Proof Writing

April 19, 2010

Brian Hamrick

1 So you’ve made USA(J)MO and you’ve done some

problems...
but do you know what a proof is? The style of the problems on USA(J)MO is completely
unlike that of any other contest that you have done thus far. This is because first, it requires
proofs rather than answers. There are two corollaries to this. First, you have to know what
a proof is. Second, partial credit is now possible.

2 So what is a proof ?
A proof is a sequence of facts, each of which follow logically from the previous, where the
first facts are your assumptions and the last fact is the goal. However, when you are writing
your proofs, you should do a bit more than that. Not only do you want the grader to know
what the facts are, but also how they follow from the previous ones. Therefore, while writing
a sequence of equations with no explanation will get you a 7 if it is correct, it makes it more
likely to be considered wrong and you will also probably get less partial credit should it turn
out to be flawed. Therefore, write explanations! If you are unsure of whether something is
obvious or not, then write it in!

3 An example of a proof
Problem: Prove that if p is prime, a and k are integers such that ak ≡ 1 (mod p), and al 6≡ 1
(mod p) for any positive integer l < k, then k|p − 1.
Proof: Clearly a 6≡ 0 (mod p). Therefore, we know from Fermat’s Little Theorem that
ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p). Furthermore, by Bezout’s identity, we can choose integers x and
y such
x y
that (p − 1)x + yk = gcd(p − 1, k). However, we know that a(p−1)x+yk ≡ ap−1 ak ≡ 1
(mod p), so agcd(p−1,k) ≡ 1 (mod p). But gcd(p − 1, k) ≤ k, with equality if and only if
k|p − 1. Since we are given that k is the smallest positive integer such that ak ≡ 1 (mod p),
we know gcd(p − 1, k) = k, so k|p − 1. 

4 So what is not a proof ?

As bad as this may sound, the best way to learn what is not a proof is to write down things
that are not proofs. When you start trying to write proofs, you will probably do this a lot,

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so I will provide you with several relatively easy problems which you should attempt to write
up cleanly and concisely. If you aren’t satisfied with how it turned out, do it again.
n
X n(n + 1)
1. Prove by induction that k= .
k=1
2

2. Prove that for any reals a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn , we have

n
! n ! n
!2
X X X
a2i b2i ≥ ai bi
i=1 i=1 i=1

a1 a2 an
with equality if and only if = = ··· = .
b1 b2 bn
3. Given a triangle, show that its circumcenter O, its centroid G, and its orthocenter H
lie on the same line and that GH = 2OG.
  √
2π 1+ 5
4. By considering a regular pentagon, show that cos = .
5 4
5. Show that you cannot cover a circular disk with two circular disks of smaller diameter.
6. Show that any set of n integers has a subset whose sum is divisible by n.

5 Things to watch out for when you are taking the

USA(J)MO
These are common pitfalls that many people fall in to. Be on the lookout, and remember
that you are likely to make mistakes your first time!
• A =⇒ B is not the same as B =⇒ A. This is especially important in inequalities,
when you often work backwards from what you want to prove, but you should write
your proof forward. That is, start with what is true! When you write your proof in
the correct direction, it becomes much easier to tell when you have made a mistake.
• Be sure to distinguish what you know from what you want to know. This is especially
true when you are doing geometry problems. Often you will draw a diagram in which a
certain property seems to hold, but you haven’t proven it yet! Try having one diagram
for what you know and another diagram for things that would imply the desired result.
• Prove everything that you aren’t completely sure is obvious. If there’s any question
then that probably means that you should write it out.
• When using contradiction, clearly state that you are doing so and what you are assum-
ing in order to get a contradiction. When you are done, state what you have proved,
which should be the negation of the thing that you assumed.

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 • When using induction, clearly state that you are doing so, what variable you are
inducting on, and what the statement is that you are proving. Then clearly describe
what constitutes your base case and what the transition is for your inductive step.
Finally, when you are done say something along the lines of “This completes our
induction,” then restate what you proved.

• When citing a theorem, if you know the name it is usually safe to cite. However, do
not cite theorems that trivialize the problem, and if you don’t know the name of a
theorem state it clearly. If you have any idea of how the proof goes and it is a more
obscure theorem, outline a proof of the theorem so that the grader knows that you
know what you are talking about. If you don’t know the name of the theorem, state
it as clearly as you can and prove it if you can, or at the least provide an allusion to
how the proof goes.

6 The Grading Scale

This is one of the parts of USA(J)MO that many first time takers don’t understand. Each
solution is given a score between 0 and 7 points, but the scores between 3 and 5 (inclusive)
are very rarely used. The general scheme is this:

0 No progress or no useful progress

1 Some progress toward a solution or nontrivial ideas that are helpful

2 Significant progress toward a complete solution, but still requires significant work

6 A complete or almost complete solution such that a small change makes it entirely
correct

7 A complete and correct solution

The way a proof is graded is that the grader will do a quick read over the solution and decide
whether to grade it “0 up” or “7 down”. When he grades “0 up”, the grader is looking for
places to give you points, so you score starts at 0 and goes up to 1 or 2 if he finds progress
toward a known solution. When grading “7 down”, it’s exactly the opposite. The grader is
looking for places where you have small gaps and will take off points, knocking your score
down from a 7 to a 6, or rarely a 5.

7 Conclusion
This the final TJUSAMO of the year, and USA(J)MO is in less than two weeks. The test can
feel long, especially when you think that you aren’t making any progress on the problems.
But throughout the year I have given you problems that are harder than some of the USAMO
problems will be, and probably harder than all of the USAJMO problems will be. All of

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you are capable of solving a nonzero number of problems, but don’t be disappointed if you
don’t. Remember, your number one goal for those two days is to enjoy the math. Be sure
to get a good sleep the night before, and remember that you will have more chances to do
better. No matter how you do this year, take it as your goal next year to do better. As Jeff
Boyd says, “Don’t worry about competing with the whiz kids. Compete against yourself.”

Good Luck and Have Fun!