Documente Academic
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Deborah L. Boxall
April 29, 2005
(Page numbers are linked)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Kinetic Theory of Gases: Student Misconceptions (pg. 5) illustrates some of the preconceptions
that students may have about this particular topic that could potentially prevent learning. A
teacher can identify such potential misconceptions using a formative informal concept interview
on the topic.
THERMOCHEMISTRY:
Free Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy
Academic Chemistry
Grades 9-12
Textbook: Chemistry: Addison-Wesley, 5th ed., (Prentice Hall: 2000), Chpt. 11 (pp 307-13),
Chpt. 19 (pp 551-7).
SWBAT:
• Distinguish between physical and chemical changes.
• Identify the direction of heat flow from calorimetric data.
• Define the terms endothermic, exothermic, free energy, and entropy.
• Distinguish between spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions and processes.
• Apply their understanding of the relationship between free energy, enthalpy and entropy to
deduce the direction of change for these parameters from experimental data.
NCSCOS:
• Competency Goal 2: The learner will build an understanding of regularities in chemistry.
2.05 Identify the indicators of chemical change (precipitate formation, gas evolution,
absorption or release of heat).
• Competency Goal 3: The learner will build an understanding of energy changes in chemistry.
3.02 Analyze the law of conservation of energy, energy transformation, and various
forms of energy involved in chemical reactions.
3.04 Analyze calorimetric measurement in simple systems and the energy involved in
changes in state.
3.05 Analyze the relationship between energy transfer and disorder in the universe.
Materials:
12 copies of Free Energy worksheet
12 copies of Free Energy Worksheet: Answer Key
7 Group ID cards printed out on card stock
26 copies of Free Energy quiz (for second class period)
1 Superteam certificate
1 Greatteam certificate
Reaction equations that need to be written on the board are indicated in outlined boxes as
illustrated below:
(NH4)3PO4 (s) → 3NH4+(aq) + PO43- (aq)
Answers to questions that are to be addressed by the students (eg. Q1, Q2..) are given in italics.
Anticipatory Set: (~ 5 minutes)
Q1. Thinking back to our previous discussions about calorimetry, is the salt the system or the
surroundings? (the system) What are the surroundings? (the water)
Q2. Was heat energy exchanged between the system and the surroundings (yes). How can you
tell? (the temperature of the water decreased)
Q3. Is this like the phase changes we’ve been discussing? (No, because it involves breaking
chemical bonds)
Instruction: (~ 35 minutes)
Just like with physical changes, chemical changes require that energy be transferred between the
system, which is the reacting species, and the surrounding solvent. So let’s think about how we
can deduce the direction of energy flow:
Q4. What does a negative ∆T tell you about the direction of heat flow when the salt dissolves?
(the heat energy needed to break the ionic bonds so the salt can dissolve is absorbed from the
surrounding water…heat flows from the surroundings into the system).
This is how you’d write the reaction equation for the dissolution of ammonium phosphate in
water (Write this on the board, leaving enough space for a second equation to be written next to
it)
Let’s calculate the amount of heat that was used to break the ionic bonds in the salt:
*Stress that the heat of the reaction is of the same magnitude but of opposite sign.
Exothermic example
Consider the following reaction: (Write it on the board next to the first reaction)
Q5. If the same molar amounts of the reactants as in the first example (8.7 x 10–2 mol NH3 and
H3PO4) are added to 100.0 g of water, would you expect to get the same ∆T? (Most students will
say that it should be the same since are producing the same products)
Actually, this is an example of an exothermic reaction in that heat is transferred from the
reactants to the surroundings. A ∆T of +13.3°C would be observed if we were to carry out this
reaction.
Define the terms endothermic (heat absorbed during a reaction) and exothermic (heat given off
during a reaction). Write below the dissolution equation ∆H = +11 kJ/mol. Write below the
neutralization equation ∆H = -64 kJ/mol. Emphasize that exothermic reactions have negative
enthalpy values while endothermic are positive.
2NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g) ∆Hrxn = +129 kJ/mol
The reactant in this case is sodium bicarbonate, more commonly known as baking soda and it’s
decomposing to form sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide. Sodium carbonate is used to
form soaps and detergents. Note that this reaction is endothermic.
Q6. In our first thought experiment, ammonium phosphate would spontaneously dissolve in
water even though it was an endothermic reaction. Has anyone ever noticed baking soda
spontaneously decomposing to sodium carbonate? (No…doesn’t happen at room temperature)
Q7. Can you think of a way to make this nonspontaneous reaction become spontaneous…to
make it happen? (Heat it up)
The reason why it was necessary to add heat to the second endothermic reaction before it would
occur has to do with a new term that I’d like to introduce to you…
See page 549 of text for definition: free energy is energy that’s available to do work.
Perhaps more significant to our study of chemistry is to state that spontaneous processes release
free energy and nonspontaneous processes absorb free energy. Hence:
Q8: So, thinking back to our exothermic and endothermic reactions (point)…are they
spontaneous reactions or not? (Yes…the temperature change tells us that the reaction
occurred…hence was spontaneous)
Let’s consider use the endothermic reaction to try to tease out the relationship between enthalpy
and free energy. We know that it’s a spontaneous reaction so ∆G is negative. We know that it’s
an endothermic reaction so ∆H is positive. The only way a positive enthalpy value can lead to a
negative free energy value is if some value larger than the enthalpy value is subtracted from the
enthalpy:
∆G = ∆H – something
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
This new term, ∆S, is the change in the entropy of the system. Entropy is defined as being the
degree of disorder or randomness of the system. For example, when a solid is melted its entropy
increases a little bit, but not nearly as much as the increase in entropy that’s observed when a
liquid is vaporized.
The reason you expect to get the 50:50 mix the most often is because it can be obtained the
greatest number of ways, while there is only one way to get either all heads or all tails. The
50:50 mix of coins has the greatest degree of disorder in it and thus the greatest entropy.
Looking back once again at our endothermic reaction, the reason this reaction occurs
spontaneously is because the entropy change is large enough to counteract the effect of the
positive enthalpy value and result in a negative free energy value. The chemical system has gone
from one equivalent of a highly organized solid lattice to two equivalents of ions that are
dispersed throughout the solution.
Q15. What would ∆S be if the H2O formed was in its liquid phase? (∆S would be negative and
larger in magnitude since have 7 equivalents of gas phase reactants going to only 4 equivalents
of gas phase products.)
OK…let’s review before we break up into our teams: (Put up transparency 3…text below)
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
Five minutes before the end of the class period, have the students gather up the materials
(worksheets, answer sheets, and Group ID tags) and bring them up to the front of the room.
After the students are seated in their teams, put Transparency 2 back up on the projector and tell
the students they have 20 minutes to study the material together before they take a quiz on it.
Use the remainder of the class period to introduce calculations involving ∆H, ∆G and ∆S (next
lesson plan).
At the beginning of the class, announce each teams improvement points from the quiz the day
before. Direct the students’ attention to the two signs posted in the classroom that explain how
improvement points are awarded and the criteria for winning the Greatteam and Superteam
awards (signs attached). Present the Superteam and Greatteam Certificates to the winning teams.
Have the students pin their certificates up on the bulletin board for that week’s winners.
ARTIFACTS FOR MULTIPLE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
SWBAT:
1. Distinguish between heat and temperature
2. Evaluate the relative heat content of different masses of the same substance
3. Calculate a heating curve of water given the values for specific heat and enthalpy of
transition for the three phases.
4. Sketch a cooling curve from a given or calculated heating curve.
5. Predict the rate of temperature increase for two different phases of a substance given
the specific heat of the two phases (faster, slower).
6. Predict how heating rate will affect the shape of the heating curve.
7. Compare (shorter, longer) the duration of two phase transitions given appropriate heat
of transition values.
NCSCOS:
Competency Goal 3: The learner will build an understanding of energy changes in
chemistry.
3.03 Compare and contrast the nature of heat and temperature.
3.04 Analyze calorimetric measurement in simple systems and the energy
involved in changes in state.
Materials:
75 g lead fishing weights
75 g wax candles
Calculating a Heating Curve worksheet (2 pages)
Safety:
Lead is toxic and should not be ingested. Additionally, the fishing weights should not be
thrown as injury may result.
1
Direct Instruction Lesson Plan Deborah L. Boxall
Academic Chemistry
3. Have students give examples of various sources of internal energy using prompts and
cues as necessary. [Intermolecular: NCSCOS 1.07; Kinetic molecular theory:
NCSCOS 1.06].
4. Define temperature: a measure of the average molecular energy
5. Stress that heat is an extensive property while temperature is an intensive property
using this example: a 100 g block of lead vs. a 10 g block of lead, both at 40 °C
(remind them that this is a bit above body temperature) contains ten times as much
heat.
6. Assess student understanding of the distinction between heat and temperature by
handing out the fishing weights and candles of equivalent weight. Ask the students
whether it will take the same amount of heat to increase the temperature of both the
Pb and the paraffin by 5°C. Once they have answered, put up the transparency with
the specific heat capacities of Pb and paraffin and define specific heat capacity. Stress
the concept that specific heat allows the heating characteristics of different materials
to be compared without having to account for the extensive nature of heat.
7. Point out that the heat capacity of paraffin is almost 20 times larger than that of Pb,
and will thus require almost 20x as much heat to raise the temperature by 5°. (This
example also evaluates possible material based misconceptions about heat).
8. If students seem confused by concept, provide paraffin/water example for additional
reinforcement.
9. Define phase transitions: solid -> liquid, liquid -> gas
10. Ask students if they think the temperature of a heated substance undergoing a phase
change will increase or stay the same. Point out that all of the heat absorbed by a
substance goes to breaking intermolecular bonds and cannot increase the average
molecular energy of the substance as a whole. Hence, the temperature is invariant.
11. Define ∆Hfus: a measure of the energy contained in the intermolecular bonds in the
solid phase of the substance on a per mole basis (ice example). Point out that ‘fusion’
refers to the melting process.
12. Define ∆Hvap: a measure of the energy contained in the intermolecular bonds in the
liquid phase of the substance on a per mole basis (water example).
13. Put up the transparency with the completed Worksheet data table. Direct students to
complete their own data tables while handing out the worksheets. Model doing the
calculations in steps 1-5 by either writing directly onto transparency version of the
blank worksheet, or onto the chalkboard. Show the students how to fill in the
calculated values into the worksheet Data Table.
2
Direct Instruction Lesson Plan Deborah L. Boxall
Academic Chemistry
b) Assess student understanding of the effect of heating rate on the shape of the
heating curve by drawing two superimposed heating curves depicting different
heat rates, and have the students identify which curve corresponds to the greater
heating rate.
Specific Heat
H2PEw Phase Tm = 30 °C
(J g-1 °C-1)
Solid 10.5 ∆Hfus = 20.2 kJ/mol
Liquid 4.0 Tb = 90 °C
Gas 16.5 ∆Hvap = 10.3 kJ/mol
Assess student understanding using the same criteria as in the Guided Practice.
3
Calculating a Heating Curve
Blank Worksheet
Name: _______________________________ Date: ___________________
Specific Heat
H2O Phase Tm = 0°C
(J g-1 °C-1)
Solid 2.0 ∆Hfus = 6.01 kJ/mol
Liquid 4.18 Τb = 100 °C
Gas 2.0 ∆Hvap = 40.7 kJ/mol
6. Repeat steps 1-3 for time needed for second temperature ramp (t3).
7. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for time required for second phase change (t4).
8. Repeat steps 1-3 for time needed for final temperature change (t5).
Data Table
Temp.
∆T (°C) q (J) Time (s) Total time (s)
(°C)
------------ ------------ 0 0
Plot your calculated heating curve below. Label time spans corresponding to phase
transitions.
Questions to ponder:
1. What would the cooling curve for this sample of water look like?
2. How would the appearance of the plot change if the water were heated at twice the
heating rate? One-half of the heating rate?
Calculating a Heating Curve
Specific Heat
H2O Phase Tm = 0°C
(J g-1 °C-1)
Solid 2.0 ∆Hfus = 6.01 kJ/mol
Liquid 4.18 Τb = 100 °C
Gas 2.0 ∆Hvap = 40.7 kJ/mol
6. Repeat steps 1-3 for time needed for second temperature ramp (t3).
7. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for time required for second phase change (t4).
8. Repeat steps 1-3 for time needed for final temperature change (t5).
Data Table
Temp.
∆T (°C) q (J) Time (s) Total time (s)
(°C)
-20 ------------ ------------ 0 0
0 20 720 3.6 3.6
0 Solid -> liquid 6010 30.1 33.7
100 100 7524 37.6 71.3
100 Liquid -> gas 40700 203.5 274.8
120 20 720 3.6 278.4
Plot your calculated heating curve below. Label time spans corresponding to phase
transitions.
140
120
Liquid -> gas
100
Temperature (°C)
80
60
40
Solid -> liquid
20
0
-20 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time (s)
-40
Questions to ponder:
1. What would the cooling curve for this sample of water look like?
2. How would the appearance of the plot change if the water were heated at twice the
heating rate? One-half of the heating rate?
Deborah L. Boxall Learning Cycle Lesson Plan
Academic Chemistry
Grades 9-12
Textbook: Chemistry: Addison-Wesley, 5th ed., (Prentice Hall: 2000), Chpt. 11 (pp 311-16).
SWBAT:
• Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic processes
• Use relative temperature changes to compare the endothermicity of two reactions.
• Define lattice energy and understand that breaking the ionic bonds in a crystal lattice is
always an endothermic process.
• Understand that formation of a hydration sphere around ions is an exothermic process
• Relate ion size and charge to the enthalpy of hydration
• Relate ion size and charge to the lattice energy of the salt.
• Calculate enthalpy of solvation for a salt given the lattice energy and enthalpy of hydration
for the ions comprising the salt.
• Predict the relative lattice energies of different salts using their knowledge of how ion size
and charge affects the lattice energy.
• Draw a diagram to illustrate the combination of endothermic and exothermic processes
occurring when a salt dissolves.
• Use the diagram to calculate the lattice energy of a salt given calorimetric data and enthalpies
of hydration.
NCSCOS:
1.07 Assess the structure of ionic compounds relating bonding and molecular geometry to
chemical and physical properties.
2.01 Analyze periodic nature of trends in chemical properties and examine the use of the
Periodic Table to predict ionic radii.
2.05 Identify the indicators of chemical change, such as the absorption or release of heat.
3.02 Analyze the law of conservation of energy, energy transformation, and various forms of
energy involved in chemical reactions.
3.03 Compare and contrast the nature of heat and temperature.
3.04 Analyze calorimetric measurement in simple systems.
Materials:
Ice Melter (mixture of NaCl, KCl, urea, and a surfactant)
Table salt (NaCl)
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
Drano (mixture of NaOH and Al pieces)
Wax paper
Tooth picks
Plastic cups
Small ziplock baggies
Measuring spoons (~Tbsp size)
Safety
Drano contains sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is a caustic. Students must wear goggles
when working with this material and wash their hands thoroughly after they’re finished. Also,
the reaction of Drano with water produces a lot of heat and hydrogen gas, so care should be
taken to avoid thermal burns and producing a combustible amount of H2 gas. For this reason,
small portions of Drano should be added to water in open plastic cups.
Show the students an empty Ice Melter bag, and then read the ingredients and the description
from the back. Specifically:
Ace Ice Melter
RAPIDLY MELTS ICE AND SNOW AND PREVENTS RE-FREEZING
Ace Ice Melter features a special custom blend of superior ice melting
ingredients. Together they melt even the most stubborn ice an snow and work to
prevent re-freezing.
• Melts ice down to 0°F (-18 °C).
Active Ingredients
KCl
NaCl
NH2CONH2 (urea)
C7O6H14 (methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside; a surfactant)
Put 1 Tbsp of the water each into two baggies. Tell the students that you’re going to add some
Ice Melter to one of the baggies and ask them to predict what will happen. Make sure to get
input from several students. Have one of the students hold both baggies in either hand, then add
1 Tbsp of Ice Melter to one of the baggies and ask the student to mix the contents. Have the
student describe their observations (should observe that an endothermic reaction occurred rather
than the exothermic reaction that they most likely predicted).
Assessment of prior knowledge: Students that were previously been exposed to concepts
involving solutions (Chpt 17 in text) and the colligative property of freezing point depression
(Chpt 18 in text) may be able to relate the activity of the Ice ‘Melter’ to freezing point
depression. If this idea is brought up during class discussion, ensure that the students understand
that the Ice Melter stops working below –18°C because there is no longer any liquid water
present.
Explore (30 minutes)
Ask the students to describe what they think happened, and list their explanations on the board.
Be sure to provide sufficient cueing that the students describe the properties of ionic solids. Tell
them you want them to find out if dissolving a substance always results in an endothermic heat
of solution. Have the students do the two-baggie experiment with sodium chloride and sodium
bicarbonate (both are endothermic).
Next, read the back of the Drano bottle to the students and ask them what the precautions tell
them about its likely reaction with water. Since they should predict an exothermic reaction, tell
them that they need to use their plastic cups for the next part of the experiment. Have the
students put on their goggles, and then to pour a small portion of Drano out onto their piece of
wax paper. Ask them to observe what the Drano looks like (blue and white solid with bits of
metal present). Tell them to put some water in one of their cups, and then add the Drano to the
water. They should get gas evolution and notice that the solution gets very hot. Ask them what
they think the difference between the reactions with NaCl, NaHCO3, and Drano is. Use
questions to guide the students into suggesting that it’s the reaction between the NaOH and the
metal bits that’s producing the heat. This will also assess whether the students believe that all
spontaneous chemical reactions are exothermic. Suggest to the students that they use the
toothpicks to remove the metal bits from the Drano mixture, and then try the dissolution reaction
again. They should observe that the solution still gets very hot, but that there’s no gas evolution.
Ask them to explain the heat source in this case.
Conclusion to draw from student responses: Energy is absorbed during the dissolution process.
However, not all ∆Hsoln are endothermic. Energy released during hydration of ions in the solution
can be sufficient to result in an exothermic ∆Hsoln.
Handout the Enthalpy of Solution Worksheet, and use directed questioning to guide the students
individually through the worksheet. Encourage them to look up the table depicting the relative
ionic radii (pg 399) when comparing lattice energies and heats of hydration listed in Tables 1 and
2.
In preparation for the next summative evaluation, tell the students that they will need to be able
to:
• Predict how lattice energy and enthalpy of hydration change with ionic size and charge
• Apply Hess’s Law to the calculation of ∆Hsoln, lattice energy or ∆Hhyd if given two out of the
three values
• Interpret a Born-Haber diagram
COIN CALORIMETRY
Procedure:
1. Add 400 mL of hot water to a 600 mL beaker, and heat to boiling on a hot plate.
2. Count and weigh the coins, weigh the coffee cup calorimeter (two nested styrofoam cups)
empty, and after adding 75 mL of water to the inner cup. Record your data below.
3. Put the calorimeter containing 75 mL of water into a 400 mL beaker for additional stability.
4. Put the coins in the plastic sandwich bag, and use the tongs to suspend the coins in the
boiling water (Twater > 70 °C is OK).
5. Collect temperature data from the calorimeter water for one minute, then move the
temperature probe to the hot water bath. Collect temperature data from the hot water bath for
one more minute.
6. Transfer both the temperature probe and the bag of coins to the calorimeter.
7. Collect temperature data from the calorimeter for two minutes, swirling the calorimeter
gently every 30 seconds. Press the [STO] key on the TI-83 to stop data collection.
8. Plot out the data and determine the plateau temperature of the calorimeter water before the
coins were added (Ti) and the plateau temperature of the hot water bath before the coins
were transferred to the calorimeter (Ti, coins).
9. Determine the plateau temperature of the calorimeter water after the coins were added (Tf).
Data:
Type and number of coins:
Ti (calorimeter): Tf (calorimeter):
2. Given that the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C, how much heat was absorbed by the water
in the calorimeter?
5. What is the specific heat of the coinage metal? (Hint: Combine the answers from questions 2
and 3, and solve for the specific heat of the metal).
Answer key
COIN CALORIMETRY
Procedure:
10. Add 400 mL of hot water to a 600 mL beaker, and heat to boiling on a hot plate.
11. Count and weigh the coins, weigh the coffee cup calorimeter (two nested styrofoam cups)
empty, and after adding 75 mL of water to the inner cup. Record your data below.
12. Put the calorimeter containing 75 mL of water into a 400 mL beaker for additional stability.
13. Put the coins in the plastic sandwich bag, and use the tongs to suspend the coins in the
boiling water (Twater > 70 °C is OK).
14. Collect temperature data from the calorimeter water for one minute, then move the
temperature probe to the hot water bath. Collect temperature data from the hot water bath for
one more minute.
15. Transfer both the temperature probe and the bag of coins to the calorimeter.
16. Collect temperature data from the calorimeter for two minutes, swirling the calorimeter
gently every 30 seconds. Press the [STO] key on the TI-83 to stop data collection.
17. Plot out the data and determine the plateau temperature of the calorimeter water before the
coins were added (Ti) and the plateau temperature of the hot water bath before the coins
were transferred to the calorimeter (Ti, coins).
18. Determine the plateau temperature of the calorimeter water after the coins were added (Tf).
Data:
Type and number of coins: See tables for expected data
Ti (calorimeter): 20 °C Tf (calorimeter):
H2O
q
2. Given that the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C, how much heat was absorbed by the water
in the calorimeter?
Use dimensional analysis to determine
5. What is the specific heat of the coinage metal? (Hint: Combine the answers from questions 2
and 3, and solve for the specific heat of the metal).
The STAD lesson plan signs (pp. 34-35) are to be posted in the classroom in order to engender
greater team effort and cooperation. The team recognition certificates (pp. 36-37) provide the
extrinsic motivation that might be needed to get all of the groups working toward a common
goal.
Free Energy Worksheet
1. Label each of the following as either a physical change (P) or a chemical change (C) :
_____ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) _____ C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
_____ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) _____ H2O (g) → H2O (l)
_____ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l) _____NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
_____Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2. What is an endothermic process?
3. What is an exothermic process?
4. How can you tell whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic?
5. What is free energy?
6. How is the spontaneity of a reaction related to its free energy?
7. What is entropy?
8. Indicate whether each of the following physical and chemical changes results in a positive
(+), negative (-) or negligible (0/+ or 0/-) ∆S value:
_____ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) _____ C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
_____ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) _____ H2O (g) → H2O (l)
_____ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l) _____NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
_____Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
9. What is the mathematical expression that relates free energy, enthalpy and entropy?
10. Is it true that all spontaneous reactions are exothermic? Explain your answer.
11. For each of the following, indicate the sign of ∆G and ∆H. Also, if it is possible to evaluate
∆S, indicate whether ∆S is positive, negative or negligible.
a. Dissolving 10.0 g of a solid in 100 g of water results in a ∆T = +3°
b. The melting of ice at room temperature
c. Condensation of water vapor at 120°C
d. Condensation of water vapor at 80°C
e. Sublimation of dry ice at room temperature
Free Energy Worksheet: Answer Key
1. Label each of the following as either a physical change (P) or a chemical change (C) :
P CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) C C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
C 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) P H2O (g) → H2O (l)
P NaCl (s) → NaCl (l) C NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
C Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2. What is an endothermic process? One that absorbs heat from the surroundings
3. What is an exothermic process? One that gives off heat to the surroundings
4. How can you tell whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic? Endothermic
reactions have negative ∆T’s, exothermic rxns have positive ∆T’s
5. What is free energy? Free energy is energy that’s available to do work
6. How is the spontaneity of a reaction related to its free energy? Spontaneous reactions
have negative free energy values
7. What is entropy? Entropy is the amount of disorder in a system
8. Indicate whether each of the following physical and chemical changes results in a positive
(+), negative (-) or negligible (0) ∆S value:
+ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) 0 C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
− 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) − H2O (g) → H2O (l)
0/+ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l) 0/+ NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
0/− Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
9. What is the mathematical expression that relates free energy, enthalpy and entropy?
∆G = ∆H-T∆S
10. Is it true that all spontaneous reactions are exothermic? Explain your answer. No,
endothermic reactions can be spontaneous if there is a large +∆S to offset the
effect of the +∆H
11. For each of the following, indicate the sign of ∆G and ∆H. Also, if it is possible to evaluate
∆S, indicate whether ∆S is positive, negative or negligible.
a. Dissolving 10.0 g of a solid in 100 g of water results in a ∆T = +3° -∆G, -∆H, 0/+ ∆S
b. The melting of ice at room temperature -∆G, +∆H, 0/+ ∆S
c. Condensation of water vapor at 120°C +∆G, -∆H, -∆S
d. Condensation of water vapor at 80°C -∆G, -∆H, -∆S
e. Sublimation of dry ice at room temperature -∆G, +∆H, +∆S
Name: Date:
5. Identify whether each of the following is a physical (P) or chemical (C) process.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
6. Identify whether entropy is increasing (I) or decreasing (D) in each of the following:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
7. Complete the table below by filling in the appropriate signs for ∆G, ∆H and ∆S.
∆G ∆H ∆S
B 4.
_____ What is always true for a spontaneous exothermic reaction?
a) –∆H,+∆S b) -∆H, -∆G c) +∆H, +∆G d) +∆H, +∆S e) +∆G, +∆S
5. Identify whether each of the following is a physical (P) or chemical (C) process.
C 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) C Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
C NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) C CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
6. Identify whether entropy is increasing (I) or decreasing (D) in each of the following:
D 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) D Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
I NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) I CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
7. Complete the table below by filling in the appropriate signs for ∆G, ∆H and ∆S.
∆G ∆H ∆S
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ARTIFACTS FOR COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY
Communication strategies:
Two of the weaknesses of direct instruction is that information is most often communicated
verbally and the student plays a relatively passive role in the learning process. I have tried to
incorporate questioning and illustrations (pictures on the board) into all of my lesson plans so
that the students will be more actively engaged; however, neither of these approaches fully
addresses the two weaknesses. For this reason, I have prepared a PowerPoint slideshow
(external to this portfolio file, specificheat.pps) that uses visuals to communicate the anticipatory
set and definition of specific heat as well as requiring direct student interaction. This PowerPoint
show could be used in tandem with a lesson, to augment a lesson, or placed on-line for students
that were unable to attend the lesson.
The following steps will take you through the set-up and the use of the CBL 2 with the TI-83
Plus calculator to conduct a simple temperature data collection.
1. Insert the calculator into the cradle on top of the CBL 2 unit and click into place.
2. Place one end of the six inch unit to unit link cable into the port on the bottom of the
calculator and the other end into the CBL 2 unit.
3. Plug the temperature probe into the port labeled: CH 1 on the left hand side of the CBL 2
unit.
4. Turn the calculator [ON].
5. Reset the memory on your calculator by pressing [2ND] then [MEM] which is the [+] key.
Then choose "RESET" which is 7 by scrolling down or clicking the [7] key.
6. Choose 1,"All RAM" then 2, "RESET" on the next screen. A warning will be displayed that
says, "Resetting RAM erases all data and programs from RAM."
7. A screen will be displayed that says "RAM cleared." Press [ENTER] and the word "DONE"
will appear on the screen.
8. Put the calculator in receive mode by pressing [2ND] then [LINK]. Arrow over so that
"RECEIVE" is highlighted then press [ENTER].
9. The calculator will display a "Waiting" screen. Press the <TRANSFER> button on the CBL
2 unit. The CBL 2 unit detects which calculator is connected and sends the appropriate
version of the DataMate software to the calculator.
10. The calculator will display a "Receiving" screen. When the calculator has received the
program, "Done" will be displayed on the screen.
11. To run the DataMate program, click the [APPS] button on the calculator and then arrow up
or down to highlight the DataMate program. Press [ENTER].
12. A screen is displayed which says, "CHECKING SENSORS." If the calculator has identified
the temperature sensor correctly, a screen will be displayed that says, "CH 1: TEMP (C) and
the current reading as determined by the temperature sensor.
13. Start collecting data by pressing [2] which is "START." A real-time graph of the temperature
will be displayed.
14. After you are finished collecting data, press the [STO] key. Your graph will be displayed on
the screen.
15. Use the arrow keys to move through each data point on the graph. The graph can be saved for
retrieval at a later time.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Technology Integration Lesson
NC Competency Goals:
Chemistry:
1.06 Analyze the basic assumptions of kinetic molecular theory and its applications.
2.02 Analyze the mole concept and Avogadro's number and use them to calculate the number of
gas molecules from mass of the gas.
Computer/Technology Skills:
3.1 Select and use appropriate technology tools to efficiently collect, analyze, and display data.
3.3 Use a calculator, scientific calculator, or graphing calculator for problem-solving.
Lesson objectives:
• Use dimensional analysis to convert from non-SI pressure units to SI units.
• Use Gay-Lussac’s discovery that air composition is invariant with altitude to calculate the
effective molar mass of air.
• Use Avogadro’s number to calculate the number of molecules of a gas from moles.
• Utilize TI-83 or TI-82 graphing calculators to generate plots of altitude vs. temperature,
pressure vs. temperature and pressure vs. number of molecules from atmospheric data.
• Observe that pressure is directly dependent upon the number of molecules present.
Lesson plan:
Draw the table below on the board, omitting the numbers in the shaded areas.
Break the students into groups and then assign some of the temperature and pressure conversions
to each group. Fill in the table with student values.
Tell the students that--Gay-Lussac was a scientist who was interested in the properties of gases.
In 1802, he set a record by ascending to 23,000 ft (~ 7 km) in a hot air balloon to investigate
whether altitude affected the composition of the air. He found that it doesn’t. Because of his
discovery, we can find the effective gram molecular mass (gmm) of air at all altitudes:
gmm = 0.78(gmm N2) + 0.21(gmm O2) + 0.01(gam Ar)
We can use Avogadro’s number to find the number of gas molecules in the air at each altitude:
Have each group calculate the total number of molecules for the same altitudes as assigned
previously.
Have each group generate plots of altitude vs. temperature from atmospheric data using TI-83 or
TI-82 graphing calculators. Should get something like:
Altitude vs. Temperature
100
80
Altitude (km)
60
40
20
0
150 200 250 300 350
Temperature (K)
Discuss with the students possible reasons why the slope of the plot is not constant:
• changes as you go from one layer of the atmosphere to another
• absorption of solar radiation by oxygen in middle layer results in heating of gases
Plot pressure vs. temperature from 0 to 12 km (troposphere) and pressure vs. number of
molecules for the entire data set. Have the students find the best line for each plot. Discuss
possible reasons why the P vs. T plot is not linear as expected (since not using a constant
number of moles of gas), but P vs. number of molecules is and relate the latter result to kinetic
theory of gases.
Pressure vs. Temperature Molecules vs. Pressure
150 150
Pressure (kPa)
Pressure (kPa)
100 100
50 50
0 0
150 200 250 300 350 0 100 200 300
I’d like to talk to all of you today about dust explosions. Now, I don’t mean the proliferation in
dust bunnies that I see in my house, at least, when there’s a big project due. Instead, I’m talking
about actual explosions. For example:
• In 1977, a grain elevator exploded in Westwood, LA… the blast blew away the top 100 feet
of headspace off of the grain elevator, killed 36 people and injured 9. It was the worst
disaster in US history of its kind at the time.
• A little bit more recently, a flour mill in Columbus, OH, exploded killing one person and
injuring 5.
• And close to home, here in NC the West Pharmaceutical Services plant in Kinston exploded
January 29th, 2003. The source of the explosion was later found to be a build-up of
polyethylene dust in the suspended ceiling.
OK…so how is it that all these different kinds of dust are exploding? Well, the key thing to
think about is that an explosion tells you that the rate of whatever reaction is occurring is very,
very fast. So, we saw one example of a flour mill exploding…the flour dust in the air was
rapidly combusted. Does that mean that flour is flammable? Let’s see… [pour out small amount
of flour onto Al foil and try to ignite with long handled lighter…will singe a bit, but nothing
else]. Hmm…not too exciting. Well, if you stop and think about it there’s a big difference
between flour dust in the air and flour in a pile…Can anyone think of what that might be?
[looking for surface area]. I’d like to demonstrate the flour explosion myself, but I’ve been
having trouble getting it to go off reliably. Fortunately, the good people in the Science Ed dept
at Purdue University have been kind enough to post a video clip of a dust explosion which I’ll
play for you now. [Click on icon]
Say as the clip is playing: What they’re going to do is light the candle then suspend it into the
large metal can that you see the candle hanging off of. Then they’ll take the rubber tubing that is
connected to a port a bit above the candle flame and pour some very fine, very dry lycopodium
dust (or dried moss dust) down the tubing…the dust hits the flame and voi la!
Now there aren’t that many dust explosions per year, maybe around 10 in a particularly bad
year, because the dust must be present in concentrations greater than 50 g per cubic meter and
the dust particles need to have diameters less than 0.1 mm. So here’s an illustration of what
happens during a dust explosion:
• First you have the dust of the right size and concentration dispersed in a confined area
• A spark or some other ignition source ignites one of the dust particles
• Which then ignites all of the particles around it..
• And so on…
• While I couldn’t get the animation to cooperate with me on this, the rate of ignition
escalates as the ignition front advances
So, hopefully you’ve learned a little something about dust explosions, and more importantly how
reaction rates are increased by an increase in surface area.
ARTIFACTS FOR PLANNING
NC Competency Goals:
Chemistry 1.06 Analyze the basic assumptions of kinetic molecular theory and its
applications.
World History 7.01 Assess the degree to which discoveries, innovations, and technologies
have accelerated change.
7.02 Examine the causes and effects of scientific revolutions and cite their
major costs and benefits.
Earth Science 5.02 Analyze the structure of the atmosphere.
5.03 Analyze weather systems.
5.04 Analyze atmospheric pressure.
5.05 Analyze air masses and the life cycle of weather systems.
5.06 Evaluate meteorological observing, analysis, and prediction.
I. Lesson Objectives
A. Describe the historical events that surrounded development of the gas laws.
B. Identify the variables and state the relationship between them for the three gas laws.
C. Connect common weather sayings to the appropriate gas law.
D. Solve conceptual “real-world” problems using the gas laws.
Evangelisto Torricelli served as Galileo’s secretary and invented the first barometer
in 1643. Torricelli’s barometer used changes in the height of a column of mercury
to measure changes in air pressure.
The invention of the barometer allowed Robert Boyle to discover the relationship
between the pressure and the volume of a gas in 1661. Boyle’s Law states that as
pressure on a gas increases its volume will decrease. Boyle also knew that
temperature affected both the pressure and volume of a gas, but couldn’t determine
the relationship since he had no way to measure temperature. It wasn’t until the
invention of the air thermometer by Guillaume Amontons in 1702 that the affect of
temperature on gas properties could be investigated.
Jacques Charles, a French physicist and chemist, released the first hydrogen filled
balloon in 1783. It ascended 3 km and traveled 43 km in 2 hours. While Amontons
was actually the first to investigate the relationship between the volume and
temperature of a gas, Charles came to be credited with the discovery due to some
unpublished experiments in 1787. Charles’ Law states that the volume of a gas will
increase with temperature.
Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac published his systematic investigations of the relationship
between a gases volume and temperature in 1808. However, since he referenced
Charles’ unpublished results, the relationship came to be called Charles’ Law.
Interestingly, Gay-Lussac was also a balloonist who had previously set a record in
1802 when he ascended to 23,000 feet to investigate whether altitude affected the
composition of the air. He found that it doesn’t. The final gas law, which states that
the pressure of a gas will increase with temperature, is commonly attributed to Gay-
Lussac; however, he is better known for his law of combining volumes.
1. Why is it a bad idea to throw empty spray cans in a fire? (Hint: Are they really empty?)
2. You open a jar of instant coffee in Denver (1 mile above sea level) that was sealed at sea
level in a plant in Brazil, and it blows coffee bits up at your face. Why?
3. Arthur and Zaphod are going scuba diving in some rather cold water to try to retrieve their
copy of the Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy that has fallen overboard. While their air tanks
were initially fully charged at 200 atm, Arthur notices that Zaphod’s tank reads 190 atm
almost immediately after jumping into the water. Should he drag Zaphod back up to the
surface? (Hint: The water is very cold.)
IV. Sources
A. Gas Law History excerpted from Encarta Encyclopedia and
web.fccj.org/~ethall/gaslaw/gaslaw.htm.
B. Weather sayings from wilstar.com/skywatch.htm
Classroom Token Economy (Grades 9-12, Physical sciences)
Introduction to students. The goal behind establishing a token economy in a secondary science
education class would be to motivate students to perform tasks that are not intrinsically
motivating. Such tasks include bringing necessary materials to class everyday (paper, pencils,
participating in class discussions, and remaining on task and working cooperatively when
engaged in group activities. The token economy would be introduced to the students by telling
them that I want them all to excel in my class, so I was going to give points (the tokens) to
students who completed all of these tasks on a daily basis. As each student obtains a total of 20
points, they would have to exchange their points for one of the rewards listed below. The
students can also use their tokens to purchase materials or rent a calculator for that class period
that they may have forgotten and need to complete their assignments. If there is another adult in
the room or a student assistant, their role will be to help keep track of each student’s points,
earned and exchanged, on the record sheet shown below. After two months, the efficacy of this
system will be evaluated by assessing improvement in the student’s grades on exams and
quizzes. If there has not been a significant improvement in student performance, the rules will
Rules
1. All students start out with 5 points. This is to avoid negative point values while the
2. Students receive 1 point for bringing their calculators, paper and writing utensil to class.
They do not receive a point if any one of the three items is missing.
3. Students receive 1 point for each complete (must be neatly done or is not complete)
4. Since cooperative effort during group work will result in a more timely completion of the
group project, all of the members of the first group that completes a group assignment
will receive 2 points each. The members of the second group to complete the group
List of rewards
Table Key: Prev: Point carryover from previous week, Ex: Points exchanged from reward list,
M: Materials brought to class, H: completed homework, C: completed graded classwork, G:
group work points
In the example above, both students started the week with 5 points. Student A was in the group
that finished first on Tuesday and received 2 points for that. Student B’s group finished second
so received 1 point for that. Student B forgot to bring their homework on Tuesday and their
materials on Wednesday. Student B exchanged some of their points for a pencil so they could
Formal assessment:
The Free Energy Quiz from the STAD Lesson plan (pg. 32) has been included as an example of
a formal formative assessment on thermochemistry.
The Enthalpy of Solution Worksheet (pp. 49-52) has also been included as an example of a
formative assessment that could be used as either a formal or informal assessment of student
understanding depending upon the degree of difficulty that the students are having with the
concepts presented in class.
Two examples of summative traditional formal assessments have been included in this portfolio.
The first example (pp. 53-55) was written to be a unit test on the kinetic theory of gases. In
addition to multiple choice, matching and completion questions, this exam includes two free-
response essay questions and two interdisciplinary bonus questions. The second exam (pp. 56-
63) was written to be a unit test on thermochemistry and thermodynamics. As with the first
example, it includes a number of different question formats but has been included in this
portfolio due to its implicit assessment of the students’ problem solving skills.
One example of an alternative summative formal assessment with its accompanying rubric is
included on pp 64-65.
Informal assessment:
A concept interview that was intended to identify potential student misconceptions regarding the
properties of gases is shown on pp. 66-67. Collecting such data about an upcoming topic can be
used to tailor the lesson plans to better fit with the strengths and weaknesses of a particular group
of students.
The graphic organizer for a unit on the kinetic theory of gases (pp. 68-70) provides not only a
quick means to assess student understanding of the relationships between the various gas laws,
but can also be used by the student as a study aid.
Transparency 2 from the STAD Lesson plan (pp. 71-72) can be used to gather informal
assessment data on student conceptual understanding of the factors that affect the spontaneity of
a physical or chemical process as well as indicators of enthalpic or entropic change. In order for
this assessment to be reflective of student understanding, input must be obtained from all of the
students in the class. Students that seem to be having difficulty with the concepts should be
queried a number of times using different questioning formats in order to ensure that they will be
able to learn the material.
Enthalpy of Solution Worksheet
Name: Date:
1. Look at the values in Table 1 and record any observations about the values you can make
below:
2. Look at the values in Table 2 and record any observations you can make about the values
below:
3. Calculate the ∆Hsoln for each of the following:
4. Circle which one of the following is likely to have the largest lattice energy. On the blank at
the end of each line, state the determining characteristic(s) (cation/anion, charge/size)
a) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 CaSO4
b) Na2Se Na2O Na2S
c) Al(OH)3 Al(NO3)3 AlCl3
d) AlF3 InPO4 CsCl
5. Compare the ∆Hsoln of the Group II fluorides (below) to the values you found for the Group II
chlorides in number 3.
MgF2: -17 kJ/mol CaF2: -51 kJ/mol SrF2: -14 kJ/mol
What other bonding interactions could possibly explain why the fluorides do not follow the same
size/charge trends observed for the chloride analogues? (Hint: remember that the salts are being
dissolved in water)
6. Draw an energy diagram to calculate the lattice energy for each of the following potassium
salts:
E E
1. Look at the values in Table 1 and record any observations about the values you can make
below:
• The lattice energy decreases as the size of the anion or the cation increases.
• The lattice energy seems to increase as the charge on the cation increases;
however, this might be due to the additional bonds that are formed between
one divalent cation and two monovalent anions.
2. Look at the values in Table 2 and record any observations you can make about the values
below:
• The heat of hydration become less exothermic as the size of the cation or the
anion increases. This trend is also true for the divalent cations and the
polyatomic anions.
• The heat of hydration is significantly more exothermic for the divalent cations
than it is for the monovalent cations.
3. Calculate the ∆Hsoln for each of the following:
4. Circle which one of the following is likely to have the largest lattice energy. On the blank at
the end of each line, state the determining characteristic(s) (cation/anion, charge/size)
a) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 CaSO4 divalent cation
b) Na2Se Na2O Na2S smallest anion size
c) Al(OH)3 Al(NO3)3 AlCl3 smallest anion size
d) AlF3 InPO4 CsCl smallest anion size, trivalent
cation
5. Compare the ∆Hsoln of the Group II fluorides (below) to the values you found for the Group II
chlorides in number 3.
MgF2: -17 kJ/mol CaF2: -51 kJ/mol SrF2: -14 kJ/mol
What other bonding interactions could possibly explain why the fluorides do not follow the same
size/charge trends observed for the chloride analogues? (Hint: remember that the salts are being
dissolved in water)
• Formation of hydrogen bonds between the water and the fluoride anion
• Formation of HF
6. Draw an energy diagram to calculate the lattice energy for each of the following potassium
salts:
K+ (aq) + NO3-
U = 789 kJ/mol
-321 kJ/mol
E +
K (aq) + OH - E
-335 kJ/mol
K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
I. Warm Up: Please write the letter of the best choice in the blank to the left.
_____ 1. Why is the Kelvin temperature scale used when solving gas law problems?
a) to make the math more complicated
b) it’s used for historical reasons
c) to prevent negative volumes
d) to prevent positive pressures
_____ 2. How would the number of molecules of two different gases compare if their partial
pressures in the same container were identical?
a) They would be the same
b) There would be fewer molecules of the heavier gas
c) There would be more molecules of the heavier gas
d) There’s not enough information to tell
_____ 4. Boyle’s Law states that the pressure and volume of a gas is:
a) conversely proportional
b) directly proportional
c) inversely proportional
d) reversely proportional
_____ 5. Avogadro’s hypothesis states that one mole of gas at STP will have a volume of:
a) 2.24 mL
b) 22.4 mL
c) 2.24 L
d) 22.4 L
II. Word Play: Match each definition below to the word bank at the right.
2. If the atmosphere is 78% N2, 21% O2 and 1% Ar, what is the partial pressure of each gas at
sea level (101.3 kPa)?
3. A balloonist puts 1.25 x 105 L of air into her balloon at 25 °C at atmospheric pressure. The
air is heated to 200 °C at constant pressure. What is the volume of air at this temperature?
1. What are three differences between ideal gases and real gases?
2. Draw a picture of a balloon of gas at STP at the molecular level. Draw another picture that
illustrates how conditions change at the molecular level when the temperature of the gas is
decreased, and explain what happens.
V. Bonus questions:
1. Why didn’t Robert Boyle investigate the effect of temperature on the volume of a gas?
2. You’re out at Jordan Lake and you notice a flock of ducks flying across the lake barely above
the surface. What is likely to happen?
Name: Date:
THERMOCHEMISTRY: EXAM
1. Label each of the following as either a physical change (P) or a chemical change (C) (4 pts):
_____ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) _____ C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
_____ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) _____ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l)
2. Indicate whether each of the following physical and chemical changes results in a positive
(+), negative (-) or negligible (0/+ or 0/-) ∆S value (4 pts):
_____ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) _____ C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
_____ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) _____ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l)
3. Circle which one of the following is likely to have the largest lattice energy. List the
determining characteristics (cation/anion, charge/size) in the accompanying blank (5 pts):
a) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 CaSO4
b) Al(OH)3 Al(NO3)3 AlF3
c) AlF3 InPO4 CsCl
_____4. An endothermic process (2 pts):
a) absorbs energy from the surroundings b) releases heat to the surroundings
c) has a negative ∆H d) both (a) and (c)
_____5. Spontaneous reactions (2 pts):
a) Always release heat energy b) Always have a negative ∆H
c) Always have a negative ∆G d) Always have a positive ∆H
_____6. The mathematical expression that relates free energy, enthalpy and entropy is (2 pts):
a) ∆H = ∆G – T∆S b) ∆S = ∆H – T∆G c) ∆G = ∆H – T∆S d) ∆H = ∆S – T∆G
_____7. Sodium acetate dissolves readily in water according to the following equation:
NaC2H3O2 (s) → NaC2H3O2 (aq) ∆H = -17.3 kJ/mol
The temperature of the water used to dissolve the sodium acetate will (2 pts):
a) not change b) increase
c) decrease d) impossible to tell from the information given
1
8. For each of the following, indicate the sign of ∆G and ∆H (5 pts).
∆G ∆H
Part II. Time to turn up the heat! (Calculations-Please show your work in the space provided.)
Questions 1-4 refer to flatulite (H2PEw, gfm = 61.90 g/mol), a fictitious flammable compound
from the planet Flatulon. It has a melting point of 132°C and a boiling point of 215°C.
1. A 135-g piece of solid flatulite is heated to 90.5 °C and then dropped into 75.5 g of water that
is initially at 21.3 °C. What is the specific heat of solid flatulite if the final temperature of
the water is 32.3 °C? (CpH2O(l) = 4.18 J/g°C) (4 pts)
2. What is the molar heat of fusion of flatulite if it requires 311 J of heat energy to completely
melt 55.7 g of the solid? (2 pts)
3. What is the molar heat of condensation of flatulite if it requires 658 J of heat energy to
completely vaporize 112 g of liquid flatulite? (3 pts)
2
4. The combustion of flatulite is an exothermic reaction.
H2PEw (s) +3O2 (g) → 2H20 (l) + P2O5 (s) + 2Ew2O (s) ∆Hrxn = -139 kJ
a) Calculate the amount of heat liberated when 4.79 g of H2PEw reacts with excess oxygen.
(3pts)
b) What would the ∆Hrxn be if gaseous water were formed instead of liquid water? [∆Hf
(H2O(l) = -285.8 kJ/mol), ∆Hf (H2O(g) = -241.8 kJ/mol] (3 pts)
5. Find the standard enthalpy of formation of phosphorus pentachloride from its elements (5
pts).
2P (s) + 5 Cl2 (g) → 2PCl5 (s)
Use the following thermochemical equations.
PCl5 (s) → PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ∆H = 87.9 kJ
2P (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2PCl3 (g) ∆H –574 kJ
3
III. The final cool-down (diagramming)
1. Draw an energy diagram that could be used to calculate the lattice energy for each of the
following potassium salts. Indicate on the diagram the additional pieces of information
needed to complete the calculation. (10 pts)
KOH (s)
2. Draw a diagram that illustrates the direction of heat flow, and the temperature of the system
vs. the surroundings for an endothermic reaction. Please identify the system and the
surroundings on the diagram. (4 pts)
4
Name: Answer Key Date:
THERMOCHEMISTRY: EXAM
(60 pts total)
Part II. Warm-up exercises (Fill in the blank and multiple choice)
1. Label each of the following as either a physical change (P) or a chemical change (C) (4 pts):
P CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) __C C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
C 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) P NaCl (s) → NaCl (l)
2. Indicate whether each of the following physical and chemical changes results in a positive
(+), negative (-) or negligible (0/+ or 0/-) ∆S value (4 pts):
+ CO2 (s) → CO2 (g) + H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) 0/+ NaCl (s) → NaCl (l)
3. Circle which one of the following is likely to have the largest lattice energy. List the
determining characteristics (cation/anion, charge/size) in the accompanying blank (5 pts):
a) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 CaSO4 cation charge
b) Al(OH)3 Al(NO3)3 AlF3 anion size
c) AlF3 InPO4 CsCl cation charge, anion size
_____4.
A An endothermic process (2 pts):
b) absorbs energy from the surroundings b) releases heat to the surroundings
d) has a negative ∆H d) both (a) and (c)
C
_____5. Spontaneous reactions (2 pts):
c) Always release heat energy b) Always have a negative ∆H
c) Always have a negative ∆G d) Always have a positive ∆H
C
_____6. The mathematical expression that relates free energy, enthalpy and entropy is (2 pts):
a) ∆H = ∆G – T∆S b) ∆S = ∆H – T∆G c) ∆G = ∆H – T∆S d) ∆H = ∆S – T∆G
_____7.
B Sodium acetate dissolves readily in water according to the following equation:
NaC2H3O2 (s) → NaC2H3O2 (aq) ∆H = -17.3 kJ/mol
The temperature of the water used to dissolve the sodium acetate will (2 pts):
a) not change b) increase
c) decrease d) impossible to tell from the information given
5
8. For each of the following, indicate the sign of ∆G and ∆H (5 pts).
∆G ∆H
Negative Negative
a) Dissolving a solid in water results in a ∆T = +3°………….
b) The melting of ice at room temperature…………………... Negative Positive
Part II. Time to turn up the heat! (Calculations-Please show your work in the space provided.)
Questions 1-4 refer to flatulite (H2PEw, gfm = 61.90 g/mol), a fictitious flammable compound
from the planet Flatulon. It has a melting point of 132°C and a boiling point of 215°C.
1. A 135-g piece of solid flatulite is heated to 90.5 °C and then dropped into 75.5 g of water that
is initially at 21.3 °C. What is the specific heat of solid flatulite if the final temperature of
the water is 32.3 °C? (CpH2O(l) = 4.18 J/g°C) (4 pts)
2. What is the molar heat of fusion of flatulite if it requires 311 J of heat energy to completely
melt 55.7 g of the solid? (2 pts)
3. What is the molar heat of condensation of flatulite if it requires 658 J of heat energy to
completely vaporize 112 g of liquid flatulite? (3 pts)
6
4. The combustion of flatulite is an exothermic reaction.
H2PEw (s) +3O2 (g) → 2H20 (l) + P2O5 (s) + 2Ew2O (s) ∆Hrxn = -139 kJ
a) Calculate the amount of heat liberated when 4.79 g of H2PEw reacts with excess oxygen.
(3pts)
d) What would the ∆Hrxn be if gaseous water were formed instead of liquid water? [∆Hf
(H2O(l) = -285.8 kJ/mol), ∆Hf (H2O(g) = -241.8 kJ/mol] (3 pts)
5. Find the standard enthalpy of formation of phosphorus pentachloride from its elements (5
pts).
2P (s) + 5 Cl2 (g) → 2PCl5 (s)
Use the following thermochemical equations.
PCl5 (s) → PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ∆H = 87.9 kJ
2P (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2PCl3 (g) ∆H –574 kJ
2x [Cl2 (g) + 2PCl3 (g) → PCl5 (s)] 2x (-87.9 kJ) (1 pt for neg sign, 1 pt for coeff)
+ 2P (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2PCl3 (g) -574 kJ (1 pt)
7
III. The final cool-down (diagramming)
1. Draw an energy diagram that could be used to calculate the lattice energy for potassium
hydroxide. Identify the species present at each energy level, and label the enthalpy changes.
Indicate on the diagram the additional pieces of information needed to complete the
calculation. (11 pts)
2. Draw a diagram that illustrates the direction of heat flow, and the temperature of the system
vs. the surroundings for an endothermic reaction. Please identify the system and the
surroundings on the diagram. (3 pts)
surroundings
1 pt for q arrow direction
Tsys < Tsurr 1 pt for sys/surr ID
1 pt for correct T relationship
system
q
8
Name: Date:
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Alternative Assessment
Part I. Turning up the heat! (40 points) We have been studying how heat and chemical change
are related. Use your knowledge of enthalpy, specific heat and calorimetry to:
a) Design an experiment to measure the heat of combustion of potato chips.
b) Assuming 100% combustion, calculate the magnitude of the experimental values that you
will need to collect.
c) Predict potential sources of error that would lead to less than 100% combustion.
d) Describe in general terms one other technique that could be used to examine the efficiency of
potato chip combustion.
Rubric
Points → 6 8 10
Experimental • The materials and • Most of the materials and • All of the materials and
design equipment list is missing. equipment needed are listed equipment needed is listed
• The experimental apparatus • The experimental apparatus • The experimental apparatus
is not diagrammed. is missing some of the finer is clearly diagramed
• The experimental procedure details • The experimental procedure
is incomplete. • The experimental procedure provides sufficient detail for
is complete, but not someone else to perform the
sufficiently detailed for experiment
another person to perform
the experiment.
Calculations • While the ingredient list • The ingredient list from a • The ingredient list from a
from a package of potato package of potato chips has package of potato chips has
chips has been included, been used as a resource been used as a resource
there were no calculations • An attempt has been made • The effect of the salt and fat
done that used it as a to address the effect that the content of the chips has been
resource fat and salt content will considered
• Little if no computational have on the results, but no • The quantities of materials
rationale is provided to actual calculations were used for the experiment have
support the quantity of the performed been adjusted to achieve
materials to be used in the • Most of the quantities used experimentally realizable
experiment for the experiment will values
yield experimentally
realizable values
Sources of • List is missing, or includes • List is comprehensive, but • List is comprehensive and
error only human error lacks a prediction of includes analysis of how the
potential impact upon final potential error would impact
results the final results
Follow-up • A duplicate of the first • Missing essential detail • Sufficiently detailed to
experiment experiment with only the needed to evaluate evaluate the feasibility of the
quantities changed feasibility of approach approach
Part II. Chilling out. (20 points) Keep a journal for three days (5 points for journal) and record
any examples of endothermic physical or chemical processes that you encounter during that time.
Be sure to include estimates of the duration of the observation, temperature changes, and any
other observations that might enhance your data analysis. After collecting your data, compile
your observations into physical and chemical processes then rank them within their group from
the greatest amount of energy transferred to the least. Discuss any trends that you can deduce
from your two lists.
Rubric
Points → 3 4 5
Journal • Observations do not cover • Observations have been • Detailed observations have
all three days, and lack logged for the three days, been logged for all three
detail but are missing most if not days
all of the additional data
that needed to be collected
Data • The data has not been • Either the division of the • The chemical and physical
Organization organized into any coherent observations between the processes have been
structure two main categories is correctly separated into two
incorrect lists.
• The observations have been
OR appropriately ranked
according to energy
• The ranking of the extent of transferred within each main
energy transfer is incorrect. category
Trends • Little or no effort was made • Only information presented • Outside information has
to analyze the data in class was used to analyze been utilized in order to
the data analyze the data
The concept interview subjects were four female Apex High Academic Chemistry students. They had finished their lab earlier than
the rest of the class and were available for the interview. The class has not yet studied the properties of gases. The interview was cut a
little short because there was only 20 minutes left before class ended.
Interview
Student# 1 2 3 4
Can you draw a picture of A balloon with dots A balloon with dots
A balloon with dots in A balloon with dots
what you think it looks like evenly distributed evenly distributed
the center and shading
inside? (They drew:) throughout throughout
A larger balloon with A larger balloon with A larger balloon with A larger balloon with
What would your picture look
more dots, but still darker dots and dots evenly distributed dots evenly distributed
like now? (They drew: )
mostly in center shading throughout throughout
Now imagine that I have a hula hoop with a rubber sheet stretched over it.
Lesson Plan:
After being introduced to the gas laws (Boyle’s, Charles’, Gay-Lussac, combined and
ideal), the students will form groups of 2-3 people and compile a list of the named gas
laws and their formulae. After having the list checked for accuracy, the group will be
given a copy of the graphic organizer (flow chart). The group will then utilize
discussion and their list to complete the flow chart. Completion of the flow chart will
focus the students’ attention on the interrelationships of the four variables (P, V, T
and n) encountered in gas law word problems. The students will then check their
own flow chart for accuracy by using it to solve a series of gas law word problems.
After all of the groups have completed the word problems, a student from each group
will be asked to explain how they went about solving one of the problems. Groups
that had difficulty completing either the flow chart or solving the problems will be
asked to explain what they were able to accomplish and then provided with sufficient
coaching from either the teacher or from other groups (who have already presented a
problem and upon the teacher’s request to provide assistance) to finish working
through the problem.
Does the problem
involve:
Yes Yes No
Pressure?
No No Yes
P1 P2
= # moles?
No
T1 T2
Yes
(Student version)
Does the problem
involve:
Pressure?
Yes
Volume?
Yes
Temperature?
No
P1V1 = P2 V2
Boyle’s Law
No No Yes
V1 V2 P1 P2 P1V1 P2 V2
= = # moles?
No
=
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
Charles’ Law Gay-Lussac’s Law Yes Combined Gas Law
+ -
NaOH (s) → Na (aq) + OH (aq)
∆T > 0
+ -
CsCl (s) → Cs (aq) + Cl (aq)
∆T < 0
+ -
NaOH (s) → Na (aq) + OH (aq)
∆T > 0
− − +
+ -
CsCl (s) → Cs (aq) + Cl (aq)
∆T < 0
− + 0/+