TEXT II: USING COMMAS Right.
The above sentence is composed of two independent clauses, each informing
Consider the following sentence:
On part B of your test, you have to questions 1 and 2 or 3.
According to these instructions, do you have to answer question 1 and then
choose from either 2 or 3 or alternatively, choose from doing 1 and 2
together or make do with 3 instead of them both?
Well, it all depends on where a comma is placed. For the first option,
the test writers should have written "questions 1, and then 2 or 3." For the
second option, they should have written "questions 1 and 2, or 3." As you
can see, in addition to its traditional use in creating pauses for the reader in
a long text, comma proper use can also clarify ambiguous meanings when
the sentence contains multiple chunks of information.
What is the comma?
In English, the comma has numerous uses, which can be grouped into five
main usage categories. The basic function of the comma is to divide
between "light" elements within a sentence that have some relation in
meaning to each other, as a period separates between "heavier" full
sentences, which each convey a separate piece of meaning. Such a large
variety in comma rules may lead to many errors English writers often make.
You should also note that there may be many exceptions to the rules, as
commas are to be used to make things as clear as possible for the reader,
even when this comes contrary to the rules. Alternatively, you may consider
avoiding using the comma by simply dividing a long sentence into two
shorter ones using a period. Skilled writers develop a "feel" for effective
comma usage as they progress with their English writing.
The five uses of the comma are:
1. Separating the main elements of a sentence from each
other
2. Setting off a parenthetical element from the rest of the
sentence
3. Separating elements in a series
4. Setting off dialogues or quotations
5. Other uses of the comma
1. Separating the main elements of a sentence from each other
Right or wrong?
The students completed their math test on Monday, and the teachers
handed in the grades on Thursday.
about two different people who did different things. A comma is needed before the
coordinating conjunction and even though some English writers do not use a comma in
such a case.
1. Use a comma before (not after) a coordinating conjunction that links two or more
independent clauses. The coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, yet, so.
The math test scores were low, but the English papers were outstanding.
The students had not completed all their exams, nor did the teachers finish
grading the papers.
2. If the two independent clauses are short and there is no risk of ambiguity if a comma
is not used, you can omit the comma. However, in academic writing comma usage is
always preferred.
The grades were final and there was no discussion about them.
3. Do not use a comma within clauses, dividing between subject and predicate or
separating between parts of compound subjects and compound predicates. In other
words, do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction to separate only two
words, two phrases or two dependent clauses. In the following examples, no comma is
needed as they are all short one-clause sentences with no series of more than two
consecutive parts.
No: The students, and the teachers celebrated the end of the school year.
No: The students finished their tests, and went out for a break.
No: The students wanted to study French, and Spanish.
4. You should always use a comma within any type of clause, if there is risk for ambiguity
or confusion without using a comma. Therefore, good writers always edit their English
writing and check for places where punctuation marks can clarify cases of double
meaning.
The students managed to complete only their math tests and the English papers
and the biology project had to be delayed to next month.
Analysis: In the above example, not having a comma makes it unclear which
assignments the students have already completed. Here are the two possible cases:
1) The students managed to complete only their math tests, and the English
papers and the biology project had to be delayed to next month.
2) The students managed to complete only their math tests and the English
papers, and the biology project had to be delayed to next month.
5. You should use a comma to separate an independent clause from an introductory
element that comes before it and relates to the clause as a whole.
• Because the final grades were high, the teacher canceled the planned quiz.
[introductory dependent clause]
• Due to the high grades, the teacher canceled the planned quiz.
[introductory phrase]
 • However, the teacher did not cancel handing in the final papers.
[introductory word]
6. It is not necessary to use a comma when a part of the clause is moved to
the beginning for emphasis (not according to usual clause word order).
At two o'clock the test began. ( Instead of The test began at two
o'clock).
7. When the extra element follows the independent clause, you should
separate them with a comma only if the element is not essential to the
meaning of the independent clause. In such a case, the final element only
adds extra information.
a) The students were ready to leave when the teacher arrived. OR
The students were ready to leave because the teacher arrived.
(final essential dependent clause)
No comma is used because the meaning of the dependent clause is
essential to the meaning of the independent clause. Only when the teacher
arrived, could the students, who were probably waiting for him, leave.
b) The students were ready to leave, when the teacher arrived.
(final non-essential dependent clause)
A comma is used as the two clauses give two separate pieces of
information. The students were leaving and the teacher just happened to
show up.
8. If the following dependent clause expresses strong contrast, separate it
with a comma, even though it is essential.
The students were very satisfied, although they had all received very
low grades.
2. Setting off a parenthetical element from the rest of the sentence
Right or wrong?
Last week's test says my best friend was the hardest ever.
It depends. In the above example sentence, says my best friend is probably
not a part of the main sentence Last week's test was the hardest ever, and
therefore should be separated with commas. Without commas, the reader
may get confused and think that the test "says" that the friend was the
hardest, while it is the test that was the hardest. Says my best friend serves
as a comment, known as a parenthetical element. The correct punctuation
would therefore be:
Last week's test, says my best friend, was the hardest ever.
1. A parenthetical element is extra text added to a sentence as an "aside" which acts as
a temporary digression, which interrupts the flow of the sentence. It merely provides
extra emphasis, effect or commentary. If we removed it, neither the structure nor the
meaning of the sentence would be changed.
2. A parenthetical element is separated from the sentence using one of three
punctuation marks, according to how much emphasis the writer wants the aside to have.
• Dan Smith (usually the top student in the class) got the highest results.
[Parenthesis de-emphasize, denoting lack of importance]
• Dan Smith, usually the top student in the class, got the highest results.
[Commas denote that the aside is an integral element of the sentence but not
so important]
• Dan Smith ― usually the top student in the class ― got the highest results.
[Dashes draw specific attention to the aside, denoting it as important to
notice]
3. Different types of parenthetical elements can be words, phrases or clauses.
• All the students, I am happy to say, passed the exam successfully.
[commentary clause]
• The top student in the class, according to the grades, is Dan Smith.
[explanatory phrase]
• That top student, therefore, received the annual school scholarship.
[discourse marker]
• I ask you, students of this institution, to invest more in your studies.
[words of direct address]
• I hope you will not forget these great school years, will you?
[Tag question]
4. If both the sentence and the parenthetical element are short and there is no risk of
ambiguity if a comma is not used, you can omit the comma. However, in academic
writing comma usage is always preferred.
The grades therefore were good enough. [no comma]
5. It is important to know that what may seem to be an extra non-essential parenthetical
element can actually be vital to the understanding of the sentence and is by no means
parenthetical. An extra sentence element can be either restrictive or non-restrictive of
the sentence meaning. As mentioned elsewhere, commas are used only with non-
restrictive elements.
6. A restrictive element (also called "defining" or "limiting") can be a word, phrase or
clause that gives crucial information, without which the sentence's intended meaning
would be unclear. It precisely defines the subject it refers to and therefore not separated
with commas, which would denote it as parenthetical.
Ann went to the party with her British friend Sara, Tom, and his father.
(Sara is a restrictive word not separated from her British friend with a comma)
 [Here we know that Ann's British friend is called Sara, as the word
Sara restricts or defines the identity of her British friend. We also
know that Ann went with three people.]
7. A non-restrictive element (also called "non-defining" or "non-limiting") can
be a word, phrase or clause that gives extra information, without which the
sentence's intended meaning is fully clear. It does not define the subject it
refers to and could actually be left out. It is therefore separated with
commas, which denote it as parenthetical.
Ann went to the party with her British friend, Sara, Tom, and his
father.
(Sara is a non-restrictive word, separated from her British friend)
[Here we do not know what Ann's British friend is called. Sara does
not define the identity of the British friend. We also know that Ann
went with four people.]
8. In many cases, the restrictive or non-restrictive element is a dependent
relative clause that begins with relative pronouns such as that, who, which,
where, when, whose, what, etc.
a) The students who cheated on the test failed the course.
[Here the relative clause in bold is restrictive as it defines who failed
the course. We may assume that there are other students who did
not fail the course. The clause restricts the possibility of having more
failing students, as only those who cheated on this specific test failed
the course. Since this clause is vital to the sentence's message
(“some students failed”), it is not separated by commas.]
b) The students, who cheated on the test, failed the course.
[Here the relative clause in bold is non-restrictive as it does not
define a specific sub-group of students who failed the course. We
may assume that all the students failed as the sentence is about one
group of students. The clause merely adds extra information, which is
here the reason for failing. Since this clause is not vital to the
sentence's message (“all the students failed”), it is separated by
commas as a parenthetical element.]
9. Another way (more used in American English) to clarify whether extra
elements are restrictive or non-restrictive is to use that (with no preceding
comma) only in restrictive relative clauses and ", which / who" in non-
restrictive relative clauses (with a preceding comma).
a) The teacher talked to the school principal that was sitting next to
the window.
[restrictive clause, there are more than one school principal and the
teacher talked only to the one sitting]
b) The teacher talked to the school principal, who was sitting next to the window.
[non-restrictive clause, there is one school principal, who just happened to be
sitting next to the window while the teacher was talking to him.]
3. Separating elements in a series
Right or wrong?
Dan's lifelong project is to be able to speak American English French German and
Mandarin Chinese.
Wrong. In the above example sentence the language names come in a series whose
elements should be separated with commas. In addition, not having a comma between
"American" and "English" may make readers think that there is an independent language
called "American," whereas it is considered only as an English language variety; or
conclude that there is a French variety of German. The correct punctuation would be:
Dan's lifelong project is to be able to speak American English, French, German,
and Mandarin Chinese.
1. A series is a group of three or more elements (words, phrases, or clauses) that are
equal in importance and grammatical form.
2. The last item in a series is usually introduced by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and,
or). The last comma before the conjunction is called a serial comma and is nowadays
optional, although in academic circles its use is widely preferred by successful writers.
However, the serial comma is mandatory in cases of resolving potential ambiguity and
when the series' elements are long and complex, whose beginning and end must be
signaled by a comma. The following example demonstrates a case of ambiguity:
• Student uniforms come in blue, brown, black and green.
[Here there are three possible colors, where the last is a mixture of black and
green]
• Student uniforms come in blue, brown, black, and green.
[Here the comma clarifies that there are four possible colors]
3. When individual elements in a series contain commas or other punctuation marks, you
should separate the elements with semi-colons to avoid confusion.
If the students pass the test with a low grade, they have to write two papers; if
they get a good grade, they have to write one paper; and if they get the
maximum on the test, they do not have write any papers at all.
4. If the series elements are numbered or lettered, use commas or semi-colons (if the
individual elements contain punctuation marks).
To get a passing semester grade, (1) students have to write two papers, (2) take
three quizzes, and (3) get at least 75 on the final test.
5. The only case in which you would use a comma in a series of two
elements is with two (or more) coordinative adjectives (adjectives of equal
weight independent of each other. Do not use commas if the two adjectives
are cumulative adjectives (adjectives which depend on each other for
meaning as they progress in a series, describing each other.)
6. To test whether the adjectives are coordinative, you can reverse the order
of the adjectives or insert and between them. If the meaning remains the
same, then the adjectives are coordinate and require a comma.
• The new exchange student was a short, Chinese teenager.
Or "Chinese, short"
[coordinative adjectives, use a comma]
• Our class has several new students from Europe.
Cannot be "several and new," or "new several"
[cumulative adjectives, do not use a comma]
• Students here wear light blue uniforms.
“light” describes “blue”
[cumulative adjectives, do not use a comma, a hyphen here is
optional]
4. Setting off dialogues or quotations
1. A quote is a text that brings the exact words of a speaker in direct
discourse. A text that consists only of dialogue (plays, novels, etc.) is
punctuated according to regular punctuation rules. However, in a text that
combines both dialogue and non-dialogue segments, the quotations are
separated from introductory words (e.g., said, stated, explained, claimed)
with quotation marks, commas and other punctuation marks.
2. The punctuation mark that comes before the quote is left outside the
opening quotation mark. The punctuation mark that comes after the quote is
put inside the closing quotation marks. The quote itself starts with a capital
letter.
• Madonna said, "We are living in a material world."
[introductory words before the quote]
• "We are living in a material world," said Madonna.
[introductory words after the quote]
• "We are living," said Madonna, "in a material world."
[introductory words within the quote]
• Madonna said, "We are living in a material world," and left the
stage.
[introductory and non quote words before and after the quote]
3. If the quoted words are part of the sentence structure (with no
introductory words), do not set them off with commas. These are cases of
indirect discourse, usually occurring with the words that and as. The quote here does not
begin with a capital letter, as it is an integral part of the sentence.
Madonna believes that "we live in a material world."
Madonna perceives our world as "a material world / one."
4. If the quote ends with a question mark or exclamation point, or is broken off by a dash
(function that Spanish usually performs by using suspension points), do not separate the
quote with a comma.
"Express yourself!" cried Madonna to her excited audience.
"How will they know?" asks Madonna in her song "Live to Tell."
"The main reason for this is –” Madonna started to say.
5. Other uses of the comma
A. Indicating omitted and repeated words
1. A general stylistic convention in writing is that the more you can say in less words, the
more elegant and polished the writing is. Elliptical constructions which omit words are
one way of achieving such brevity in writing.
2. In the following examples, no comma is needed to indicate omitted words
Madonna was sure that she would get an Oscar.
Madonna was sure ___ she would get an Oscar.
[Omission of that in object relative clauses]
• Madonna looked angrily at Michael Jackson, and he at her.
[ellipsis]
• Madonna is as short as I am.
Madonna is as short as I.
[ellipsis]
3. In the following examples, a comma is needed to indicate omitted words. The
sentence may be ungrammatical without it.
• Madonna's first album sold only 2,000 copies but her second, 2,000,000.
[Omission of album sold, comma instead]
• In spring, Madonna's fans sent her 1,000 letters; in summer, 3,000; and in the
fall, none.
[ellipsis of [they] sent her; notice the semi-colons dividing the three independent
clauses that contain commas]
4. Use commas to separate words repeated within a sentence to avoid confusion.
Whatever that is here that smells, smells just awful!
What she does, she does well.
She came in, in tears.
B. Commas with Dates

1. Use a comma to separate the date from the year, when writing in
American style.
December 30, 1975 [12.30.75 - US style]
2. In a full sentence, use a comma on both sides of the year in a full date.
Many people were waiting on December 30, 1975, to celebrate the
birth of the famous writer.
3. Do not use a comma when writing only two date elements, namely, the
month and the year, the month and the day, or the season and the year.
Madonna's concert in August 1983 is well remembered by all her
fans.
Madonna's concert on August 30 is well remembered by all her fans.
In summer 1983 Madonna gave a memorable concert.
C. Commas with numbers
1. Use a comma as a thousands separator after every three digits in a
number, counting from right to left.
87,950 people arrived to demonstrate in London against the
government's decision. 1,850,400 signatures were collected
nationwide in support of the protest.
In 1994, 3 of Madonna's songs reached the top ten in the music charts.
D. Commas with names, places, addresses and correspondences
1. Use a comma to separate people's names and their academic degrees. Use a comma
after the degree if other words follow it.
Dan Smith, MD, will speak after Rosanne Smith, PhD.
2. Use a comma if you write a person's last name before the first name.
Smith, Dan, MD, will speak second.
3. Use a comma to separate between two place names in sequence, e.g. city and
county/state/country. Add another comma after the place name if more words follow.
Dan Smith, MD, is coming from Houston, Texas, to speak at the conference.
4. Use a comma for the opening of an informal letter. Some instructors suggest a colon
in formal business letters.
Dear Dave, [friendly, informal]
Dear Mrs. Clausowitz: [business, formal]

2. A comma is optional with most four-digit numbers. Whatever option you

choose, remember to be consistent in your writing.
This car costs $8,500. OR This car costs $8500.
He drove for 2,250 miles. OR He drove for 2250 miles.

3. Never use a comma in a four-digit year. Use a comma if the year has DEFINITIONS / EXAMPLES SET 2
more than 4 digits.
In 1992 German zoologists discovered rare animal fossils from I. COMMA USE
35,000 BC.

4. Use a comma to separate a scene from an act in a play.
Act II, scene vi; OR act 2, scene 4
5. Never use a comma in a page number of four digits or more.
For more information, see page 1378.
6. Use a comma to separate references to a page and line.
For more information, see page 1378, line 30.
7. Use a comma to separate two numbers that lie next to each other in a
text.
The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural
elements of sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those
found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific
purposes, these rules may be broken.
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these
seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses and b) phrases that come
before the main clause.
a) Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by
a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent
(subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct:
extreme contrast)
b) Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma
include participial and infinitive phrases.
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses,
phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at
the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is
essential:
• If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still
make sense?
• Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the
original sentence?
• If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does
the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in
question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some
example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am
available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is
rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-
exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses
beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be
tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches
of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce
crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the
crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder
weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe
the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final
adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate
adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in
describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can
decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following
questions:
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in
reverse order?
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and
between them?
If you answer “yes” to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate
and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of
coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted
coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the
month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles
in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
9. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
II. COMMA ABUSE
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse
readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.
1. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)
The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions. (incorrect)
2. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. (incorrect)
I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car. (incorrect)
3. As explained before, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent
(subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)
III. EXERCISES: PROVIDE COMMAS WHEN NECESSARY, AND REFLECT ON WHAT
RULE FROM SET 2 IS INVOLVED IN EACH CASE.
1. Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface. ___
2. Madame de Stael was an attractive gracious lady. ___
3. Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live
in small cages. ___
4. Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities. ___
5. The closet contained worn clothes old shoes and dirty hats. ___
6. The uninvited guest wore a dark blue tweed suit. ___
7. After surviving this ordeal the trapper felt relieved. ___
8. Mark Twain's early novels I believe stand the test of time. ___
9. December 7 1941 will never be forgotten. ___
10. The field was safe enough wasn't it? ___
11. Write the editor of the Atlantic 8 Arlington Street Boston
Massachusetts 02116. ___
12. After a good washing and grooming the pup looked like a new dog.
___
13. Due to of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in
captivity some people refuse to go to the zoo. ___
14. Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most
authoritative on the subject of baldness. ___
15. Vests which were once popular have been out of vogue for several
years. ___
16. As a celestial goddess she regulated the course of the heavenly
bodies. ___
17. I hope that some day he will learn how to be polite. ___