American Geographical Society

Colorado Fourteeners and the Nature of Place Identity

Author(s): Kevin S. Blake
Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 92, No. 2, Mountain Geography (Apr., 2002), pp. 155-179
Published by: American Geographical Society
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 The Review
Geographical
VOLUME
92 April 2002 NUMBER
2

COLORADO FOURTEENERS
AND THE NATUREOF PLACEIDENTITY*
KEVIN S. BLAKE

ABSTRACT. Thefifty-four ColoradoFourteeners-mountains morethan14,000 feetin eleva-

tion-were earlysymbolsof westwardexpansion,mineralwealth,and wondrousscenery,
and theyareincreasingly popularas environmental iconsin placeattachmentat national,
regional,state,andlocalscales.Thesymbolismof thiscontrivedyeticoniccollectionof peaks
is examinedthroughtheevolutionof theFourteener concept,thepopularityof peakbagging,
andthe roleof the SawatchRangeFourteeners in creatinga largercommunityidentity.El-
evationis thegatekeeper intotheFourteener club,in whicha distinctivelandscapeiconogra-
phyof shape,accessibility,andaestheticsreflectsthe roleof idealizednatureandmountains
in place identity.Keywords:Colorado,culturalgeography,landscape,mountaingeography,place
identity,RockyMountains.

Thegrandestmountainsand mountainsceneryarefound in Colorado.The

proudlyanddefiantlyin theclearbluesky;their
rise,snow-clad,
highestpeaks
gray sides and white crestsbeing visible in this clear atmospherefor many,
many milesaway.
-George A. Crofutt,1881

'From mountain gloom to montane glory the world's highest peaks have long
commanded center stage in the symbolism of natural landscapes. Language and
culture mold the circumstances by which mountains have been judged, and
these verdicts are recastto fit the fleeting ideals of differenttimes (Nicolson 1997).
Romanticism and geomorphic knowledge prompted a shift from an almost Bib-
lical fear of the mountain fastness toward more favorable attitudes about moun-
tains in Europe during the nineteenth century. At the heart of the taste for
mountain scenery was familiarity through personal experience and an appre-
ciation for grand size (Rees 1975).These led to the development of an American
mountain aesthetic in the mid-18oos, with the Transcendentalistideals of Emer-

*I
appreciatethe researchassistanceof the staff of the American Alpine Club Library,located in the American
Mountaineering Center,Golden, Colorado, and also the cartographicadvice of JeffreyS. Smith at Kansas State
University.I cherishthe physicalor spiritualcompanionship of my family before,during,and aftermy Fourteener
quests. Until Diana knows of it, the climb is not real.
4 DR.BLAKE
is an associateprofessorof geographyat KansasStateUniversity, Kansas
Manhattan,
66506-2904.
The Geographical Review 92 (2): 155-179, April 2002
Copyright ? 2003by the AmericanGeographicalSociety of NewYork
156 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

son and Thoreau molded at first hand in the raw-hewn terrainof the Appalachian
Mountains.
Formany New Englandersthe position of humanity in the cosmos is definedby
a roll call of celebratedsummits: Katahdin,Greylock,Chocorua, Wachusett,and
GrandMonadnock (Rydantand Bayr1992).In addition to a mountain'sheight and
shape, direct experience through alpine hiking contributes to the characterof a
mountain (Stierand McAdow1995).Throughout the easternUnited Statesvarious
clubs promote hiking a collection of high peaks, including the AdirondackForty-
Sixers, White Mountain 4,ooo-Footers, New England 4,o00-Footers, New England
too Highest, Northeast iiiers, Catskill 35oos, and South Beyond 6ooos (Heinrichs
1997).Althoughthe mountainsin these collectionshaveattainedgreatfame,equaled
by peaksin the SierraNevadaand CascadeRange,America'sfascinationwith moun-
tains as ideal nature reachedits pinnacle in the Colorado Rockies.
Colorado'sfifty-fourFourteeners-mountainswith a summitelevationmore than
14,000feet above sea level-affirm the state'slong-heraldedstatusas the rooftop of a
continent(Figure1).1Includingsuchfamedsummitsas PikesPeak,LongsPeak,Mount
of the HolyCross,the MaroonBells,andUncompahgrePeak,the Fourteenersinfluence
how Americansidentifywith nature.As a barrierto easy movement and communi-
cation, a zone of concentratedtimber and mineral resources,islands of moisture,
areasof governmentcontrol,and restorativesanctuaries,the Fourteenerswell illus-
tratethese fivehistoricthemesof the MountainousWest(Wyckoffand Dilsaver1995)
(Figure 2).
Sincethe mid-198os,however,these summits haveexperiencedan unprecedented
waveof hiking popularity,which has led to severeenvironmentalthreats.The head-
lines fairlyshout, "Peaksin Peril"and "Fourteenersunder Siege,"as the wilderness
characterof the mountains is loved to death (Kelly1994).The Fourteenerphenom-
enon is played out on the national stage as coverage of the climbing allure and
environmentalperils reacheswidely read publications such as the New YorkTimes,
USA Today,the WashingtonPost, and Time magazine (Benner 1992; Kenworthy 1998,
Woodbury 1999). The imprint of Colorado's Rocky Mountains on place iden-
2001;
tity is also illustratedthrough architecturaldesign with the soaring,white, translu-
cent roof of DenverInternationalAirport,which is an oft-deridedattemptto evoke
the snow-capped Fourteeners to the west (Sommers 2000).
Given the tendency of mountain studies to emphasize physical, ecological, or
naturalhazardtopics, culturalgeographyis a researchdirection that is essential if a
completemountaingeographyliteratureis to be created(Price1981;Smethurst2000).
A culturalgeographicalperspectiveon the evolution of the Fourteenersis presented
here as a contrived yet iconic construct, for mountains sustain a symbolic role in
place identity, whether at the national, regional, state, or local scale. The present-
day symbolism of these peaks and the etymology of the term "Fourteener" have
been largely ignored in the literature on peaks, which focuses largely on the details
of description, exploration, mountaineering, or place-names (Ormes 1951;Rennicke
Colorado Fourteeners Rank
I
Fourteen
Mount
2. Mount
3. Mount
Fort@ 4. Blanca
Col ins 5. La Plata
6. Uncomp
CoOn atin Divike iL 7. Crestone
8. Mount
North 0 10 2030 9.
10O
Grays P
Mount
Miles A iI.
12.
Torreys
Castle
13. Quandar
14. Mount
Glenwood
I c
ve
Denver $5. Longs P
VailDen 16. Mount W
Springs 7, Mount
Minturn 8. Mount
19. Crestone
20. Mount
21. Mount Y
Grand L e 22. Mount
23. Kit Car
junction 24. El Dient
25, Maroon
26. Tabegua
Colorado 27. Mount
Grn 28. Mount
Buena Springs 29. Mount
30. Capitol
soVista\ 31, Pikes P
32. Snowma
33. Mount
usoSld 34. Windom
Montrose 35. Mount
36. Missouri
Popa 37, Humbold
S7, Pueblo
38. Mount
/~ 39, Sunlight
Drprings
40. Handies
41. Culebra
42. Ellingwo
Sagach 43. Mount
(1 44. Little B
24,VG'
U coo 0
45.
46.
Mount
Redcloud
5N C.. . 47.
48.
Pyramid
Wilson
49, Wetterho
Cortez L~ortez ~ZWalasenbur~g 50. North
60 Alamosa 51. San Lui
3 52. Mt. of t
D
53. Huron
Durango - u 54. Sunshine

FIG.1-The fifty-fourColoradoFourteeners.
158 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG. 2-Uncompahgre Peak illustratesthe five historic themes of the Mountainous West. Uncom-
pahgreis the highest point in the San JuanMountains and was once thought to be the highest in the
RockyMountains.(Photograph
by the author,September
1995)

1986; Noel, Mahoney, and Stevens 1994; Jacobs and Ormes 2000). Even the most
comprehensivetreatmentsof the Fourteenersare nearly silent on the summits as
icons of placeidentity (Bornemanand Lampert1998).The human geographylitera-
ture on Colorado'sFourteenersis even more spartan,offering at best a peripheral
treatment of the Fourteeners as a collective entity (Brown 1929; Blake 1999; Morin
1999;Wilson 1999; Wyckoff 1999).
My data-collectionmethods for this study included long and less-than-linear
conversationswith mountaineers,public land managers,and employeesof moun-
tain-relatedorganizationsin their offices and in the field, participantobservation
distilled from dozens of hikes on and conversationsabout the Fourteenerssince
1966,analysisof archivalmaterials,and visual interpretationof landscapesin a case
study of the incorporatedtowns near the Fourteenersof the SawatchRange,Colo-
rado'shighest uplift.And I can confess a personalinvolvement,thanksto a lifelong
attachmentto hiking on the ColoradoFourteeners,though never as an actualresi-
dent of Colorado.
Other elevation-basedColorado mountain groups, primarilythe Thirteeners
(the peakshigher than 13,000feet) and the CentennialPeaks(the top one hundred
in the state), have gained recognition (Roach and Roach 2001). The Fourteeners,
however,are what set Colorado apartsymbolicallyand physically(Figure3). With
fifty-fourof these toweringgiants, Coloradohas more Fourteenersthan the rest of
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 159

FA

4U

FIG.3-Famed for its size and multiple summits reachingmore than 14,000 feet, Mount Massiveis
Colorado'ssecond-highestFourteener.Manyof the Fourteeners-and other distinctivepeaks of lower
elevation-that are visible from the state'sdesignatedscenic bywaysare noted with this type of sign.
(Photographby the author,August 2001)

NorthAmericacombined.2Washingtonhas one, and the approximatenumberselse-

where in North Americaare Californiawith fifteen,Mexico with seven, and Alaska
and Canadacombined with twenty-eight (Porcellaand Burns1995;America'sRoof
2002). The Fourteenercount is approximate,even in Colorado,thanks to a some-
times acrimonious but alwaysenlivening debate over what constitutes a separate
mountain (Graves 1968; Hill 1968; Carpenter 1971).3
I explorethe characterof the Colorado Fourteenersthrough three themes that
capturehow the Fourteenersas a group,rathe~r than as individualpeaks,contribute
to place attachment.In the first section I addressthe evolving conceptualizationof
these peaks as a cohesive group and the relatively recent origin of the term
"Fourteener"; both processeshavegiven synergyto the fifty-fourpeaksas a force in
constructingplaceidentity.The focus of the second theme is the cherisheddesireof
many hikersto climb every mountain. The negative environmentalconsequences
thataboundfromrecreationaloveruseattractadditionalattentionto the Fourteeners
as icons of ideal nature,bonding people with the Fourteenersense of place. In the
third section I examine the role of the Fourteenersin the place identity of local
communities; specifically,why townspeople identify with certain mountains and
how this place attachmentachievesiconic expression.
160 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG.4--A scenicview of Mount of the Holy Cross,basedon WilliamHenryJackson's1873photograph.

The snowfieldto the rightof the crosshas been likenedto a kneelingangelwith outstretchedarms.The
photographwas publishedin about 1915by the VanNoy InterstateCompanyin a Denver& Rio Grande
Railroadpromotionalbrochure,"In the Clouds."(Reproducedfrom the collection of the author)

EVOLUTION OF THE FOURTEENER CONCEPT

As the traditionalhomelandfor Utes and a vision-questdestinationfor severalPlains

Indian nations, Colorado'smountains have been significantto AmericanIndians
for centuries (Trimble1993).Pikes Peak was a symbolic boundary landmarkfor
BlackElk,the Lakotamedicine man, and BlancaPeakis widely regardedas the Na-
vajo sacred mountain of the east (Bernbaum 199o; Blake 2001). A few Fourteeners
attainedworldwidefame in the processof attractingearlyexplorers,trappers,min-
ers, tourists, scientists,and alpinists.The literatureand maps producedby the ex-
peditions of Zebulon Pike, Stephen Long, and John C. Fremont, among others,
were influential early accounts of some peaks,laterrecognizedas Fourteeners,yet
the Fourteenerswere not conceptualizedas a distinct group until afterthe George
M. Wheelerand FerdinandV.Haydensurveysof the mid-1870s(Bueler2000). Those
surveysprovidedmany of the names, illustrations,ascents,and measurementsthat
were necessary to popularize the Fourteeners (Farquhar 1961;Hart 1977). Only after
systematicmeasurementof many ranges did 14,000 feet emerge as a convenient
round number with which to distinguish the highest peaks.Three of the most fa-
mous mountains of this era-Pikes Peak, Longs Peak, and Mount of the Holy
Cross-were identified as topping 14,000 feet,yet no Colorado mountain exceeded
14,500 feet (Figure 4). Thereafter, "the imaginary line in the sky at 14,000 feet sepa-
rated the chosen few from the rank and file" (Roach 1999, 278).
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 161

In the late 1800s the 14,000-foot peaks, though not yet known by the name
"Fourteeners,"' were frequentlytouted as a group representingwondrous scenery--
the best in America.First published in 1881,Crofutt'sGrip-SackGuide of Colorado
extols the glorious beauty visible from GraysPeak and states that Blanca Peak, at
14,464feet, is believedto be the highest of the forty-one peaksmore than 14,000 feet
(Crofutt1881).The guide also claims that Colorado'smountains outshine those of
Europe:"TheAlps-storied monuments of poetical legendaryfame-cannot com-
pare with these mountains in scenes of sublime beauty and awful grandeur....
Nowhere in the Old Worlddo we ascend so high, from no point is the view so wide
and so expansive"(p. 25). Boasting of Colorado'shighest mountains became part
of the pantheon of American idealized images as "pridethus paved the way for a
cult of bigness" (Lowenthal 1968, 65).
Lists of Colorado'shighest peaks soon appearedin popular literature.Though
not restrictedto elevationsof more than 14,000 feet,the 1904 Nell'sMap of Colorado
lists the highest mountains of Colorado,as does Among the Rockies,a 1907railway
photographic extravaganzathat touts beautiful views of the Front and Sawatch
Ranges (Nell 1904;TammenCurio Co. 1907).The Colorado Mountain Club legiti-
mized and institutionalizedthe conceptof 14,00ooo-foot
mountains as a distinctgroup
with a 1914leafletlistingthese peaksand with the 1925publicationof FourteenThou-
sandFeet:A Historyof theNamingandEarlyAscentsof theHighColoradoPeaks,the first
book devoted solely to Colorado'scrown jewels (Hart 1977).Laterdescriptionsand
promotionsof Coloradosceneryoften gainedan extracachetby noting mountain el-
evationsin excessof 14,000feet (Union PacificSystem1930;Writers'Program... 1941).
By the 1970sColorado's14,ooo-foot mountains were nearly at their centennial
of being celebratedas ideal landmarksin the American national identity.Yettheir
iconic potential had not yet reached its zenith, in part because of a certain awk-
wardnessand inconsistent labeling. The term "Fourteener"has gained widespread
currency only since 1978;previously these mountains were variously known as
peaks," or "fourteens" (Means 1931; Melzer 1939; Graves
"14,ooos, "14,000ooo-foot
1968).The first mention in print of the word "Fourteener"was in 1967,in an article
in Summiton the location of the world's14,000ooo-foot peaks:"The Cult of the Four-
teener reachesits apex in Colorado,where fifty-threealtarsawait the worshipper"
(Powell1967,18). But even with such hyperbolethe word "Fourteener"had to reach
a mainstreamaudiencebefore it was widely adopted.
The first significantpopularizationof the word "Fourteener"occurred in 1970,
when TheFourteeners: Colorado'sGreatMountainsappeared.With the goal to "bring
you in closer communion with Colorado's mountain miracles through a better
understandingand deeper appreciationof them" (Eberhartand Schmuck 1970,i),
the authors set the standard for much of the subsequent popular literature on
Colorado'sFourteeners:artistic photographs of each peak accompanied by glow-
ing descriptiveprose.Thisbook is a clearcontributionto forginga Fourteeneriden-
tity: No peak above the golden elevation is left out, and none below is included, no
matter the characterof the individual summit. Albeit in black and white, this was
162 THE GEOGRAPHICAL
REVIEW

the first coffee-tablebook to promote the Fourteeners.The potential power of this

formatto influence public ideals had alreadybeen aptly demonstratedby the Sierra
Club in the GrandCanyon dam controversy(Fradkin1981).
Much of the 1970sliteratureabout the 14,ooo-foot mountains contains inter-
mingled usage of the terms "fourteens"and "Fourteeners."The second significant
popularizationof the Fourteenerlabel came with the 1977publication of the first
large-formatFourteenerbook in color: The MajesticFourteeners.The role of the
Fourteenersin the state'sidentityis capturedin the book'sforeword:"Mightymoun-
tains arewhat we Coloradansfind most inspiring about our state ... and, it is com-
forting to know that these mountains belong to you and me" (Crouter1977,5). The
decisive force that institutionalizedthe Fourteenerlabel occurred in 1978,with the
publication of the first edition of WalterBorneman and Lyndon Lampert'sclassic,
A ClimbingGuideto Colorado'sFourteeners;the same year saw the last usage of the
term "fourteens"by the Colorado Mountain Club, in its Trail& Timberlinejournal
and climbing guide (Richards1978).Coloradothus had spawned"Fourteener"as a
new word; Californiaand other places adopted it later.In little more than a decade
the term "Fourteener"had become ubiquitous,and the toweringpeakswere poised
to play an even strongerrole in place identity through an exceptionalboom in the
popularityof hiking.
CLIMB EVERYMOUNTAIN
The allure of mountaineering has long enhanced awarenessand appreciation of
mountains, even in the face of inevitablefatalities.Both the Matterhornand Mount
Everest,for example,achievedinfamyand greaterpopularityafterlegendaryclimb-
ing disasters in 1865 and 1996 (Shipton 1966; Breashears 1997). The Colorado
Fourteeners,though less treacherousthan many peaks, still pose great risks and
offermore than a chancetaste of mountaineeringthrill and intrigue.Fourteenthou-
sand feet, arbitraryas that elevation may be, in part gains a distinct sense of place
becauseof physicalextremesand challenges,includingthin air,rockfalls,avalanches,
volatile weather,lightning, ruggedterrain,and verticality(Nesbit 1953;Wright1966;
Trimble 1970; Barry 1992; Dawson 1994). Despite improved climbing gear and hiker
awareness,hardlya year passeswithout a fatalityon the Fourteeners(Blevins 1999;
Gutierrez2000). Fourteenerpopularity continues to soar,however,pushing hikers
of all levels of experienceinto the dangerzone.
Many Fourteenerswere probablyfirst climbed by American Indians and min-
ers. The Wheeler and Hayden survey climbs of Blanca Peak reported a walled, cir-
culardepressionon the summit that might havebeen excavatedby AmericanIndians
(Bueler2000). The first recordedascent of a Fourteenerwas that of Pikes Peak in
1820 by three members of the Long expedition. Many recreationalclimbs of the
best-known peaks were made in the last half of the nineteenth century,including
the first scaling of a Fourteenerby a woman, in 1858(Mazel 1991). The populariza-
tion of Fourteener mountaineering and the contribution of this activity to the
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 163

FIG.5-Hikers contemplatea route on the easternridge of QuandaryPeak.Giventhe challengesof

elevation,terrain,andweather,none of the ColoradoFourteeners an easyhike,but in
is necessarily
good weathersome areless difficultto ascendthan others.Largegroupsand greaternumbersof
hikersareincreasinglycommonon Quandaryandthe other"walk-up" Fourteeners.(Photographby
the author, July 1997)

Fourteenersas icons of ideal naturebegan in the late nineteenth centurywith such

notable recreational climbers as Frederick Chapin (1995).
Earlyin the twentiethcentury,mountaineersbeganfocusing on the Fourteeners
as a group to be climbed in its entirety.In 1923Carl Blaurockand William Ervin
became the first climbers known to have ascended the forty-six then-recognized
14,000-foot peaks in Colorado, followed soon by Albert Ellingwood (Bueler 2000).
The drive to climb every mountain received a key boost with the publication of
the 1931edition of FourteenThousandFeet that included "AClimber's Guide to
the High Colorado Peaks,"by Elinor Eppich Kingery--the first climbing guide
to the Fourteeners (Hart 1977). By September 1934 the first woman, Mary Cronin,
had climbed what were then recognized as fifty-one 14,000ooo-footpeaks, and in 1937
the quest for speed recordsbegan when Carl and Bob Melzer climbed all of the
Fourteeners in a single season (Bueler 2000).
Of all the Fourteenerliterature,climbing guidebookshave playedthe mightiest
role in enhancing the Fourteenersas symbols of greatmountains. Firstwritten by
RobertM. Ormesin 1952,Guideto theColoradoMountainsis a classictome of moun-
tain recreation; in 2000 it reached its tenth edition (Jacobs and Ormes 2000). The
Borneman and Lampertbook, however,has become the classic Fourteenerguide,
164 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

spawning two revised editions and a glut of competitors (1998).In addition to fo-
cusing exclusivelyon the Fourteenersand integratingmuch of the earlierresearch
on the histories of the peaks,the authorslifted from the baize of the bridgetable the
popular term "GrandSlam"to describe climbing every mountain. By referringto
the profound influence of the mountains on the peoples of the surrounding re-
gions and labelingmountainwildernessas one of the state'smost preciousresources,
this book alludes to the importance of the Fourteenersin national and state iden-
tity. The Fourteenerphenomenon has continued unabated for a quarter-century:
"Ina statewhereoutdoor recreationis close to the officialreligion,hiking Colorado's
54 mountains that top 14,000 feet is a leading denomination" (Kenworthy 2001).
The experience of climbing a Fourteener has changed greatly since the mid-
198os,however,as amenitymigrantsareincreasinglydrawnto booming FrontRange
cities and mountain towns.When I scrambledup my firstFourteenerin 1966,sight-
ing another hiker or finding an establishedtrail was a rareevent. Into the 198osthe
situation remainedmuch the same, but the enduring popularity of the Borneman
and Lampertguide provedseminalin urging many climbersto ascendevery moun-
tain. From the mid-198osto the mid-199osthe number of hikerson the Fourteeners
roughly doubled, to an averageof approximately1,200 persons summiting each
peak each year (Kelly1994).Now hikersby the thousands flock to the Fourteeners
on summer weekends (Figure5). Grand Slam recordsare set every year:Hikers as
young as age seven have climbed them all, the speed recordis now less than eleven
days,and one personhas completedtwelveGrandSlams(Bueler2000; Meyers2000;
Kenworthy 2001). Today the Fourteeners receive more than 200,000 visits annually,
but these numbersare only approximationsof actual use. The summit registersare
unreliable-they are often stolen, overwhelmedby sheer numbers, stuffed with ex-
traneous business cardsand trash,or spurnedby climbers-so an anecdotalquality
pervadesthe statistics.Still,firsthandobservationsby U.S. ForestServicepersonnel
indicate more than 20,000 visitors annually at GraysPeakand TorreysPeak,two of
the most-climbed peaks because of their relativeease and their proximity to Den-
ver.On the busiest day in 1999,605 hikerswere tallied on the GraysPeaktrail (Mor-
row 2001).
Summiting Fourteenersis not just a Coloradan phenomenon: Hikers of many
racial and ethnic backgroundscome from all over the continent and world (Kelly
1994). I have met hikers on Fourteenersfrom such surprisingplaces as Wales and
Slovakia.A plethora of guidebooks,calendars,photographicessays,postcards,CD-
ROMS with interactivetopographic maps, T-shirts, replicas of surveybenchmarks,
and cloisonn6 pins illustratethe appeal of the Fourteenerswell beyond Colorado.
For thousands of hikers today, simply being on or within view of a Fourteener,
ratherthan reachingits summit, is pleasure enough.
The desire of so many to reach out and touch a Fourteener transformed what
had been primarily the domain of the mountaineer looking for a technical climbing
challenge, or the denizen of a mountain mystic seeking spiritual renewal, to the
playground of the "peakbagger."Peakbagging implies that the mountains are col-
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 165

lectibles and that the hikers are dedicated to completing all of the climbs in a par-
ticular collection. But a peakbagger's cause may pass from dedication to addiction,
when the goal of reaching a summit becomes so dominant that it places his or her
life in danger in this beautiful but hazardous environment. Moreover, environmen-
tal concerns about recreational overuse cause some mountaineer purists to look
askance at peakbagging, as though the quest were little more than a notch on a belt
(Heinrichs 1997; Shelton 1998).
Most peakbaggers are avid about reaching summits and can recite their success-
ful ascents, yet they respect the mountains even during their wilderness experience
(Heinrichs 1997;Emmons 2ool; Sheets 2002). Even with the peakbagging craze, fewer
people have climbed all of the Fourteeners (1,037) than Mount Everest (1,196)
(AdventureStats.com 2002; Crockett 2003). Solitude is still possible at certain times
on the Fourteeners. Peakbaggers are also some of the strongest advocates of pro-
tecting the Fourteeners, and their desire to climb every mountain does not mean
that they ignore spiritual renewal. As an example, consider my field notes from a
hike to the summit of Mount of the Holy Cross in 1998:

Nothing preparedme while I walked in the gloomy shadows of Halfmoon Pass for
the surreal quality of the rugged peak flaming pink-red with dawn's first light. A
sight so beautiful:the peak symbolic of deep faith, alpine wilderness splendor,fa-
mous photographsand paintings.It was well within my reachbut still ethereal,tow-
ering, and challenging.And then, just a few steps further on the trail, the perfect
panoramawas completedwith the sight and sound of a rushing,high, majesticwa-
terfallthat takes the snowmelt from the Cross Couloir,through the Bowl of Tears,
and on down EastCrossCreek.Afterthat moment, no matterwhat happened next,
I knew the day and the hike would be perfect.

Hordes of hikers cause ecological degradation, however. The Fourteeners' ca-

pacity threshold has become a top issue in assessments of Colorado's mountains,
especially in relation to wildlife and alpine vegetation (McNicoll and others 1999).
The noise, water pollution, trail erosion, soil compaction, vegetation trampling, and
wildlife harassment that occur during recreational overuse probably alter the envi-
ronment in some places far more than mining, ranching, or logging ever did (Finley
1995). Winter now provides less of a respite for the Fourteeners than it did in the
past, for off-season ascents have become increasingly common (Asphaug 1998). On
the Fourteeners within designated wilderness areas, nonconforming uses-such as
people hitting golf balls from Mount Massive's summit-are acute (Rowan 2001).
In reaction to the highly visible and rapid degradation of many Fourteener
trailside environments, the Colorado Fourteeners Initiative (cFI) was formed in
1994 "to protect and preserve the natural integrity of Colorado's Fourteeners and
the quality of the recreational opportunities they provide" (cFI 2002). The primary
response to negative environmental impacts has been improvement of trails (Moller
1995). The cFI started by documenting trail conditions, with the goal of establishing
standard routes to stop the creation of"social trails,"the multiple paths winding all
166 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

over the face of a mountain. Ironically,peakbaggingmakes the work of the CFI

easier,in that the environmentalimpacts are concentratedand can be ameliorated
with the construction of sustainabletrails (Cox 1999). The CFI'sactions have not
gone unopposed,however:Some hikersarguethat the best way to protectthe moun-
tainsis to leavethem alone,becausenew trailswill only bringmore hikers(Woodbury
1999; Cox 2001).
Otherpotentialsolutions to overuseof the Fourteenersincludepromoting other
hikingopportunities,regulatingrecreation,and improvingeducation.By1984,tram-
pling of the Fourteenershad prompted publication of two books advocatinghikes
on lower-elevationmountains (Borneman1984;Garrattand Martin1984).The trend
to climb Thirteenersrather than Fourteenershas also been encouragedby asser-
tions that the lower mountains actuallyoffer more adventureand less hassle (Cox
1998;Shelton 1998;Roach and Roach 2001). Although restrictinguse of the Four-
teeners in wildernessareasis a future possibility,limiting access to nature is gener-
allyan unpopularstance;thus the CFIpartnerswith the LeaveNo Traceorganization
to promote minimal environmentalimpacts (McNicoll and others 1999).Peakstew-
ards,volunteerswho aresponsoredby the ForestServiceand the CFI,have also been
placed at some trailheadsto educate hikers about LeaveNo Traceand Fourteener
ethics (Cox 2000).4
high mountains and Colorado'sidentity were even more in-
By the late 1900oos
separablethan they had been in the 18oos.Although complex and challenging,en-
vironmentalissueshavecontributedto the perceptionof the Fourteenersas collective
icons of ideal nature that are worth protecting. The intense reclamationefforts to
save the Fourteenersforge a stronger attachment between local residents actively
engaged in reclamationand the highest mountains. The more the Fourteenersare
threatened,the more popular they become (Purdy 2002). With the rise in recre-
ational mountaineering,the Fourteenershave become a prize that representsthe
ultimate climbing experience,yet this also causesthe type of environmentaldegra-
dation that clouds their image as centerpiecesof protected, wild nature (Vale and
Vale1989).Todaythe Fourteenersspawnidealsof both wildernessdefense and pres-
ervation funds; the conundrum is that access is needed to ensure that the public
values the peaks,yet the impact of such use demands strict preservationmeasures
(Kelly1994).
FOURTEENERICONOGRAPHY
The Fourteenershavebecome towering and tangible"peaksof identity,"engender-
ing a collective sense of attachmentbetween communities and their surrounding
idealized landscape (Blake1999). To grasp the process by which identity is devel-
oped between the Fourteenersand nearbytowns, I used as a case study the Sawatch
Rangein centralColorado,where I haveclimbed everyFourteener.Keyto my inter-
pretationof place identity is the Fourteenericonographyevident in such landscape
featuresas welcome signs and the logos of businesses,chambersof commerce,and
government offices. I also tested the attitudes of local residents toward the Four-
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 167

teeners through conversations,newspapermastheads,business names, postcards,

actions toward land preservation,and tourist brochures.5Elsewherein Colorado
the mountains below 14,000 feet may also be peaks of identity,6 but the Sawatch
Fourteenersdominate the iconographyof nearbytowns even when other peaks are
closer.
Crowning the Continental Divide, the SawatchRange is appropriateas a case
study,for it contains a barricadeof fifteen Fourteeners,more than any other range
in Colorado,and includes four of the five highest peaks in the state.The mountain
splendor and elevation of the range result in nicknames such as "Colorado'sRoof-
top,"'"Backboneof the Continent,"and "Heartof the Rockies."The range takes its
name from a phonetic spelling of saguache,a Ute word meaning "waterof the blue
earth,"which was given to hot springs near Mount Princeton and to a former lake
in the San LuisValley,and it has been said that the only way to pronounce"Sawatch"
is to sneeze it (Rennicke1986).Spanningtwo national forests,four wildernessareas,
and parts of five counties, the SawatchRange extends nearly ioo miles in a north-
west-southeast direction from the EagleRiverto the town of Saguache,averaging
20 miles acrossbut widening to 40 miles in places.The Sawatchincludes one of the
most famous Fourteeners,Mount of the Holy Cross, the long-popular Collegiate
Peaksgroup of five Fourteenersin the heart of the range,7and severalpeaks that
have become infamous for their degree of ecological degradation.8
The Colorado mineral belt cuts directlythrough the heart of the Sawatch,9so
mining was the primary economic activity from the 1700s until about 191o. Both
hardrock and placer activities contributed to significant environmental impacts
because they resultedin heaps of waste rock from mines and smeltersand in clear-
cuts of timber for fuel, building materials,mine timbers, and railroadties. In the
twentieth century ranching and outdoor recreation-based tourism have each, in
turn, bolstered the economic base of the Sawatch.Even though a strong belief in
mining and associatedindustriespervadesthe local communities, the Fourteeners
and associatedtourism have largelysupplanted mining as the dominant icons of
community identity (McNicoll and others 1999).
Minturn, a small but growing amenity town (population 1,o68;elevation 7,817
feet) on the cusp of the GreaterVail area in the northern Sawatch,is the closest
incorporatedtown to Mount of the Holy Cross. Probablybecause of its small size
and narrowvalley site, Minturn'sbusinesses featurefew icons of mountains-only
two representationsof BattleMountain,the closest distinctive summit visible from
town. The "Topof the Rockies"scenic-bywaybrochure notes that Minturn is the
gatewayto the Holy CrossWildernessArea,but as a consequence of the mountain's
limitedvisibilityand accessibility,Holy Crossicons in the landscapearefew.10Though
rarely viewed, the distinctive character of Mount of the Holy Cross provides a ca-
chet that many higher and more visible Sawatch Fourteeners lack.
Rumors of a giant cross hiding deep in the northern Sawatch were finally proved
true in 1873 with William Henry Jackson's photograph (Figure 4) and Thomas
Moran's painting of Mount of the Holy Cross. Soon thereafter, Henry Wadsworth
168 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

Longfellow'spoetry further establishedthe peak as a symbol of Christianityand

the legitimateconquest of the West (Kinsey1992).Becausethe mountain contained
one of the most recognizableicons in the world, a national monument was formed
around it in 1929.By 1950,however,the monument had been abolished,a victim of
low visitation,poor accessto views of the cross in the ruggedterrain,and a percep-
tion of the crossthat was less distinct than the
one in Jackson'sphotograph (Brown 1968).
Eventhough Mount of the Holy Crosshas since
been designateda wildernessareaand its fame
lingers regionallyand locally,today compara-
tively few people outside Colorado are aware
of its history,significance,and location.
The contribution of Holy Cross to local
place identity is manifest in postcards,in the
name of the local Holy CrossRangerDistrict,
and, most significantly,as the peak showcased
on Minturn's logo (Figure 6). The logo is
prominently displayedthroughout the newly
FIG.6-Mount of the Holy Cross on constructedTownHall and is featuredon new
the logo of Minturn, Colorado. (Photo-
welcome signs at both ends of town. Histori-
graph by the author,July2001)
cal symbolismand elevationarekey to the role
of Mount of the Holy Cross in the iconogra-
phy of Minturn. Without its legendarycross and Fourteenerstatus,the mountain
would go unheralded.
The relationshipof the Fourteenersto place identity is more deeply ingrained
and complex in Leadville(population 4,763;elevation10,152 feet) than in Minturn.
In the local iconography,the Fourteenerssymbolicallycompete with the heritageof
mining-born-and-bred Leadville (Wyckoff 1999). Leadville is positioned on the
western slopes of the Mosquito Range,but its definingviews are of two distantyet
towering SawatchFourteeners,Mount Massiveand Mount Elbert,Colorado'stwo
highest peaks (Figures3 and 7). Though more centralto the town'smining past and
closer to town, the Mosquito Fourteenersand severallower Sawatchpeaks lackthe
height and aesthetic prospect of Massiveand Elbert,so they are the only peaks of
identity for Leadville.
Exceptfor its high,broadshoulders,Mount Elberthardlymeritsa secondglance,
yet it has been recognized for its primate elevation among the Rockies since the
1920S(Toll1923). Elbertis the icon of the LeadvilleRangerDistrict,a choice justified
in part by the interest of hikers in bagging the state highpoint via a hike that, by
Fourteenerstandards,is long but relativelymoderate. Forest Service RangerDis-
trict logos arehigh poweredin the developmentof place identity,given their wide-
spreadvisibility on forest literature,signs, and equipment and given the symbolic
importance of how the public land-management agency representsits lands. Per-
haps just as important to the choice of Elbertover Massivefor the logo is Elbert's
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 169

FIG.7-Mount Elbert,high point of Colorado,and a mine headframe.(Photographby the author,

August 2001)

FIG.8-Mount Massiveand relics of the power-drillcompetition held during the LeadvilleBoom

Days celebrationsin 1999and 2000. (Photographby the author,August2001)
170 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

pointed summit as viewed from Leadville,a form that makes it easierto reproduce
as a simplifiedicon (Rowan2001).Elbertis also featuredon four currentpostcards,
a total equalto or greaterthan any other SawatchFourteenerexcept Mount Prince-
ton."1Ironically,on one postcard the rather undistinguished shape of the Elbert
massif led to misidentificationof two nearbyThirteenersas the state'shighest peak.
Instead of diminishing the importance of Elbert,however, this misidentification
may indicate the power of primacyin place attachment.Being number one means
that Elbert symbolicallylays claim to far more terrain than do most mountains,
even serving as a peak of identity in Leadville,where it appearsin severalbusiness
names and icons.
The aptlynamed Mount Massiveis impossibleto ignoreas the probableleaderof
Leadville'stwo peaksof identity (Figure8). Massiveis much closerto town and is the
centerpieceof the Mount MassiveWildernessArea,whereasElbertlackssuch a desig-
nation.ThreecurrentpostcardsfeatureMassive'sruggedmultiple summits and east-
ern slopes,whicharecoveredby snow morefrequentlythan areElbert'sopen ridges.In
an important bonding of Leadvilleand Massive, the three postcards portray the
townscapein the foreground.Massivealso dominatesthe mountain iconographyof
local businessesand artworkand is featuredon the mastheadof the local newspaper.
The effortto preservethe openview of Massivefrom acrossthe HaydenMeadowsnear
Leadvilleis yet anotherindicationof the peak'ssignificancein local place attachment
(Morrow2001).Miningis clearlycentralto Leadville'scharacter,but MassiveandElbert
are each also communityicons of pride, supplantingthe Mosquito Fourteenersin a
celebrationof beauty,wildernessquality,and elevation.
Like Leadville, Buena Vista (population 2,195; elevation 7,954 feet) is close to
severalFourteeners;but, unlike Leadville,no ambiguityexists as to the local peakof
identity. Mount Princeton dominates the town's iconography through business
names and signs, the Chamberof Commercelogo and promotional brochures,the
official town logo and signs (Figure 9), the masthead of the local newspaper,and
five currentpostcards,including one that misidentifiesit as Mount Antero,the next
Fourteenerto the south. Nine local business or organizationsigns featurea faithful
representationof a nearbymountain; in every instance it is Princeton. One of the
well-known CollegiatePeaks,Princeton is neither the highest of the group nor the
closest to town, yet it is the only mountain that prompts local residentsto say,"It's
what we look at each morning to remind us why we live here,"and "It'swho we are,
the icon of Buena Vista"(Figurelo). The accessibilityof the peak is important to
the role of Princetonin local place identity,but even more significantare its visibil-
ity, shape, color, and qualificationas a Fourteener.
Mount Princeton is the gatewaypeak in views from the highwaysleading into
Buena Vista, especially coming west over Trout Creek Pass on U.S. Route 24. The
massif's distinctive trio of pointed summits, as viewed from the east, sets Princeton
apart from the other Collegiate Peaks in local iconography. When the Chaffee County
Times changed its masthead in 1995 to show a detailed representation of Mount
Princeton, the announcement describing the change touted the "timeless majesty of
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 171

the Mount Princetontrio of peaks"(ChaffeeCounty Times 1995).The ChalkCliffs

on Princeton'ssoutheasternflank also add to its characteron postcards.12Further-
more, the entiremassif of Princetonis easilyvisible from town, with no intervening
foothills. The other CollegiatePeaks,with equallydistinctivebut less visible shapes
and elevations,are set fartherinto the range.
As case studies, Salida (population 5,504;
elevation7,036feet) and PonchaSprings(pop-
ulation466;elevation7,469feet),the southern-
most incorporatedcommunitiesalongthe high
easternfront of the Sawatch,differfrom Min-
turn,Leadville,and BuenaVista.The localmin- l,,
k.

ing heritageis inescapable-the smokestackof

a former smeltertowers over Salida-yet min-
ing as an icon is far less obvious today than is
the unambiguous peak of identity, Mount
Shavano (Figure 11).Like Princeton, Shavano is
a gatewaymountain,dominatingthe approach
to Salida-PonchaSpringsfromthe eastand also
FIG.9-Mount Princeton on the logo
prominentin approachesfromotherdirections. of Buena Vista, Colorado. (Photograph
Atthe southernendof the UpperArkansasRiver by the author,August2001)
Valley,Shavanois at a geographicalfulcrum,a
crossroadsof highwaysand landforms,with the Sawatchto the north and the Sangre
de Cristo Range to the southeast and with passes leading south into the San Luis
Valleyand west over the ContinentalDivide.
Easilyoutdistancingall culturalfeaturesand other mountains,the iconography
of Shavanois rivaledonlyby thatof the ArkansasRiver,one of the premierwhitewater
recreationriversin the nation. Signs, logos, postcards,and local residentsall pro-
claim the significanceof Shavanoin the local place identity.One residentdismisses
TenderfootHill, the small, steep rise on the edge of Salida that sports a hillside
letter,as"nothingbut novelty."Anotherresidentsaysof potentialcity icons,"Moun-
tains and riversare the only things that last."
Important to Shavano'sidentity is the uninterrupted,full view of the massif;
views of the peak are framed by the northwest-southeast orientation of Salida's
street grid, which parallelsthe former railroadright-of-way.Even more distinctive
is a snow formationthat appearson Shavano'seast side for a few weekseach spring.
As the snow melts from the summit and ridges,a lingering snow-filled crevice re-
sembles an angel with uplifted arms. The legend of the Angel of Shavano,whose
melting snow sustainslife in the valleybelow, is an indispensablepart of Shavano's
iconography (Everettand Hutchinson 1963).Shavano'sangel legend and visibility
combine with its Fourteenerstatus to assurethat it remains more central in local
place identity than do other nearbydistinctivepeaks,such as Mount Ouray,a high
Thirteenerin the southern Sawatch,and pointy MethodistMountain, at the north-
ern end of the Sangrede Cristo.
172 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG. lo-Mount Princeton and Buena Vista, Colorado. The former Chaffee County Courthouse,
now occupied by the Buena Vista HeritageMuseum, is visible at the right edge of the photograph.
(Photographby the author,August 2001)

FIG. 11-Diana Blakeviews Mount Shavano(left) and TabeguacheMountain(center)fromthe south-

ern slope of Mount Antero.In the 1870sAnterowas a Uintah Ute chief, and Shavanowas a Tabeguache
Ute chief. (Photographby the author,August1990o)
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 173

FIG.12-A model-railroad
dioramain theBuenaVistaHeritageMuseumdepictsMountShavanoas
the peakof identityfor Salida.The paintingincludesthe Angel of Shavanosnow formationand Salida's
preservedsmelter smokestack.(Photographby the author,August 2001)

A dioramaof railroadsin the UpperArkansasRiverValleydisplayedin the Buena

VistaHeritageMuseumsuccinctlyportraysthe local peaksof identity.On the back-
drop are painted many mountains, but there is room for only one or two peaks
behind each town. Although the mountains in any directionfrom town could have
been portrayedin the diorama,faithful representationsof Massiveand Elbertap-
pear behind Leadville;of Princeton,behind BuenaVista;and of Shavano,behind
Salida(Figure12).The primaryfactorsin creatingSawatchpeaksof identityinclude
Fourteenerstatus,massifvisibility,shape,snow cover,and legendaryhistory.But in
the identity of each Sawatchtown, Shavano,Elbert,Massive,and Holy Crosslikely
play lesser roles than Princeton does in the characterof Buena Vista. Not only is
Princetonwithin the memorablynicknamedCollegiatePeaks,it has the distinctive
trio of summits, the Chalk Cliffs,a stand-alone quality,easy accessibilityby road,
and a lack of iconographiccompetition from mining or from the ArkansasRiver.

PEAKS OF IDENTITY
Other strong examples of the Fourteenersas peaks of identity exist outside the
Sawatch.The one with the strongestethnic tie is CulebraPeak,otherwiseknown as
La Sierra,the southernmost Colorado Fourteenerin the Sangrede Cristo Range.
174 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

With a traditionof communal land use by SpanishAmericansthat datesbackto the

185os,privateownership of the mountain since 1960 has brought strife to the local
sense of place (Weinberg1997;Wilson 1999).Climberswho are attemptingto sum-
mit every Colorado Fourteenerhave also experiencedangst because of the restric-
tions placed on accessto Culebra(Meyers2001).
A Fourteenermay be a peak of identity both for a local community and for a
largerregion. Mount Evansis a peak of identity for Denver,but so is Longs Peak,
more distant yet higher and more rugged.As the centerpiece of Rocky Mountain
National Park,Longsis also arguablya peak of identity for the whole RockyMoun-
tain region. Appearingin countless print advertisements,television commercials,
calendars,and magazine cover images, Mount Sneffels and the Maroon Bells are
additional examples of Fourteenersthat representall western mountains as ideal
nature in regionalplace identity.
This overlap of spatial resolutions for peaks of identity is illustratedbest by
commodified and contested Pikes Peak,"the mountain that defines the Colorado
Springsregion, Colorado,and even America"(Colorado Springs2001). Considered
by many to be the most spectacularFourteener,because of its tremendous 8,000-
foot rise from the plains (Writers'Program... 1941,4), Pikes Peakis also a symbolic
landmarkof the entireWest.The mountain was popularizedby Zebulon Pike'sfirst
summit attempt,the "PikesPeakor Bust"gold rush, and the foot trail,roadway,and
cog railwaythat haveeach,in turn, led to a summit ultimatelyriddledwith develop-
ment and memorials.The rich symbolism of Pikes Peakand the summit view that
inspiredthe lyrics to "Americathe Beautiful"combine to result in its promotion as
"America'sMountain"(McChristal1999).Even amid such favorablehyperbole,the
idealizednature of the Fourteenershas led to controversyover the environmental
damage caused by the Pikes PeakHighway (Rutledge1999).
The link among nature, place identity, and the Fourteenersdepends on their
conceptualizationas a distinct group.Without this assemblage,a few peaksof more
than 14,000feet would havea strongimage,but otherswould be essentiallyignored.
Elevationis a critical,but not the only, factorin Fourteenersymbolism. Mountains
barelyabove that elevation are heraldedas peaks of identity for local communities,
the state, the region, and the nation, yet peaks just below that elevation are often
hardlyknown. But elevationis merelythe gatekeeperinto the Fourteenerclub:Once
in this elite group of mountains, other traits,including shape, accessibility,and the
aesthetics of visibility, are as important as elevation in determining the nature of
place identity.
The increasingemphasis on climbing other Colorado mountains, such as the
Thirteeners,the Centennial Peaks, or county high points, is not likely to cause a
significantlessening of Fourteeneruse, nor will less promotion of the Fourteeners
by the public land agencies.13The Fourteenersare alreadyoverburdenedwith at-
tention; their well-establishedimage and marketingallureare more likelyto trickle
down to other mountains than to diminish. The acceleratingcommodification of
the Fourteenersin materialgoods has a silverlining, however,because many prod-
 COLORADO FOURTEENERS 175

ucts promoteenvironmentalawarenessand celebratea love of and pridein the

mountainsas peaksof identity.
The symbolismof Colorado'sFourteeners has servedas a dynamicandpotent
forcefor a centuryanda half.Thefuturewillprobablybringchangeto theirplace
identity.Whatwe see as overusetodaymaybe seenas acceptableuse in the future.
As their popularitycontinuesto spreadbeyondColoradans,mountaineers,and
peakbaggers, the Fourteenerswill increasinglybe viewedas symbolsof higheride-
alsregardingnatureandthe managementof mountainlanduse.Thoughnot yet a
householdnameoutsidethe stateand the region,the fifty-fourFourteenerswill
becomeincreasingly centralin placeidentity,assymbolsnot onlyof wondrousscen-
erybut also of how mountains shouldappearin the idealizednaturalworld.

NOTES
i. Fourteenthousand feet equals4,267meters,but the metric system fails to generateenthusiasm
when it comes to the height of mountains in the United States(Roach1999).The closest round metric
figure,4,000 meters,includeswell over 600 peaks (Winnerand Winner 1977),far too many to achieve
a strong identity.Furthermore,every climbing club in the United Statesbases its criteriaon feet, so I
use that measurementsystem throughout this article.
2. Colorado also has the highest mean elevation, approximately6,800 feet, of any state in the
nation (Writers'Program... 1941).
3. In this articleI adopt the traditionalcount of fifty-four Fourteeners(Borneman and Lampert
1998).The consensus for determininga separatemountain relieson a 3oo-foot drop to the saddlethat
connects two higher elevations.An illustrationof the arbitrarynature of this consensus is the fact that
both North Maroon Peak and El Diente Peak fail the standardyet are accepted as Fourteeners.A
distance of 0.25-0.50 mile between summits is sometimes used as a standard for defining separate
mountains. Some mountaineers use a list of fifty-five Colorado Fourteeners,which includes Chal-
lenger Point, approximately0.20 mile distant from and 300 feet lower than Kit Carson Peak (Roach
1999).Some massifshave multiple summits that exceed 14,000 feet, as do the five summits of Mount
Massive,but they count as only one Fourteenerwith the application of these standards.
4. Ironically,in 2001 the stewardswere moved from busier mountains to La Plata Peak, in re-
sponse to four fatalitiesin the preceding three years on that Fourteener.The stewards'emphasis on
education correspondinglyshifted from "LeaveNo Trace"to hiker preparedness(Rowan 2ool).
5. Although postcardsand scenic brochuresare intended primarilyfor consumption by tourists,
local residentstypically select their content.
6. Some examples of mountains below 14,000 feet that are peaks of identity in Colorado are
Horsetooth Mountain (FortCollins), FisherPeak (Trinidad),GrandMesa (GrandJunction),Sleeping
Ute Mountain (Cortez), the La Plata Range (Durango), Mount Kendall (Silverton),Mount Abrams
(Ouray),and Mount Sopris (Carbondale).
7. Harvard,Columbia, Oxford,Yale,and Princeton constitute the CollegiatePeaks,a group that
firstgained an identity in 1869(Bornemanand Lampert1998).The expansiveCollegiatePeaksWilder-
ness Area,designatedin 1980,contains eight Fourteeners,but not Princeton.
8. Mount Elbert,Mount Harvard,and Mount Belfordin the Sawatchwere among the first peaks
to receive attention from the CFI.Although these Fourteenersfeature great heights, their relatively
moderate steepness attractsmany beginning peakbaggers.
9. The SawatchAnticline formed approximately70 million yearsago, during the LaramideOrog-
eny, with the SawatchRange on its western flank and the Mosquito Range on its eastern flank. Oli-
gocene batholithslateraddedto the mountain-buildingsequenceof the centraland southern Sawatch.
As the mountains rose, mineral-rich solutions seeped upward through fissures and crystallizedto
produce Colorado'smineral belt, a 5o-mile-wide mineralizedzone extending from near Boulder to
176 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

near Durango. Subsequently,crustalextensions produced the Rio GrandeRift that splits the Sawatch
Anticline. Thousands of feet of overlying rocks were eroded to expose granite, schist, and gneiss;
Pleistoceneglaciationscouredthe Sawatch;and the Upper ArkansasRivereventuallyoccupied the rift
(Chronic 1980; Karnuta1995).Mount Antero, in the Sawatch,featuresthe highest mineral locality in
North America (Borneman and Lampert1998).
to. Mount of the Holy Cross is visible from only one road in the state: an unpaved route over
Shrine Pass. The mountain rises on the southwesternhorizon, nearly 20 miles from a rustic Forest
Serviceviewpoint along the road. The mountain can also be seen from the top of a Vailski lift. View-
ing any aspect of the mountain from a closer proximityrequiresa moderate hike aftera long drive on
the rough Tigiwon Road;the best vista of the cross on the eastern face requiresa strenuous climb of
Notch Mountain.
11. In 2001I collected everypostcardfeaturinga Fourteenerthat was for sale in the local commu-
nities. Of the fifteen SawatchFourteeners,only the five I examined in this study appearon the post-
cards.
12. Containingno chalk,the ChalkCliffsare named for a white, chalkyappearancecausedby the
hydrothermalalterationof Mount Princeton'squartzmonzonite (Karnuta1995).The ChalkCliffsare
featuredon three currentpostcardsof Mount Princeton,including one on which it is misidentifiedas
Mount Antero.
13. An example of depublicizing the Fourteeners occurred in the summer of 2001, when the
LeadvilleRangerDistrict and CFIagreedto stop distributinghikers'cards on which were printed the
LeaveNo Traceethics and a checklistof the Fourteeners.Their concernwas that the checklistcould be
promoting use of the Fourteenersto an extent that the LeaveNo Traceethics would be impossible to
uphold (Rowan 2ool).

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