann,SI, p. 326).
(94) al-Tawil. p. 260.
(95) On the Buyid rulers,see Kraemer,pp. 31-102.
(96) Ibn Kathir,al-Bidaya wa-'l-Nihdya (Beirut:Maktabatal-Ma'rif, 1988), vol. 11, p. 290: wa-kana
'izz al-dawla da'if al-'aql wa-qalil al-din.
(97) al-Majlis., vol. 41, p. 352.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBi

him. (98) It would seem that al-Muntanjibis the link connecting al-Khasibi
and Bakhtiyar,as he composed poems in honorof both of them. This, howe-
ver, is not sufficient evidence to prove that he mediatedbetween them.

2.11. al-Khasibi appoints a successor in Iraq:

Before al-Khasibileft Iraqfor the last time, he left a kind of "will"to al-
Jisri.The last partof Risalat al-Tawhtdshows him explaining to al-Jisrihow
to transmittraditionsfrom him, and asked him to follow his path:
I command you, sir, to be in contact with your brothers[the muwahhi-
dun]... and that you say [when transmittinga traditionto them]: X son of Y
told me, on the authorityof Abu 'Abdallahal-Husaynibn Hamdanal-Kha-
sibi, on the authorityof 'Abdallahal-Jannan(99)... [Next page:] Do not pole-
micize throughit [= knowledge] with the ignorant,('1) and do not argue[lit.
expose your teeth] over it with the mistaken,and be as a fortressto them, do
not hide what you know from your brothers,and do not suspect [thatthey
will reveal] what you understand, and beware of thieves ... [Next page:]
Fear God with a true fear, know him with a true knowledge and be a true
monotheist..." (10')
We may also conclude from the epistle that already in al-Khasibi's time
there were theological disputes among the muwahhidun.(102)

(98) As'ad 'All, p. 17. The name Shihab al-Din Bakhtiyaribn Abi Mansir Rasbash al-Daylami al-
'Ajami appearsin Brockelmannas that of the Nusayri authorof a long mystical qastda on the family of the
ProphetMuhammad(Brockelmann,SI, p. 326).
(99) Regardingthe isnad thatal-Khasibimentions,he explains thatal-Jannanreceived traditionsdirectly
from the last Imamsand theirintimateassociates,e.g. Yahya ibn Mu'in (see Halm, "Das Buch der Schatten,"
pp. 237, 254), Muhammadibn Isma'l al-Hasani and 'Askar ibn Muhammad(unidentified).The first two
appearin the isndds of al-Hidaya al-Kubra.Yahya: ibid., p. 392; Muhammad:ibid., pp. 353, 357, 367.
(100) In his epistle to al-Jisri,al-Khasibiuses the termjuhhdl(ignorant)to referto those who should not
know the secrets. In his conversationwith 'Abdallahibn Harin al-Sa'igh, he states thatthe secret knowledge
is salvationfor the 'drifin(those who know; ES, fo. 51b). This indicates that al-KhasibTused these termsto
differentiate between his intimates (the pupils of Harran)and other people. However, one should not
conclude that at this early stage in the sect's development,there was the differentiationbetween the khlssa
and the 'amma(elite and lower class, names for initiatedand non-initiatedNusayris) that exists today. On
this division, see Dussaud,pp. 117-118. It seems thatat this stagejuhhal and 'drifinreferto muwahhiditnand
non-muwahhiduin, as throughoutal-Khasibi's writings there is no prohibitionon teaching his secrets within
the sect. In Risdlat al-Tawhid, al-Khasibieven tells al-Jisri not to conceal his knowledge from his brother
muwahhidiun.
(101) ES, fo. 47b-48b: ... uwassiukaya saviidi bi-silat ikhwanika... wa-taqtilhaddathanifildn 'anfiulin
ibnfiiln 'an abt 'abdallahal-husayn ibn hamdan 'an abi 'abdalldhal-jannan ... a1tintmribihi al-juhhdlwa-
a tlukashir bihi ahl al-dalal wa-kun lahum hirzan wa-la tukatimikhwanakama ta'lamuhuiwa-la tazunn
'alayhinm mn tafhamuhuwa-ihdar[ihdhars Middle Arabic, Y.F.] al-lustIs ... fa-taki llah haqq tuqiitihiwa-
i'raf bi-llah haqq ma'rifatihiwa-wahhidhuhaqq tawhidihi...
(102) ES, fo. 46a.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

2.12. The center in Aleppo and the appointmentof a successor in Syria:

In his last years al-Khasibireturnedto Syria,choosing to live in Aleppo or

its vicinity.(103) The Shi'iteArabdynastyof the HamdanidsruledAleppofrom
333/945. These circumstancesenabledhim to live thereunderhis respectable
Shi'ite identity, while secretly managingthe affairs of his community.He
expressedhis Shi'ite identityin his book, al-Hiddyaal-Kubrd,on the twelve
Imams, which he dedicated,accordingto al-Tawil, to the court of Sayf al-
Dawlaal-Hamdani.('04)Thisnoticeis reinforcedby anothersource:The Shi'ite
biographersseem to have preferrednot to mentionthe tale of al-Khasibiat the
Hamdanitecourt. However, this matterhas been preservedby Ibn Hajaral-
'Asqalani,who writes of him, "it is said that he used to frequentSayf al-
Dawla."(105)The word "said"hints that the authorof the source used by al-
'Asqalam,probablya Shi'ite, madean effortto presentthe noticeas unreliable.
We learn of al-Khasibi'ssecret activities among the muwahhidanfrom
Nusayrisources.al-Khasibichose one of his disciplesfromHarran,Muhammad
ibn 'AlI al-Jilli,to lead the muwahhidanof Aleppo. ('06)Accordingto al-Taba-
rani,al-Khasibiexplainedto al-Jillithatin certainversesof his Qasidaal-Gha-
diriyyahe had intendedto satirizevarioussects, includingthe Hallajiyya(the
supportersof the crucifiedal-Hallajibn Mansur)andthe Ishaqiyya.(107)Howe-
ver,in thisparticularcase, it is difficultto determinewhetherthis is a quotation
from al-Khasibihimself, or materialreworkedlaterby al-Tabarani.The main
sourcefor al-Khasibi'sinstructionof al-Jilliis a numberof Nusayritraditionsin
which al-Khasibiteachesal-Jillldoctrineslike allegoricalinterpretations of the
Qur'an,the Nusayritrinity,Husayn'sdocetismandreincarnation. (108)
In 346/957 al-Khasibidied at an advancedage, while the Hamdanidsstill
ruled Aleppo. (l@O) According to anotherversion, he died in 358/969, (]0)
when the Byzantines gave up their seige of the city due to the plague there.
("') His grave in north Aleppo, where - according to al-Tawil - he is called
ShaykhYabraq,is the last piece of evidence for his residencein the city. (112)
al-Khasibidevoted his life to the spreadingof Ibn Nusayr's principles,as
they had been transmittedto him by his disciples. He transformedthe prin-
ciples Ibn Nusayrhad handedon to individualsinto the crystallizedreligion
of an entire community, extending along the Euphrates.His biographycan
be summarizedas follows:

(103) On the mention of anotherplace, HarrannearAleppo, by Yaqft, see above, n. 61.

(104) al-Tawil, p. 259.
(105) al-'Asqalani, pp. 3443-344: ... qUla innahu k6na
ca 'ulmmusaf al-dadwla.
(106) al-Tawl, p. 259.
(107) al-Tabarani,p. 72.
(108) Ba'amra,pp. 1. 2, 6. 12, 13.
(109) al-Tawil, p. 259.
(110) al-Tahrani,vol. 1, p. 112. al-'Amili. p. 345.
(111) Ibn al-Athir,p. 314.
(112) al-Tawil, p. 259.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

Year Place Event Formation of Nusayrt religious element

260/873 (?) Iraq:Junbala Birth. education(family)

273/886 Al-Madina Prayerin mosque
282/895 Mecca Hajj
Before 287/900 Iraq:Junbala Education(al-Jannan) Holiness of ibn Nusayr.
(Jannan'sdeath)
314/926 Turba Education('Ali ibn Ahmad) Secret meaning of 'AshOra,Ibn Nusayr
is the < bdb >. Al-Khasibiis the sect's leader.
Before 333/945 Baghdad Public preachingand arrest Jesus muhammadand the Imamsare one
(rise of the Buyids) (the "ist" or "hijdb'thatal-khasibiclaimedhe met).
? al-Sham:Harran Establishmentof teaching
/ propagandacenters
336/947 Iraq:Turbl Visit to miiwahhid9ncommunity
? Baghdad:1) east Religious disputation. The Nusayri <<Taqiyya>.
Baghdad. transmissionof traditions
'Askaral-Mahdi:
2) al-Khattabin.
Qati'at Malik:
3) Bab al-KOfa.

344/956 Kufa Giving of ijaza to al-Tal'akbari

? Baghdad Appointmentof al-Jisri The <Taswhid,(monotheism).
before departure. The Trinity:"-na'na'."ism"
dedicationof Risalat or "hijitb"and "bdb".
Rast Bash Secret meaningof Ramadan.
346/957 or al-Sham:Aleppo Appointmentof al-Jilli. Docetism. Allegorical
358/969 Dedicationof al-Hi&dasya interpretationsof the Qur'an
al-Ktibrd.death. and reincarnation.

3. al-Khasibt's literary writings

al-Khasibi's writings are of two types: Nusayri and Shi'ite.

3.1. Nusayrnworks:

Nusayri traditionattributesa numberof poems to al-Khasibi,but the only

one actuallyto be namedis the Qas?daal-Ghadlriyya,broughtapparentlyin
its entirety by al-Tabarani,which deals with the mystical meaning of Gha-
dir Khumm. (113) al-Tabaranieven quotes verses from other poems by al-
Khasibf in order to reinforce his claims, all with correct metre and a set
rhyme. al-Adhaniquotes tarainim(sing. tarnima),hymns, in which al-Kha-
sibi praises God. (114) Modern sources, such as al-Adhani in the nineteenth
centuryand As'ad 'Ali in the twentieth,quote verses from dtwanal-Khasbil
thatare not mentionedin otherpoems, which includeNusayriprinciplesand
(113) al-Tabarani, pp. 56-58.
(114) al-Adhani, pp. 51-52.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

autobiographical elements. ("5) It would seem that al-Khasibi left many

poems, most of which are now lost. Their purpose was to express complex
theological ideas in a ceremonialand aestheticfashion, so thatthey could be
learnedby the muwahhidun.
al-Tabaranimentions epistles of al-Khasibi's,but apparentlyis referring
to three which were at his disposal. One epistle, which was possibly given
to al-Jilli, was called Fiqh Risalatihi ("The Law of His Epistle"),and was
divided into chapters.We know that one chapterdealt with the doctrineof
Husayn's docetism, (16) and anotherwith the Persianmanifestationsof the
trinity. (117) The second epistle mentioned by name is al-risala al-rastba-
shiyya, whose correctname is apparentlyRdstBdsh, referredto by al-Tawil.
The quotationsfrom it appearingin al-Tabaraniare in Arabic, although,as
mentionedabove, it was dedicatedto the Persianruler Bakhtiyar.al-Taba-
rani calls it risalatihi ("his epistle") for short, and the passage takenfrom it
deals with mystical meaningsof the days of the year and of festivals (espe-
cially Ramadan).(18) The thirdepistle is called al-Siyaqa ("the transport"),
and it is mentionedonce by al-Tabaraniwithin the context of the manifesta-
tions of the ma'nd and the ism from Adam to Muhammad.("9)
Another epistle, known from MS Paris 1450 as Risalat al-Tawh&d, is a
collection of questions and answers regardingthe true natureof the divine
trinity.However, the contentsare similarto a discussion between al-Khasibi
and al-Jisriabouta certainunnamedepistle of the former's.(120) In the same
manuscriptappears an additionalepistle, edited by al-Jisri, describing al-
Khasibi's teachings to 'Abdallah ibn Harun on the relations between the
ma'ni and the ism. (121) The epistles are collections of traditions dealing with
various theological issues, in a (disciple's) question and (master's) answer
format. In contrastto the poems, which were meant for the religious cere-
monies of all the muwahhiduin, the epistles (except for Rdst Bash) seem to
have been dedicatedonly to prominentmenbersof the sect, with whom the
issue at stake had been discussed.

3.2. Shi'ite works:

Shi'ite literaryhistory attributesmany books to al-Khasibi,but many of

them are differentnames for the same book. al-Hiddya, (122) called also al-
Hiddya al-Kubrd, Ta'rikhal-A'imma and al-Hiddya fi Ta'rikh al-A'imma
(115) ibid., pp. 13, 16. 85; As'ad 'All, p. 232.
(116) al-Tabaram,n pp. 108-109, 110-111; Ba'amra,p. 13.
(117) al-Tabaranip. 189.
(118) ibid., pp. 19, 108, 155 (explicitly). It may be concluded that risdlatihi is Rdst Bdsh, as the same
mattersare dealt with in both; al-Tawil, p. 260.
(119) al-Tabarani,p. 188, and see Strothmann'scomment, n. 4.
(120) ES, fo. 42a-b.
(121) ibid..fo. 48b, 176b.
(122) The earliestdocumentationfor the book is al-Tabarani,p. 97. who calls the book Kitdbal-Hiddva.

108
 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBi

wa-Mu'jizactihim, (123) is the only Shi'ite book composed by al-Khasibito

have survived to the present.The book comprises traditionsabout the Pro-
phet Muhammad,his daughterFatima and the twelve Imams. al-Khasbib
states there that he has abridgedthe materialso that the book would not be
too long, and indeed, Shi'ite traditionstransmittedby al-Khasibi exist that
do not appearin al-Hidaya, but in otherNusayri sources. (124)The book was
dedicated,as mentionedabove, to Sayf al-Dawla, the rulerof Aleppo. (25)
Otherbooks are not availableto presentresearchersand theircontentsare
unknown:al-lkhwan and al-Masa'il are mentionedin Shi'ite literature,(126)
and also by the Sunnite Ibn Hajaral-'Asqalani. (127)In addition, two other
Shi'ite works are mentioned,Asma' al-Nabl wa-'l-A'imma(128) and Risalat
al-Takhlit, (129) of which the latter, whose name means "confusion," may
have been a Nusayri work.
We saw above that the Nusayri materialwas composed in the formatof
poems and epistles, ratherthan books, which were expensive and required
financingby a patron.As the patronsin al-Khasibi'simmediateenvironment
were the Buyids and the Hamdanids,he was able to compose books only
about the principlesof Twelver Shi'ism. Possibly Risalat al-Takhlftwas the
only epistle given to a Shi'ite rulerratherthan a leader of the muwahhidun,
which was how the Shi'ites came to know of it. In this case, the epistle might
be Rast Bash underanothername.
To sum up: Most of al-Khasibl's works are lost. His Nusayri works may
have disappeareddue to a numberof causes: Persecutionof the sect by the
Muslim authoritiesthroughouthistory probablybroughtabout the destruc-
tion of material.It is possible that rivalry between different Nusayri sects
and tribes also caused the loss of some data. However, it may be assumed
that there is still a quantityof Nusayri materialthat has never been studied,
due to the sacred writings being concealed from non-initiates.The fact that
Shi'ite workspreservedonly the traditionsin the Hiddya shows thatal-Kha-
sibi's other books were lost within a few centuriesof his death. This rein-
forces the assumptionthatthe Hiddyawas his most prominentShi'ite work,
and also, perhaps,the least taintedby ghuluww.

(123) al-Najashi,vol. 1, p. 187; al-Astarabadi,p. 112; 'Abdallahal-Mamaqani,Tanqfhal-Maqal ([n.p.]:

Mubashiratal-UstadhMuhammadRida, 1352 H.), p. 326; Agha Buzurg al-Tahrani,al-Dhari'a ild Tasdnif
al-Shia (Najaf: MaktabatSahib al-Dhari'aal-'Amma, 1978), vol. 25, pp. 164-165; al-'Amili, p. 347.
(124) al-Khasibi,p. 414. For traditionsthat are not in the Hidiya, see, e.g., Ba'amra,p. 21, the tradition
about the miracleof the Imam al-Rida.
(125) al-Tawil, p. 260. He claims that the book was writtenwhile AbOFiras al-Hamdfni was held cap-
tive by the Byzantines.
(126) al-Najashi,ibid.; al-Astarabadi,ibid.; al-Mamaqani,ibid.; al-'Amili, ibid. al-lkhwdn is mentioned
also by al-'Asqalini, ibid. al-Adhanimay have known a commentaryon the Masd'il by al-Tabarai^,called
al-Dald'il bi-Ma'rifatal-Masa'il (al-Adhani,p. 17).
(127) al-'Asqalani,vol. 2, pp. 343-344.
(128) Ahmadibn Hasanal-Tfisi, Fihrist Kutubal-Shi'a (Najaf: al-Matba'aal-Haydariyya,1961), p. 82;
al-'Amili, ibid.
(129) al-Najashi,ibid.; al-Astarabadi.ibid.; al-Mamaqam,ibid.; al-'Amili, ibid.

109
 YARON FRIEDMAN

al-Khasibi'sworksmay have been lost because the Shi'ites did not regard
them as reliable. al-Najashicomplainsthathe is fasid al-madhhab (theolo-
gically unsound), and most biographers,following this, considered him
completely unsound. (130) However, later attitudes seem to have changed,
perhapsbecause only the Hidaya was known. We saw that al-Majlisi quo-
ted him and considered him most reliable. The question of al-Khasibi's
reliability has been raised in the modern period by the Shi'ite biographer
Muhsin al-Amin al-'Amili. Despite referringto early biographies,al-'Amili
states thatalthoughal-Khasibican be acused of ghuluww,as a tradenthe is
reliable.He bringsforwardtwo proofsfor this: (a) The reliableal-Tal'akbari
received an ijaza from him; (b) Sayf al-Dawla received him at his court.
Therefore, he claims, al-'Asqalani's accusation that al-Khasibi was a
Nusayri is untrue. (131) al-'Amili's reaction shows the difficulty existing
among Shi'ite biographersin evaluatingthe ghulat, due to theirpivotal role
in the shaping of Twelver Shi'ism. (132)

4. Conclusions

The Nusayri materialavailable to researcherstoday is limited. Yet, all

sources show that Husayn ibn Hamdanal-Khasibiplayed a crucial role in
the formationof the sect's theology. al-Khasibialso laid the foundationsfor
the Nusayri religious law developed by Maymunibn al-Qasim al-Tabarani.
al-Khasibl changed the patternsof activity among Ibn Nusayr's disciples.
Formerly,the disciples had transmittedthe mystic traditionspersonallyto a
small group of initiates, and most of them died before passing on their
secrets. Two disciples transmittedtheir knowledge to al-Khasibi:al-Jannan
and al-Turba'L.al-Khasibidid not continue this clandestine traditionof his
masters. Under the impulse of his religious enthusiasm,he endangeredhis
life duringa stormyperiodof Baghdad'shistory by the public preachingof
the principleshe had learned.al-Khasibiwas not the only persecutedmystic
in Baghdad.He presumablyknew of al-Hallajand extreme SufTand Shi'ite
groups and was influenced by them. Had al-Khasi'binot fled Baghdad,the
Nusayriyyamay very well not have existed.
al-Khasibichose the Euphratesrouteand went northto Harran,where he
truly founded the Namfriyya, later called the Khasibiyya and the Nusay-
(130) al-'Amili, vol. 15, p. 347.
(131) ibid.. p. 348.
(132) The ghuldt played an importantpartin the forming of the Shi'a, some of them being intimatesof
the Imams.The Shi'ites preservedtraditionsfrom them while rejecting their views. al-'Amili tried to settle
this problem.and quoted the seventh Imam,Misa al-Kazim,as saying with regardto the ghulLit that Allah
created people with faith, and later took away their faith, when He wished to punish them. See al-Majlisi,
vol. 48, p. 116. al-Majlisiexplains thatthereare two statesof ghuldt:a state of walking in the TruePath(isti-
qdinla) and a state of exaggeration(ghuluww)and the sin of confusion with non-Islamicelements (takhlt).
Their traditionsshouldbe accepted when they are in the first state, and rejectedwhen they are in the second.
See ibid., vol. 2. pp. 253-254. On the Shi'a's more tolerantattitudetowardsthe Nusayrisas comparedto the
Sunna. see above, n. 13.

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 AL-HUSAYN IBN HAMDAN AL-KHASIBI

riyya. Fromhere on the elements characteristicof a sect began to exist: lea-

dership,community,organizedactivities and principles.Harranwas a cen-
ter for the study of ghuldt traditionstransmittedto al-Khasibi. Prominent
pupils at Harranbecame the leaders of the sect and al-Khasibi's successors.
al-Khasibiconsideredthe sect he foundedthe truecontinuationof the Shi"a,
which had been left without an Imam, and the principles he taught have
remainedthose of the Nusayriyya to this day.
al-Khasibiwas torn all his life between the Shi'a and the Nusayriyya.He
was educatedas a Shi'ite and later by the disciples of Ibn Nusayr. He lived
in the world of Shi'ite Islam, while absorbingIbn Nusayr's traditions.His
bitter experiences in Baghdad drove him to the conclusion that the best
defense for the sect he had founded would be secret activity on the partof
the faithfuland his own taqiyya. al-Khasibi's taqiyya was expressed by his
actingoutwardlyas a Shi'ite, in orderto live as a Nusayriin secret.This phe-
nomenonis explainedby the rule of Shi'ite dynastiesthroughoutthe Islamic
world at the time the sect was founded.
al-Khasibiundoubtedlywas a charismaticfigure, a poet and a thinkerof
stature.LearnedShi"itestransmittedtraditionson his authorityand discus-
sed religion with him, while he used his travelsbetween Harranand Kifa to
establish two secret Nusayri centers, in Iraqand in Syria. The two worlds,
the Shi'ite and the Nusaynr,were completely different, but taqiyya preven-
ted the accusationof heresy.
al-Khasibi,who claimed to continue"thetrue Shi'a," foundeda new reli-
gion. Elementsforeign to Islam that had trickledinto ghulat ideas since the
earliestdays of the Shi'a received prideof place and became articlesof faith
for al-Khasibi.While there is no evidence at all for pagan influences on al-
Khasibi, the roots of many traditionsthat he transmittedare to be found
among the ghulat of Kufa. Presumablyal-Khasibi was also influenced by
Sufism. The sect was called a tariqa, its membersformeda kind of Sufi bro-
therhood,and al-Khasibiwas called shaykh.He even called his community
muwahhidun,a typical Sufi epithet. However, this influence seems to have
been limited to these externals, and al-Khasibilearned from the Sufis only
the organizationof a group led by a mystic.
The story of al-Khasibi can teach us about the Shi'a after the disappea-
ranceof the Imam,and about the characterof the Shi'ite dynasties.It seems
that the Buyids and Hamdanidswere partyto the disarrayamong the Shi'a
caused by the absence of the Imams. This situationenabled the activity of
dissident Shi'ite groups, which did not accept the authorityof the sufara'
and considered themselves the true successors of the Shi'a of the Imams.
However,as we have seen, these groupsrequiredtaqiyyain orderto survive,
even under the wings of the Shi'ite dynasties. This shows that Twelver
Shi'ism was acceptedby these dynasties,and there was surveillanceof ghu-
lat groups,althoughno violent persecution.This limited tolerancemade al-
Khasibi's activity possible.

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 YARON FRIEDMAN

al-Khasibi's ability to gather supportersindicates the crisis among the

Shi'ite masses, who looked for guidance in the absence of an Imam. As
Twelver Shi'ism crystallized,so did ghulat groups headed by charismatic
figures. The Shi'a rejectedthese groups;however, despite the ostracismof
the Nusayriyya, al-KhasTbihimself was not personally affected, due to his
use of taqiyya.His success was so greatthathe continuesto appearin Shi'ite
literatureas an importanttradentto this very day, at the same time as he
appearsin Nusayri literatureas the founderof the sect's mystical theology.

The developmentof many religionsis linked to two main figures, usually

the preacherand the founder.Thereis an ideological connectionbetweenthe
two, but usually the foundersets the forms in which the religion is expres-
sed and gives it his personal interpretation,e.g., in Christianity:Jesus and
Paul; in Islam: Muhammadand 'Umar; among the Druze: al-Hakim and
Hamzaibn 'Alt; among the Baha'is: the Bab andBaha'allah.(133) IbnNusayr
was the first preacherof the Nusayriyya, while al-KhasTbiwas the actual
founderof the sect. The Nusayriyyais both a sect thatderives from the Shi'a
and a new religion no longer partof Islam.

YaronFrieman

(133) See H. Lazarus-Yafeh,"'Umarb. al-Khattab:The Paulof Islam?"in idem., SomeReligiousAspects

of Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1981), pp. 1-16.

112