Materials and Design 19 Ž1998.

57]67

A designers’ guide to engineering polymer technology

K.L. EdwardsU
Elmac Group Limited, Northern Works, Appletongate, Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, NG24 1LR, UK

Received 13 January 1998; accepted 17 February 1998

Abstract

The influence of polymers on modern product design is unprecedented and in many cases is the only material suitable. Today,
the range of polymer materials is vast and, at the same time, bewildering to designers new to these materials. This article contains
an essential summary of salient information on polymer technology formatted for use by engineering designers considering
product designs which comprise of or contain parts made from polymer materials. The information is structured around
materials, processes, properties and applications for thermoplastics, thermosets and rubbers. Q 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Engineering polymers; Plastics; Technology; Design

1. Introduction Plastics are chemicals and are named after their

The plastics industry has grown rapidly since its
inception in the 1940s. But the use of plastics as an
engineering material only really started to pick up in
the 1970s and has had a much slower underlying growth
than for the commodity industry Že.g. packaging, clo-
sures, etc... In this industry the advantage of material
consistency and uniformity, full three dimensional net-
shape capability and mass production of plastics are
exploited to the full. However, plastics in general are
weaker and more costly than traditional materials and
people still retain a ‘bad image’ of them because of
their previous misuse. In the past, and to a certain
extent today, plastic engineering components have been
designed to directly replace components in traditional
engineering materials, leading to poor performance
and costly reproduction. For effective material substi-
tution, the designer using plastics has to appreciate
their benefits as well as their limitations. Today, de-
signs are being produced that are not only unique to
plastics but are also out-performing designs in traditio-
nal materials.
U
Tel.: q44 1636 707262; fax: q44 1636 605147.
chemical constituents. This leads to rather long
‘tongue-twisting’ names for most plastics. As a conse-
quence, the plastics industry uses acronyms to abbrevi-
ate the chemical names or resort to trade names. A
polymer is a large macro-molecule built up of repeated
smaller structural units called monomers. Polymers are
classified as either natural or synthetic as shown in Fig.
1. Natural polymers usually have more complex struc-
tures than synthetic polymers. An elastomer, or
rubber-like material, can be either natural or man-
made. Materials derived from plants and animals, such
as silk, natural rubber and cellulose, are naturally-
occurring long-chain molecular polymers. The subject
of natural polymers is not described in this article.
Synthetic polymers are derived mainly from oil-based
Žhydrocarbon. materials with resulting properties of
low density, low thermal conductivity and high expan-
sion coefficient. Examples of synthetic polymers in-
clude polyethylene, acrylic, epoxy, phenolic and syn-
thetic rubber.
There are two generic classes of synthetic polymer:
thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics and
thermosets can be divided into several sub-classes:
plastics, composites, elastomers, structural foams and
polymer alloys as shown in Fig. 2. Plastics are synthetic

0261-3069r98r$19.00 Q 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

PII S0261-3069Ž98. 00009-0
58 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
Fig. 1. Classification of polymers.
polymers with additives such as fillers, pigments,
stabilisers, lubricants, antistatic and coupling agents
and flame retardants. However, developments in the
last decade mean that adhesives play a major role in
joining modern polymeric materials. Not included in
the list, but important nevertheless, are adhesives.
These are special polymers formulated for enhanced
bonding properties rather than structural properties
and they have a major role in joining modern polymeric
materials.
More than 80% of polymers are thermoplastic and
comprise of long-chain molecules held together by rela-
tively weak Van der Waal’s forces, as shown in Fig. 2.
When a thermoplastic is heated, it softens and eventu-
ally melts, and when cooled, it solidifies and hardens
again. This cycle can be repeated, provided the temper-
ature reached does not degrade the material. A ther-
moplastic can be sub-divided into crystalline Žordered.
or amorphous Žrandom. structures. Around 40% of
thermoplastics are amorphous and inherently transpar-
ent. While some polymers can be completely amor-
phous, in practice, it is rarely possible to achieve com-
plete crystallinity. A thermoset is a misleading term,
but implies a material subjected to an irreversible
chemical process at room or elevated temperatures. On
curing, these materials form into a covalently-bonded
three-dimensional network as shown in Fig. 3. If the
network has short-chain links, the material is stiff, and
if the chain links are long, the material is flexible.
Examples of such materials include phenolics, po-
lyesters and epoxies.
The incorporation of particulate andror fibrous rein-
Fig. 2. Long-chain molecule polymer Žthermoplastic..
Fig. 3. Network polymer Žthermoset..
forcement into a polymer matrix produces a reinforced
plastic, or ‘composite’ material. A composite has en-
hanced mechanical properties and allows plastics to be
used in load-bearing, or structural applications. Rubber
polymers, or elastomers, are generally network materi-
als which are cross-linked or ‘vulcanised’ at elevated
temperature. The spacing between cross links is large,
resulting in a flexible material capable of large strains
Žusually several hundred percent.. The introduction of
a blowing agent into the polymer creates a cellular
structure. When moulded, a solid skin surrounds a
foam core. The resulting material has high efficiency in
terms of material utilisation and excellent strength-
and stiffness-to-weight ratios. Polymer alloys, like metal
alloys, are plastics that have the characteristic proper-
ties of several other polymers. By using alloying,
polymers can be combined to produce a plastic with
properties previously not obtainable from individual
polymers. A well-known plastic alloy is ABS, an alloy of
acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene.
2. Types of polymer
The broad classifications of polymer into thermoplas-
tics and thermosets can be sub-divided further into
plastics, elastomers, structural foams and polymer al-
loys, again all generic w1]5x. From these sub-classes,
the individual polymers, or groups of polymers, can be
identified or tabled according to any convenient order
desired, e.g. by family, by performance criteria, etc.
Using the concept of generic classification above and
illustrated schematically in Fig. 3, the following com-
monly-used polymers shall be described.
2.1. Thermoplastics
2.1.1. Semi-crystalline types
2.1.1.1. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This is the
most widely-used plastic. It is tough and flexible and is
used as packaging film and domestic wares.
2.1.1.2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE). This mate-
rial has a higher density and is more crystalline than
LDPE. It is therefore stronger and stiffer and is used
as containers and pipes.
 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
2.1.1.3. Polypropylene (PP). This material is available
in many grades and also as a copolymer Žethylenerpro-
pylene.. PP possesses good strength, stiffness and excel-
lent fatigue and chemical resistance. Applications in-
clude, automotive components, television cabinets, tool
handles, integral hinges, etc. PP is also available as a
fibre and as a film.
2.1.1.4. Polyamides (nylons). There are many types of
nylon, but all of them possess high strength, stiffness
and toughness. Unfortunately, nylons absorb moisture
with an associated dimensional stability problem, but in
glass-reinforced form this problem is reduced and a
very strong material results. Nylons are regularly used
for gears, bearings, housings, etc.
2.1.1.5. Acetals. These materials possess high
strength, stiffness and toughness, and low moisture
absorption. Acetals are available in two forms: a ho-
mopolymer and a copolymer. The homopolymer is
stiffer and stronger, while the copolymer has better
temperature performance.
2.1.1.6. Poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene (PTFE). This mate-
rial possesses excellent chemical resistance and a very
low coefficient of friction. It is used in bearings, gas-
kets, diaphragms and non-stick surfaces, particularly if
the environment is aggressive.
2.1.1.7. Thermoplastic polyesters. These materials pos-
sess high strength, toughness, abrasion and chemical
resistance, and a low coefficient of friction.
1. Poly-ethylene-terephthalate ŽPET. is available in
two forms: in a moulded form, which is used in
carbonated ‘lemonade’ bottles, and in fibre form,
e.g. under the trade name Terylene.
2. Poly-butylene-teraphthalate ŽPBT. is used for
lightly-loaded gears, bearings, housings, etc.
2.1.1.8. Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK). This material
can operate at service temperatures up to 2008C Žcon-
tinuous operation.. PEEK possesses high strength,
toughness, fatigue and abrasion resistance, and low
flammability. It resists attack from acids, alkalis and
organic solvents.
2.1.2. Amorphous types
2.1.2.1. Poly-¨ inyl-chloride (PVC). These widely-used
materials are available in two forms: plasticised and
unplasticised ŽUPVC.. Both types possess good envi-
ronmental resistance and electrical properties. Plasti-
cised PVC is flexible and is used in electrical wire
sheathing. Unplasticised PVC is hard, strong and tough,
and is used in the building industry, e.g. window frames,
pipes, gutters, etc.
2.1.2.2. Poly-methyl-meth-acrylate (PMMA). This ma-
terial possesses excellent optical clarity and environ-
mental resistance and finds applications in signage.
59
2.1.2.3. Polystyrene (PS). This material is easy to
process and is available in a range of grades. Polystyrene
is also available in expanded form for packaging and
thermal insulation.
2.1.2.4. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). This
material has very high strength, stiffness and toughness
properties compared to most other plastics. It com-
pares well with nylons and acetals in many applications,
but is generally less expensive. It is attacked by chlori-
nated solvents, esters, ketones, acids and alkalis.
2.1.2.5. Polycarbonate. This material has very high
toughness. It is also transparent and has a very high
temperature-resistance, but is attacked by alkaline so-
lutions and hydrocarbon solvent.
2.1.2.6. Poly-ether-sulphone (PES). This material has
high load-bearing and operating-temperature capability
Žup to 1808C. and low flammability, dimensional stabil-
ity and electrical properties Žup to 2008C..
2.2. Thermosets
2.2.1. Aminos
There are two basic types: urea-formaldehyde and
melamine formaldehyde. They are hard and rigid with
good abrasion resistance. Mechanical properties are
good up to 1008C.
2.2.2. Phenolics
Phenol-formaldehyde was one of the first regularly-
used thermosets Žtrade name Bakerlite..
2.2.3. Polyurethanes
These are available in three forms: elastomers, flex-
ible foams and rigid foams. They have high strength
and good chemical and abrasion resistance.
2.2.4. Polyesters
These are used as the matrix material for glass-
fibre-reinforced plastic mouldings.
2.2.5. Epoxies
As with polyesters, these are generally used as the
matrix material for fibre-reinforced plastic mouldings.
Although glass fibre is used as a reinforcement, its
superior performance over polyester makes it more
useful for aerospace structures in combination with
either aramid- or carbon-fibre reinforcement. Com-
pared to polyesters, epoxies have better toughness and
environmental resistance, low moisture absorption and
much less shrinkage during curing. The operating tem-
perature range is y 25]1508C.
2.2.6. Rubbers
A rubber, or rubber compound, is a rubber polymer
with additives. Natural rubber is mechanically weak.
60 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
The properties of rubber are improved by vulcanising
Žcross-linking or curing.. This is mostly achieved by
additions of sulphur and the application of heat. Also
by mixing rubber with carbon-black, effectively a rein-
forcement, its mechanical properties are enhanced, its
degradation due to sunlight and ozone reduced and its
liquid absorption reduced. The main types of rubber
are as follows:
Natural rubber: This rubber has high strength, good
fatigue resistance and low temperature-stability.
Styrene-butadiene rubber ŽSBR.: This rubber has a
better abrasion and fatigue resistance than natural
rubber.
Chloroprene rubber: The physical properties of this
rubber are inferior to natural rubber, but better
ozone, chemical, oil and high-temperature resistance.
Nitrile rubber ŽNBR.: This rubber has improved oil
resistance and reduced resilience and low-tempera-
ture flexibility with increasing acrylonitrile content.
Ethylene-propylene rubber ŽEPM. and ethylene-pro-
pylene diene terpolymer ŽEPDM.: These rubbers are
comparable to SBR but with much better resistance
to atmospheric ageing, ozone and oxidation. EPM
has slightly better weather-resistance.
Butyl rubber: This rubber has good ozone, weather-
ing, heat and chemical resistance, extremely low gas
permeability, high damping capacity at room temper-
ature.
Butadiene rubber: This rubber has low hysteresis,
good low-temperature flexibility and abrasion resis-
tance, and poor tear resistance.
Thermoplastic rubbers: These rubbers have similar
properties to SBR except the upper temperature
limit is approx. 508C.
3. Polymer-processing methods
The processing of polymers w2]4,6x can be con-
sidered to take place in three distinct and broadly
defined stages:
1. Mixing and converting into a melt. The first stage
involves dispersion of additives such as stabilisers
and pigments into the polymer, removal of air and
volatiles, transformation of solid polymer feedstock
Žif powder or granules. into a ‘melt’, and achieving
a fluid state which is uniform in composition tem-
perature and deformation history.
2. Shaping. The second stage is shaping, using
processes which are discussed in more detail below.
The shaping processes may be divided into batch
flow Že.g. moulding. or continuous flow Že.g. extru-
sion..
3. Stabilising. The third stage is stabilising the shape
established in the previous stage. This is normally
achieved for thermoplastics by cooling and solidify-
ing, or, for thermosets, by chemical cross-linking
Žhot or cold..
3.1. Mixing processes
3.1.1. Intensi¨ e mixing
The intensive mixer comprises of two counter-rotat-
ing rotors revolving inside the cavity of a housing the
shape of two interconnected cylinders. A combination
of drag flow between the casing and the rotors and
shear flow between the rotors causes mixing of the
ingredients. The ingredients are fed into the mixer via
an aperture at the top Žwhich can be sealed to create
pressure in the cavity. and the compound after the
mixing is drawn off through a port at the bottom. A
capacity limit of up to 500 kg is typical.
3.1.2. Two-roll milling
The two-roll mill comprises of two counter-rotating
cylindrical rolls separated by a narrow gap, or ‘nip’.
The feed Žpossibly partly mixed from an intensive mixer.
is introduced between the rolls and is dragged with
high laminar shear through the nip and adheres as a
band to one of the rolls. A capacity limit of up to 500
kg is typical.
3.2. Extrusion processes
The extrusion processes provide continuous constant
section products.
3.2.1. Calandering
The normal arrangement of a calander consists of
four horizontally mounted counter-rotating cylindrical
rolls. The first two rolls are analogous to the two-roll
mill. The compound is drawn through the first nip and
is transferred via adhesion to one roll on the second
nip. The second nip is smaller than the first nip and
therefore reduces the thickness of the compound. There
is a further reduction in the third and final nip. The
resulting sheet can be approx. 1 m wide and up to a few
millimetres in thickness.
3.2.2. Screw extrusion
The essential parts of a screw extruder are: the
extruder, the die and the ancillaries, the haul-off mech-
anism and the supporting device for the product or
‘extrudate’. The extruder consists of a screw rotating
inside a heated close-fitting constant-diameter barrel.
The screws function is to pump Žby drag flow between
the screw and the barrel., melt and mix the polymer to
such a condition that it will pass through a die. The
 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
screw is held at one end in a thrust bearing and
rotationally driven by an electric motor via a gearbox.
The screw is normally of constant pitch, but its depth
changes from being constant and greatest in the feed
zone, tapering down in the compression zone to a
constant and smaller depth in the metering zone. The
ingredients are normally fed into the feed zone via a
hopper and pass out of the metering zone via a heated
die which has the shape of the desired cross-section of
the product. The extrusion of profiles, tubes and sheet
are facilitated by a haul-off and support system and
either cut to finite lengths or rolled on to drums.
3.2.3. Moulding processes
In contrast to the continuous processes described
above, moulding is a discontinuous process, but can be
a repetitive cycle. The steps in the process are essen-
tially delivery of a shapable compound to a mould so
that a product can be made, or moulded, and its shape
stabilised. The moulds can be ‘open’ type, in male or
female form, that define one surface of a mould Žcon-
tact moulding.. The moulds can be two matched female
half-moulds for hollow products. The moulds can also
be matched male and female pairs which have a cavity
that can be filled with compound. The shaping is nor-
mally achieved by applying pressure to cause the fluid
to conform to one or both of the mould surfaces
depending on the type of mould.
3.2.4. Compression moulding
In compression moulding, a male, or projecting core,
mould is brought together with a complementary fe-
male, or cavity, mould such that a space or ‘impression’
is created between them. The mould pair are usually
held between the platens of a ‘press’ to create the
pressure necessary to cause the plastic compound to
flow and fill the cavity. To ensure alignment of the
moulds when being brought together, guide or dowel
pins are used. It is also necessary to incorporate injec-
tion pins and generous tapers or drafts to mould sur-
faces to facilitate removal of mouldings which shrink
considerably during moulding. The techniques can be
used for small mouldings using multi-impression
moulds. Metal inserts can also be included.
The process of compression moulding is widely used
for moulding cross-linked polymers where the moulds
are heated. The moulds are normally steel to withstand
the pressures which can be up to 50 MN my2 . The
‘charge’ can be granules, a preform or rubber com-
pound which is placed in the cavity. Under pressure
and temperature, the charge melts and spreads to fill
the cavity. To ensure complete filling and removal of
air, the charge is slightly larger than the cavity will
permit and the excess is forced along a very narrow gap
or clearance between the two moulds. This results in
‘flash’ which can be easily removed after moulding. The
61
technique is also widely used for moulding Sheet
Moulding Compound ŽSMC. and Dough Moulding
Compound ŽDMC.. These are compounds based on
thermosetting resin Žnormally polyester. combined with
filler Žnormally calcium carbonate., short glass fibres
and modifying agents in varying proportions. Complex
shaped mouldings are possible, but flow-induced orien-
tation of the fibres leads to varying mechanical proper-
ties. Compression moulding is also the key process in
rubber tyre manufacture.
3.2.5. Transfer moulding
In transfer moulding, the compound is melted in a
separate chamber and then transferred under pressure
through a channel or ‘runner’ to the mould impression
for shaping and cross-linking. The advantages of this
process are the charge is already in a molten state
when it enters the mould, so it can flow easily, espe-
cially around inserts. However, when fibre-filled plas-
tics are used, the fibres can easily be damaged passing
through the runner and tend to become aligned with
the flow direction.
3.2.6. Injection moulding
In injection moulding, a polymer melt Žthermoplas-
tic, cross-linked plastic or rubber compound. is injected
into the cavity of a closed split mould. The main
equipment necessary for injection moulding are an
injection machine, a split mould and a system for
opening, closing and holding closed the mould. The
injection machine is similar to an extruder, except the
die is replaced by a valve nozzle and the screw can also
move axially to act as a piston to pump the melt. The
mould normally has a vertical part-line with no flash
clearance and a runner system connecting the injection
machine to the impression. Opening and closing the
mould is achieved hydraulically. A system of mould
locking, temperature control, guide pins and ejector
pins are also necessary. The injection pressures are
typically above 100 MN my2 with injection rates of
0.0003 m3 sy1 and greater. Obviously, the injection
machine and the moulds have to be robustly con-
structed to resist the high pressures if unacceptably
large distortions are to be avoided. This will make the
capital costs of the equipment high, but this can be
amortised over large production runs.
3.2.7. Blow moulding
In blow moulding, a uniform thick-walled molten
thermoplastic ‘parison’ is extruded vertically down-
wards between the open faces of a cool matched fe-
male or split mould. The mould is then closed and the
sealed parison is inflated pneumatically Žat 0.25 MN
my2 . so that the outside of the tube conforms to the
shape of the surface of the mould cavity. The mould
has only to withstand the inflation pressure and there-
62
Table 1
Applications and properties of thermoplastics
Applications
Signs, lenses, inspection windows,
taillight lenses, synthetic fibres,
lighting diffusers, leaflet dispensers,
hi-fi dust covers
Telephone handsets, rigid luggage,
domestic appliance housings Žfood
mixers., margarine tubs, car facia
panels
Spectacle frames toothbrushes; tool
handles, transparent wrapping
metalised pans Žreflectors etc.., pen
barrels, typewriter keys
Teats, inflatable toys, handle grips,
flexible tubing, record turntable
mats, ice cube trays, beer tubing,
vacuum cleaner hose, freezer doors
Non-stick coatings, gaskets,
packing, bearings, high and low
temperature electrical, electric and
medical applications
Gearwheels, bushings, zips,
pressure tubing, synthetic fibres,
bearings Žparticularly for food
processing machinery., curtain
runners, carburettor parts
Business mrc pans, small pressure
vessels, aerosol valves, coil
formers, clock and watch parts,
nuclear engineering components
Crash helmet visors, riot shields,
vandal-proof glazing, baby feeding
bottles, safety helmets, greenhouse
doubleglazing, miners’ phones and
battery cases, film and slide
cassettes
Carbonated drink bottles, business
mrc parts synthetic fibres, parts for
TV tuners and transformers, fire
alarm parts, coffee makers and
toasters
Boil-in-bag food packaging films,
industrial pipes, high temperature
tubing Ž500 psi at 858C., central
heating systems
Chemical drums, jerricans,
carboys, quality kitchen ware,
colanders, bins, toys, picnic ware,
household and hospital ware, cable
insulation
K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
Thermoplastics Properties
Acrylics Rigid, glass-clear, glossy,
extremely weather resistant,
excellent for vacuum forming,
casting and fabricating
Acrylonitrile Rigid opaque, glossyrtextured,
butadiene styrene tough, colourful, excellent for
injection moulding and
thermoforming
Cellulosics Rigid, transparent, tough Ževen at
low temperatures, low electrostatic
pick up, easily injection moulded,
relatively low cost
Ethylene vinyl Flexible Žrubbery., transparent,
acetate glossy, excellent low temperature
flexibility Žy708C., good chemical
resistance high friction coefficient
Fluoroplastics Semirigid, translucent,
exceptional antistickrlow friction
characteristics, superior chemical
resistance, impervious to fungi or
bacteria, high temperature stability
Ž2608C., low temperature
toughness Žy1608C.
Nylons Rigid, translucent, tough, hard
wearing, fatigue and creep
resistant, resistant to fuels, oils,
fats and most solvents, steam
sterilizable
Polyacetals Rigid, translucent, very tough,
spring-like qualities, good stress
relaxation resistance, good friction
and wear and electrical properties
Polycarbonate Rigid, transparent, outstanding
impact resistance Žto y 1508C. and
weather resistance, good
dimensional stability, very good
dielectric properties
Polyesters Rigid clear, extremely tough,
Žthermoplastic. good creep and fatigue resistance,
wide range temperature resistance
Žy40]2008C.
Polybutylene Semi rigid, translucent, tough,
chemical and heat resistant, good
barrier properties, environmental
and mechanical stress crack
resistance, good electrical
insulation
Polyethylene Žhigh Semi rigid, translucent, very
density. tough, high impact resistance,
weatherproof, excellent chemical
resistance, low water absorption,
non-toxic, easy processing by
most methods, low cost
 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
Table 1 Ž Continued.
Applications
Squeeze bottles, toys, wrapping
films, utility kitchen ware, carrier
bags, high frequency insulation,
garment bags, chemical tank
linings
Sterilizable laboratory and hospital
ware, containers and snap fit
closures, ropes, moulded hinges,
packaging film, car accelerator
pedals, heater ducting, door
handles washing mrc parts,
suitcases, electric kettles,
children’s plates
Toys and novelties, rigid
packaging, refrigerator trays and
boxes, cosmetic packs and costume
jewellery, lighting diffusers
Yoghurt pots, refrigerator linings,
vending cups, kitchen and
bathroom cabinets, toilet seats and
tanks, closures, instrument control
knobs, radio and TV cabinets
Highrlow temperature, high
technology, e.g. microwave grills,
chemotherapy devices, electrorcryo
surgical tools, radomes, fuel cells,
aerospace batteries, nuclear reactor
components
Chemical pumps, hair-dryer grills,
heating element bases, pulse
transformers non-stick cookware,
medical and dental equipment
Business mrc and TV housings,
automotive instrument casings,
coffee pot and washing machine
parts Žwhere high temperature and
moisture critical ., replacement for
die castings
Drinking tumblers, hi-fi covers,
lenses, water jugs and toothbrush
handles kitchen and picnic ware
Drainpipes and guttering and
roofing sheets, cable and wire
insulation, flooring, hosepipe,
stationery covers, fashion footwear,
‘cling’ film, ‘imitation leather’
fabrics
fore can be less robust than the mould used for injec-
tion moulding and correspondingly less expensive. The
moulding produced will have only one ‘good’ surface,
the outside surface, which is in contact with the mould.
63
Thermoplastics Properties
Polyethylene Žlow Flexible, translucentrwaxy,
density. durable, weatherproof, good low
temperature toughness Žto y 608C.,
easy to process by most methods,
low cost, excellent chemical
resistance
Polypropylene Semi-rigid, translucent Žintegral
hinge property., excellent
chemical resistance, extremely
tough, excpetional fatigue
resistance, steam sterilizable, high
surface glossrtexture
Polystyrene Žgeneral Brittlerhard, transparentropaque
purpose. glossy, low cost, unsuitable for
outdoor use, excellent X-ray
resistance, free from odour and taste,
easy processing
Polystyrene Hardrrigid, opaquertranslucent,
Žhigh impact. satin surface finish, impact
strength up to seven times general
purpose grade, other properties
similar
Polysulphone Outstanding oxidative stability at
high temperature Žy200]
q3008C., transparentropaque,
rigidrflexible, high cost,
specialised processing
Polyphenylene sulphide Rigid, opaque, non-burning
Žcontinuous use at 2408C., good
chemical resistance at high
temperature, rarely used unfilled,
good radiation resistance
Polyphenylene oxide Rigid, opaque, glossy,
outstanding dimensional stability
Žparticularly under stress at high
temperature and humidity
conditions., difficult to process
Žblended to ease injection
moulding.
Styrene acrylonitrile Rigid, transparent, tough,
resistant to oils and greases,
resistant to stress cracking and
crazing, good processability
Polyvinyl chloride Rigidrflexible, clearropaque,
durable, weatherproof, non-
flammable, good impact strength,
excellent electrical insulation
properties, limited low
temperature performance
The variation in wall thickness is a problem with blow
moulding, being thinnest in the corners where the
plastic under goes a high degree of stretching. A char-
acteristic feature of blow moulding is the scar left by
64 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
Table 1 Ž Continued.
Applications Thermoplastics
Laboratory ware, syringes, lamp Polymethylpentene
covers Žgood heat resistance ., radar
and microwave applications,
encapsulation, printed circuit
boards, microwaveable, food
packaging
Soles and heels for sports shoes, Polyurethane Žthermoplastic.
football boots, hammer heads,
seals, gaskets, O-rings, rollers
skateboard wheels, synthetic
leather fabrics, silent running
gears and sprockets for office
machines
the seal, which has to be strategically placed to disguise
it. The protruding ends of the moulding have also to be
trimmed, but by granulating they can be recycled.
3.2.8. Thermoforming
In thermoforming, a sheet of thermoplastic is heated
Žradiant or oven. above an open mould. The softened
sheet is then drawn down on to the mould either by
compressed air, vacuum or plunger so that it conforms
to the shape of the mould surface. As with blow mould-
ing there is significant stretching of the sheet resulting
in variable wall thicknesses and only one surface Žnext
to the mould. is ‘good’. The whole process though is
relatively inexpensive compared to all the techniques
described above. However, the process tends to be slow
and requires a trimming operation, generating scrap
which can be recycled.
4. Properties of polymer materials
Compared to metals, polymers have the attractive
properties w1,7]9x of low weight, corrosion resistance,
ease of manufacture and aesthetics. However, design-
ing with polymers demands special attention. In partic-
ular, polymers exhibit viscoelastic behaviour, and this
occurs at low temperatures.
4.1. Mechanical properties
Most unreinforced synthetic polymers Žthermoplastic
and thermoset. are regarded as low strength and stiff-
ness materials, but because of their low densities
Žaround 1 Mg my3 ., the strength- and stiffness-to-
weight ratios are high. Typically, tensile strengths for
polymers range from 10 to 90 MPa and modulus of
elasticity from 1 to 3 GPa. The mechanical properties,
however, are time-dependent and temperature sensi-
tive. The materials are therefore susceptible to creep
Properties
Rigid, clear, tough, lightweight,
chemical resistant, additives
required for outdoor use
Flexible, clear, elastic, wear
resistant, impermeable
and changes of properties with quite small changes of
temperature. The incorporation of fibres into a po-
lymer matrix to form a composite will considerably
improve the stiffness and strength properties.
4.2. Thermal properties
The thermal properties of polymers are generally
those expected from organic substances. Thermal con-
ductivity in polymers is low compared to metals. Con-
versely, thermal expansion and contraction are high
compared to metals Ž30]100 = 10y6 8Cy1 ..
4.3. Melt properties
Thermoplastics have relatively low melting points
Ž- 2508C. and can therefore be shaped via the applica-
tion of heat and stabilised by cooling. Thermosets are
shaped in low molecular weight form and stabilised by
chemical cross-linking. The fluidity of each type of
polymer material dictates the type of processing.
4.4. Chemical properties
The chemical properties of polymers can be derived
from either physical phenomena or chemical reaction.
The former includes the permeation of fluids and the
swelling Žfor thermosets. and solution Žfor thermoplas-
tics. effects of solvents. A chemical reaction causes
permanent change to the polymer. The transmission of
fluids through plastics results from its relatively open
structure as a consequence of its low density. There are
several important classes of chemical reaction in po-
lymers. ‘Ageing’ is a deterioration of performance with
time and can also result from physical change. ‘En-
vironmental stress cracking’ is premature brittle failure
under stress. Both phenomena result from exposure
and reaction to environmental factors such as tempera-
ture, moisture, light, etc.
 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
4.5. Electrical properties
Most polymers are very poor conductors of electric-
Table 2
Applications and properties of thermosets
Applications
Ashtrays, fuseboxes, lampholders,
bottle closures, saucepan handles
toilet seats, thrust washers
Adhesives, coatings, embedding,
potting, electrical components,
chemical pump components,
cardiac pacemakers
Printing and industrial rollers,
solid tyres, die pads, wheels, shoe
heels Žparticularly suited to low
quantity production runs., car
bumpers
Boat hulls, building panels, car
bodies, lorry cabs, tanks and
ducting, compressor housings,
embedding and coatings
Automotive distributor caps,
cirucit breakers, switch gear,
coloured appliance housings
Optical coatings, face shields,
sealants for metal castings,
critical long-term high reliability
electrical applications Že.g.
radomes.
Aerospace components, reinforcing
fibres, high-temperature resistant
foams, chemical filters, arc-
welding torches
Decorative laminates, clock cases,
lighting fixtures, dinnerware,
heavy-duty electrical equipment,
adhesives, bonding and laminating
resins, surface coatings
Chemical plant Žcompetitive with
stainless steel., laboratory floors,
foundry cases and moulds,
specialised insulating foam
Chemical tanks, ducts, piping,
process equipment Žparticularly in
corrosive chemical environments.
65
ity and are therefore excellent materials for insulation
purposes. The dielectric properties, i.e. relative permit-
tivity and power factor, are typical of those found in
low-molecular-weight organic materials.
Thermosets Properties
Phenolics Brittle, opaque, excellent electrical
and heat resistance, outstanding
resistance to deformation under
load, low cost
Epoxies Rigid, clear, very tough, chemical
resistant, excellent adhesion
properties, high resistance to
cracking, low curing shrinkage
Polyurethanes Žcast Elastic, abrasion and chemical
elastomers. resistant, impervious to gases, can
be produced in wide range of
hardnesses
Polyesters Rigid, clearropaque, tough,
Žunsaturated . chemical resistant, fire resistant,
high strength, low creep, good
electrical properties and low-
temperature impact resistance, low
cost
Alkyds Rigid, opaque, tough, heat
resistant, excellent arc and tracking
resistance, excellent long-term
dimensional stability, fungus
resistant, good colour stability
Allylics Hard, transparent, exceptional
abrasion resistance and electrical
insulation properties Ževen under
humid conditions., outstanding
combination of
chemicalrmechanical properties
Polyamidesr Rigid, opaque, high strength,
aramids exceptional thermal and electrical
properties Žup to 4808C., excellent
dry bearing properties when filled
with fluoroplastics, excellent
resistance to ionising radiation,
high cost
Aminos Rigid, opaque, tough, very hard
Žmelaminesrureas . and scratch resistant, self
extinguishing, free from taste and
odour, wide colour range
Furan Rigid, opaque, high strength at
elevated temperatures, excellent
chemical resistance, self
extinguishing, low smoke
emission, resistant to carbon
disulphide
Vinyl esters Rigid, translucent, good corrosion
resistance, low viscosity
66
Table 3
Applications and properties of rubbers
Applications
Truck tyres, radial side walls,
resilient mountings, medical
adhesives and sealants,
insulated cables, flexible hoses
Car tyres, shoe soles and heels,
automotive extrusions, cables
and belting
Roofing and reservoir sheeting,
inner tubes, chemical vessel
linings
Tyre treads Žin blends with
NRrSBC. golf balls, equipment
mounts, shoe soles, tubing
Belting, gaskets, radiator hoses,
wet suits, adhesives, weather-
and oil-resistant mouldings,
sponge, automotive weather
strip and sheeting
Rollers, coatings, membranes,
conveyor belts, flooring screeds,
hydraulic components, fuel hoses,
refrigerant liners
Wire and cable insulation, roof
membranes, steam hoses, flexible
parts for washers and dryers, car
bumper pans, injection mouldings
Automotive seals and gaskets
hoses, cable jackets, coating
cements and adhesives
Roof membranes, reservoir
liners, wire and cable covers,
general moulding and coatings,
paints and ignition leads,
acid hoses
Automotive and aircraft
mouldings, extrusions and
seals, particularly in high-
temperature and aggressive
environments
Sealants, flexible moulds, seals,
heater hoses, spark plug boots,
gaskets, cable coating Žlonger
life applications.
Mouldings, seals, tubing for
cryogenic and high technology
applications
K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67
Rubbers Properties
Natural rubber and Elastic, translucent, durable,
polyisoprene excellent strength, resilience and
abrasion resistance, very good
electrical and low temperature
performance, low cost
Styrene butadiene Elastic, translucent, good
coploymer mechanical properties, superior
ageing properties, very low cost
Butyl Elastic, translucent, low
resilience, excellent electrical
insulation, low gas permeability
Butadiene Elastic, translucent, high
resilience, good abrasion resistance
and low temperature properties
Chloroprene Temperature resistance up to
1008C, exceptional low
temperature flexibility, self
extinguishing
Nitrile Žbutadiene Oil and petrol resistant mouldings
acrylonitrile and extrusions, good temperature
copolymer. resistance
Ethylene propylene General moulding and sheeting
with good mechanical properties,
outstanding ozone and weather
resistance, wide range of
temperature resistance
Žy70]2008C.
Polyacrylate Outstanding oil resistance at
elevated temperatures Žup to
1408C.
Chlorosulphonated Similar to chloroprene but
polyethylene temperature resistance higher Žup
to 1608C., good weather, oil and
ozone resistance, good abrasion
resistance and electrical properties
Fluoroelastomer Outstanding resistance to
chemicals and oils at temperatures
up to 2008C plus Žlimited in
applications to y208C.. Flame
resistance with good electrical,
outstanding resistance to swelling
in mineral oils and to hot
setrstress relaxation, very
expensive
Silicone polymers Wide temperature range, performs
Žsiloxanes. well fromy 60]2358C. Good oil
resistance, excellent weather
resistance and good electrical
properties, but expensive
Fluorosilicones Outstanding resistance to
chemicals, oils and fuel at low
temperature Žy608C. and is
excellent up to 1708C. Extremely
expensive
 K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 57]67 67

Table 3 Ž Continued.

Applications Rubbers Properties

Oil seals, caulking, sealants Polysulphide Excellent oil resistance, maximum

Mouldings tubing, seals
Žparticularly for refrigerant
applications., gas tank liners
Mechanical damping applications,
car-window and tail-light seals,
handle grips, flooring tiles
Widely used in automotive
applications, bumper systems,
crash pads, grommets and tubing,
moulded electrical plugs, low-
voltage cable covering,
refrigeration gaskets
Insulation for spiral telephone
cords, tracks for snow vehicles,
low-pressure tyres, footballs
temperature use 908C, outstanding
resistance to swelling in organic
solvents, good low temperature
flexibility
Epichlorohydrin Extremely low permeability to
gases, with good heat, weather and
ozone resistance
Polynorbornene Accepts large quantities of oil and
carbon black whilst retaining good
green strength, good tear
resistance, good resistance to
saltwater and detergents, may be
extruded or injection moulded
Chlorinated General purpose heat, oil and
polyethylene ozone resistant, good low
temperature flexibility, good
dielectric strength, low coefficient
of expansion
Polyester elastomer Wide temperature range
performance Žy70]1208C., good
abrasion, solvent, hydrocarbon,
petrol and oil resistance,
outstanding resistance to dynamic
cycling and to flex-cut growth

4.6. Optical properties tial summary of salient points to enable designers to

Polymers have a refractive index range of 1.35]1.65
for materials in solid form. The transmissibility of light
varies considerably, ranging from almost perfect trans-
parency through translucence to opaqueness. Most
polymers can be coloured by the addition of various
pigments.
5. Applications of polymer materials
identify possible routes to conceptual product designs
and sufficient vocabulary to ask appropriate questions
of material suppliers.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank The British Plastics
Federation for the information on applications con-
tained in the tables.

Tables 1]3, identify typical applications for the References

classes of polymer of thermoplastics, thermosets and
rubbers, respectively w5,7]9x. Also, for convenience, the
pertinent properties of each polymer are carried for-
ward from above and summarised.
6. Conclusions
The large range of commercially-available polymers
and their associated properties variation provide con-
siderable design freedom not seen in most other mate-
rials. The diversity of technology, however, demon-
strates the necessity to have a reasonable working
knowledge of the subject before these materials can be
sensibly applied to the solution of engineering prob-
lems. This introductory information provides an essen-
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