Wind Loads

Wind loads are generated by multiplying the pipe exposed area, including insulation, and
considering angle to the wind, by the equivalent wind pressure and the pipe shape factor.
There are typically three different ways to get at the equivalent wind pressure:

• ASCE #7 (1995)
• Pressure vs. elevation table entry
• Velocity vs. elevation table entry

The total wind force on the element is calculated from

F = PeqSA

Where:

F = the total wind force on the element

Peq = the equivalent wind pressure (dynamic pressure)

S = the pipe element wind shape factor

A = the pipe element exposed area as shown in the figure as follows:

Peq is calculated for each end of the element and the average taken. The average applies
uniformly over the whole length of the element. Note, the wind force is applied in the
three global directions as a function of the element direction cosines.

If the user enters a velocity vs. elevation table then the velocity is converted to a dynamic
pressure using the following equation:

P = 1/2 rV2 where V is the wind velocity and r is the air density.

The WIND SHAPE FACTOR is entered on the pipe spreadsheet and, for cylindrical
elements, the value from Table 12 is between 0.5 and 0.7. A value of 0.65 is typical. The
wind shape factor as entered is "distributive." This means that the shape factor applies
for all following elements until zeroed or changed.

Bourdon Pressure

Select BOURDON PRESSURE EFFECT from the drop list. The BOURDON EFFECT
causes straight pipe to elongate, and bends to "OPEN UP" translationally along a line
connecting the curvature end points. If the BOURDON EFFECT is not activated there
will be no global displacements due to pressure.
BOURDON PRESSURE OPTION #1 (TRANSLATION ONLY) includes only
translational effects.

BOURDON PRESSURE OPTION #2 (TRANSLATION & ROTATION) includes

translational and rotational effects on bends. OPTION #2 may apply for bends that are
formed or rolled from straight pipe, where the bend-cross section will be slightly oval due
to the bending process.

Occasional Load Factor

The default value of 0.0 tells CAESAR II to use the value that the active piping code
recommends. B31.1 states that the calculated stress may exceed the maximum allowable
stress from Appendix A, (Sh), by 15% if the event duration occurs less than 10% of any
24 hour operating period, and by 20% if the event duration occurs less than 1% of any 24
hour operating period. The default for B31.1 applications is 15%. If 20% is more suitable
for the system being analyzed then this directive can be used to enter the 20%.

B31.3 states, "The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight, and other
sustained loadings (S1) and of the stresses produced by occasional loads such as wind or
earthquake may be as much as 1.33 times the allowable stress given in Appendix A.
Where the allowable stress value exceeds 2/3 of yield strength at temperature, the
allowable stress value must be reduced as specified in Note 3 in 302.3.2." The default for
B31.3 applications is 33%. If this is too high for the material and temperature specified
then a smaller occasional load factor could be input.

Liberal Expansion Stress Allowable

Activate this check box in order to cause CAESAR II to default new jobs to use the
"Liberal Expansion Stress Allowable" – to add the difference between the hot allowable
stress and the sustained stress to the allowable expansion stress range (if permitted by the
particular code in use). Deactivating this option causes new jobs to default to not using
this allowable

Add Torsion in SL Stress

Some piping codes include torsion in the sustained and occasional stresses by explicitly
including it in the stress equation (i.e. B31.1), and some don't include torsion in the
sustained and occasional stresses by implicitly calling for "longitudinal stresses" only
(i.e. B31.3). Setting the Add Torsion in SL Stress directive to Yes forces CAESAR II to
include the torsion term in those codes that don't include it already by default. Setting this
directive to Default causes CAESAR II to use whatever the currently active piping code
implies. In a sustained stress analysis of a very hot piping system subject to creep, it is
recommended that the user include torsion in the sustained stress calculation via this
parameter in the setup file
Implement B31.3 Appendix P

Activating this option implements the alternate rules in B31.3 Appendix P. This option
produces a "code compliance operating load case", with allowable stress values.

Minimum Allowable Bend Angle

Very small angles, short radius bends can cause numerical problems during solution.
When the user has a reasonable radius and a small angle there is usually no problems.
However, if the small angle bend is grossly small compared to the surrounding elements
then the bend should probably not be used and a different modeling approach employed.
Enabling this directive allows the user to reset the minimum angle CAESAR II will
accept for a bend angle. The default is 5.0 degrees.

Maximum Allowable Bend Angle

Very large angles, short radius bends can cause numerical problems during solution.
When the user has a reasonable radius and a large angle there is usually no problems.
However, if the large angle bend plots compared reasonably well to the surrounding
elements then the bend can probably be used without difficulty. Well-proportioned bends
up to 135 degrees have been tested without a problem. Enabling this directive allows the
user to reset the maximum angle CAESAR II will accept for a bend. The default is 95
degrees

Bend Length Attachment Percent

Whenever the element leaving the tangent intersection of a bend is within (n)% of the
bend radius on either side of the weldline, CAESAR II inserts an element from the bend
weldline to the "TO" node of the element leaving the bend. The inserted element has a
length equal to exactly (n)% of the bend radius. The user may adjust this percentage to
reduce the error due to the inserted element; however, the length tolerance for elements
leaving the bend will also be reduced. To obtain more accurate results the user must
include less "slop" in the system dimensions around bends. The default attachment is 1.0
percent

Minimum Angle to Adjacent Bend

Nodes on a bend curvature that are too close together can cause numerical problems
during solution. Where the radius of the bend is large, such as in a cross-country pipeline,
it is not uncommon to find nodes on a bend curvature closer than 5 degrees. In these
situations the user may enable this directive to change the CAESAR II error checking
tolerance for the "closeness" of points on the bend curvature. The default is 5.0 degrees
Horizontal Thermal Bowing Tolerance

This directive enables the user to specify the maximum slope of a straight pipe element
for which thermal bowing effects will be considered. Thermal bowing is usually
associated with fluid carrying horizontal pipes in which the fluid does not fill the cross
section. In these cases, there is a temperature differential across the cross section. This
directive allows the user to define the interpretation of "horizontal." By default, the
program uses a value of 0.0001 as the horizontal threshold value. If a pipe element's pitch
is less than this tolerance, the element is considered to be horizontal, and thermal bowing
loads can be applied to it. An element's pitch is computed from: PITCH = | DY | / ( DX2 +
DY2 + DZ2 )1/2

Rigid Element Application

CAESAR II forms rigid elements by multiplying the wall thickness of the element by 10.
The inside diameter, and the weight of the element, remain unchanged.

The "rigid" element in CAESAR II is rigid relative to the pipe around it. If a 6-in. line
ties into a 72-in. heat exchanger, then the rigid elements modeling the heat exchanger
should have a diameter closer to 72 than 6.

The user that is sensitive to the "rigidness" of the rigid element can increase or decrease
the diameter or wall thickness of the rigid to simulate any order of magnitude stiffness.

Rigid Material Weight

The weight of the rigid element is entered by the user. If no value is input then the weight
of the rigid is taken to be zero. The entered weight is the weight of the rigid excluding
insulation or fluid. If the weight of the rigid element is entered as zero or blank, then no
additional weight due either to insulation or fluid will be added.

Rigid Fluid Weight

CAESAR II automatically adds fluid loads for rigid elements if a non-zero fluid density
is entered on the pipe spreadsheet. The fluid weight in a rigid element is assumed to be
equal to the fluid weight in an equivalent straight pipe of similar length and inside
diameter

Cold Spring
Cold spring is the process of offsetting (or pre-loading) the piping system with
displacement loads (usually accomplished by cutting short or long the pipe runs between
two anchors) for the purpose of reducing the absolute expansion load on the system. Cold
spring is used to do the following:
 • hasten the thermal shakedown of the system in fewer operating cycles
• reduce the magnitude of loads on equipment and restraints, since often, only a
single application of a large load is sufficient to damage these elements

Several things should be considered when using cold spring:

• Cold reactions on equipment nozzles due to cold spring should not exceed nozzle
allowables.
• The expansion stress range should not include the effect of the cold spring.
• The cold spring should be much greater than fabrication tolerances.

Note: No credit can be taken for cold spring in the stress calculations, since the
expansion stress provisions of the piping codes require the evaluation of the stress range,
which is unaffected by cold spring (except perhaps in the presence of non-linear
boundary conditions, as discussed below). The cold spring merely adjusts the stress
mean, but not the range.

Many engineers avoid cold spring due to the difficulty of maintaining accurate records
throughout the operating life of the unit. Future analysts attempting to make field repairs
or modifications may not necessarily know about (and therefore include in the analysis)
the cold spring specification.

Due to the difficulty of properly installing a cold sprung system, most piping codes
recommend that only 2/3 of the specified cold spring be used for the equipment load
calculations.

The cold spring amount is calculated as:

Ci = 1/2Li a dT

Where:

Ci = length of cold spring in direction i (where i is X, Y, or Z), (inches)

Li = total length of pipe subject to expansion in direction i, (inches)

a = mean thermal expansion coefficient of material between ambient and operating

temperature, (in/in/°F)

dT = change in temperature, (°F)

Note that the 1/2 in the equation for the cold spring amount is used such that the mean
stress is zero. In some cases it is desirable to have the operating load on the equipment as
close to zero as possible. In this latter case the 1/2 should be omitted. The maximum
stress magnitude will not change from a system without cold spring, but will now exist in
the cold case rather than the hot.

To model a cold spring in CAESAR II specify the elements as being made of cut short or
cut long materials. Cut short describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated short by
the amount of the cold spring, requiring an initial tensile load to close the final joint. Cut
long describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated long by the amount of cold spring,
requiring an initial compressive load to close the final joint. The software models cut
shorts and cut longs by applying end forces to the elements sufficient to reduce their
length to zero (from the defined length) or increase their length to the defined length
(from zero) respectively. (It should be remembered to make the lengths of these cold
spring elements only 2/3 of their actual lengths to implement the code recommendations.)
This is effectively what occurs during application of cold spring. The end forces applied
to the elements are then included in the basic loading case F (for force), whereby they can
be included in various load combinations.

Special material numbers 18 and 19 are used to signal CAESAR II that the element
currently in the spreadsheet actually represents a length of pipe that is to be cut short or
long during fabrication.

• Material # 18 - Cut Short

• Material # 19 - Cut Long

The user should be sure to reset the material property on the element following the cold
spring element.

The following load cases are recommended when analyzing a cold spring system:

Load Case 1 (OPE) W+T1+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring
Load Case 2 (OPE) W+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring but
RUN # 1 not the temperature.
Load Case 3 (SUS) W+P1 standard sustained case for Code Stress check
Load Case4 (EXP) L1-L2 expansion case for code stress check.
Cold spring is allowed to reduce the magnitude of equipment loads because, often, only a
single application of a large load is sufficient to cause damage to rotating machinery.

Cold spring does not change the "range" of stresses that the piping system is subject to,
and so, no allowance is given for stress reduction. (The maximum value of the stress is
lowered, but the range is unchanged.)

Both the sustained loads and the operating loads should be within the manufacturer's
allowables for the particular piece of equipment. If the designer isn't careful, the
installation of the cold spring in the ambient state can overload a piece of rotating
equipment as the unit starts up

Expansion Joints
To define an expansion joint, activate the Expansion Joint check box on the pipe
element spreadsheet.

Expansion joint elements may have a zero or non-zero length. The expansion joint will
have a zero length if the Delta fields in the spreadsheet are left blank or zero. The
expansion joint will have a non-zero length if at least one of the element's spreadsheet
Delta fields is non-blank and non-zero. When an expansion joint has a finite length
CAESAR II evenly distributes the expansion joint stiffnesses over the entire length of
the element. This will usually result in a more accurate stiffness model in what is
typically a very sensitive area of the piping system.

Four stiffnesses define the expansion joint

• Axial Stiffness
• Transverse Stiffness
• Bending Stiffness
• Torsional Stiffness

These stiffnesses are defined as shown in the following figure:

The transverse and the bending stiffnesses are directly related when a finite length joint is
defined. In this case the bending stiffness should be left blank and the transverse stiffness
entered. CAESAR II will compute the proper bending stiffness from the relationship
between the bending and transverse stiffnesses. Bending stiffnesses from manufacturers
catalogs should generally only be entered for zero length expansion joints modeling
hinges or gimbals. Before a manufacturers bending stiffness is used for a finite length
bellows it should be multiplied by 4.0 (note that in this case the transverse stiffness would
be left blank).
Torsional stiffnesses are often not given by expansion joint manufacturers. In this case
the user is recommended to insert a large torsional stiffness value and ensure that the
resulting load on the bellows is not excessive. When the piping system is tight, and the
diameter large, the magnitude of this "large" torsional stiffness can significantly effect the
magnitude of the torsion carried by the bellows, i.e. stiffnesses of 100,000 in.lb./deg. and
1E12 in.lb./deg. can produce considerably different torsional load results. The tendency
would be to go with the larger stiffness, i.e. being conservative, except that the torsional
stiffness value is probably closer to the 100,000 in.lb./deg. In the instance where the
"largeness" of the torsional stiffness value is important, the manufacturer should be
pressed for his "best-guess" at the stiffness, or the following equation should be used to
get an estimate, which the user can then conservatively increase to get reasonable
torsional loads on the bellows and surrounding equipment.

The equation for estimating bellows torsional stiffness is

Where

p = 3.14159

Re = Expansion joint effective radius

t = Bellows thickness

E = Elastic Modulus

n = Poisson's Ratio

L = Flexible bellows length

When the expansion joint has a zero length, none of the expansion joint stiffnesses are
related. The user must be sure that a value is entered into all four of the Stiffness fields.

CAESAR II will calculate pressure thrust on the expansion joint if the bellows effective
id is given in the expansion joint auxiliary screen. The mathematical model for pressure
thrust applies a force equal to the pressure times the effective area of the bellows at either
end of the expansion joint. The force will tend to open the bellows if the pressure is
positive, and close the bellows if the pressure is negative. Users should note that this
model does not exactly distribute the pressure loads correctly in the vicinity of the
expansion joint. In most cases the misapplied load does not effect the solution. There are
two components of the pressure thrust to be applied in practice, rather than the one
component applied in the model. The first component is equal to the pressure times the
inside area of the pipe and acts at the first change in direction of the pipe on either side of
the expansion joint. This load will tend to put the pipe wall between the change in
direction and the expansion joint in tension. The second component is equal to the
pressure times the difference between the bellows effective area and inside pipe area.
This load acts at the end of the expansion joint and tends to open the bellows up, putting
the pipe between the expansion joint and the change in direction in compression. In the
mathematical model the full component of the pressure thrust force is placed on the ends
of the bellows instead of having a portion shifted out on either side of the expansion joint.
A large number of expansion joint examples can be found in Chapter 5 of the
Applications Guide

Hanger Sizing Algorithm

The basic function of the hanger design algorithm is to calculate the hot load and travel
for user-specified hanger locations. Once the hot load and travel are known, spring tables
are entered and the theoretical cold load is calculated for each spring in the table

Spring Design Requirements

The smallest single spring that satisfies all design requirements is selected as the
designed spring.

The spring design requirements are:

1. Both the hot and the cold loads must be within the spring allowed working range.
2. If the user specified an allowed load variation then the absolute value of the
product of the travel and the spring rate divided by the hot load must be less than
the specified variation.
3. If the user specified some minimum available clearance then the spring selected
must fit in this space.

If a single spring cannot be found that satisfies the design requirements, CAESAR II will
try to find two identical springs that do satisfy the requirements.

If satisfactory springs cannot be found, CAESAR II recommends a constant effort

support for the location.

There are several variations of this approach that arise due to the different design options
available in CAESAR II, but for the most part the general algorithm remains unchanged.

Restrained Weight Case

In any job, if a hanger is to be designed, the first analysis case that must be run is the
restrained weight case. This case usually includes weight, pressure and concentrated
loads. Hanger hot loads are calculated in the restrained weight case.
For the restrained weight run, rigid "Y" restraints are placed at each hanger location, and
any anchors to be freed are properly released. Loads on the "Y" restraints at hangers,
calculated from the restrained weight case, are the hanger hot design loads

Operating Case

Immediately after the restrained weight case, an operating analysis is performed. The "Y"
restraints are removed from the hanger locations and the hot loads just calculated are
inserted. Any anchors that were freed for the "restrained weight" analysis are fixed.

The operating case vertical displacement at each hanger location defines that hanger's
"travel." If there were single directional restraints or gaps in the system that changed
status in the operating case then the possibility exists that loads on hangers will be
redistributed. When a nonlinear status change is detected CAESAR II reruns the
"restrained weight" case with the restraints left as they were at the end of the operating
case. New restraint loads are calculated and another operating case is run to get the
updated "travel."

The operating case must always be the second load case in the set of defined analysis
cases.

The user has the ability to define the restrained weight or operating load cases for hanger
design any way he sees fit. For simplicity, CAESAR II recommends the load cases it
thinks should be run whenever it detects the first attempt to analyze a particular system.
The user can accept or reject CAESAR II's recommendations. The user that sets up his
own hanger design load cases should be sure he understands exactly what is done in the
"restrained weight" and operating passes of the hanger design algorithm

Installed Load Case

If the user requested the calculation of the actual hanger installed loads, the third analysis
level combination case must define the weight configuration that will exist in the field
when the spring is installed. Typically this case includes weight without fluid contents
and concentrated loads.

The theoretical cold, or installed, load is the load on the spring when the pipe has exactly
zero displacement. The actual installed load may differ from the theoretical installed load
by (K)(d), where (K) is the spring stiffness and (d) is the displacement of the pipe in the
installed condition. In essence, the actual installed load is calculated by taking the piping
system and "freezing" all displacements at zero. With the pipe in this condition, the
hangers are installed and the theoretical cold load is applied. The pipe is then "defrosted"
and allowed to adjust its weight position due to the hanger, restraint, and anchor
stiffnesses and the installed hanger loads. Once the system settles out, the total load on
each of the hangers is read and recorded as the "actual" hanger installed load.
Setting Up the Spring Load Cases

The load cases that must exist for hanger design, as described above, are

• Restrained Weight
• Operating
• Installed Weight ...if the user requested actual hanger installed loads.

After the hanger algorithm has run the load cases it needs to size the hangers. The newly
selected springs are inserted into the piping system and included in the analysis of all
remaining load cases.

The spring rate becomes part of the global stiffness matrix, and is therefore added into all
subsequent load cases. Hanger installed loads are concentrated forces and are only
included in subsequent load cases that contain the first concentrated force set, (i.e., +H).

The user may specify any number of his own load cases after the required spring load
cases are set up.

Spring hanger design does not affect CAESAR II's ability to check code compliance. In
fact, in CAESAR II's recommended load cases, the normal code compliance cases
always follow the set of load cases required for hanger design.

Multiple operating case spring hanger design implies that hanger loads and "travels" from
more than one operating case are included in the spring hanger selection algorithm.

Each spring in a multiple operating case hanger design has a multiple load case design
option. This design option tells CAESAR II how the multiple loads and travels for a
single hanger are to be combined to get a single design load and travel. The set-up of the
analysis cases is slightly different for multiple operating case hanger design, and as might
be expected, the difference is that now there is more than one operating case. The actual
number of operating cases is specified by the user on the Hanger Design Control dialog
and can be up to 9.

Load cases that must be set up for a multiple load case hanger design that considers two
hanger design operating cases are:

• Restrained Weight (this doesn't change)

• Operating case #1

• Operating case #9
• Installed Weight ...if the user requested that actual installed loads are to be
calculated.
Constant Effort Support

The specification of the support load for a constant effort hanger completely defines the
hanger location. If the user enters this value it will be included in all hanger design runs
and all analysis cases following the hanger cases that include concentrated loads in their
formulation. This value is the load on each support at this location

Static Seismic Loads

Static earthquake loads are applied in a manner very similar to static wind loads. The
static loading magnitude is considered to be in direct proportion to the element's weight.
Earthquake load magnitudes are given in terms of the gravitational acceleration constant,
i.e. g's. If an earthquake is modeled as having a 0.5-g load in the X direction, then half of
the systems weight is turned into a uniform load and applied in the X direction.

Earthquake static load cases are set up exactly as they are for wind occasional loads, i.e.
the same load case, nonlinearity, and directional sensitivity logic. In some cases the client
specifies the magnitude of the earthquake loading in g's and the direction(s). In others,
the analysis is left to the sole discretion of the analyst. It is not unusual to see only X or
X-Y components of an earthquake. It is not uncommon to see Y only components, or X,
Y, and Z simultaneous components.

Dynamic earthquakes are discussed later in this chapter, in the dynamic analysis and
output chapters, and in the screen reference chapter.

The ASCE #7 method for determining earthquake coefficients is described below. Once
calculated, the g-factors should be entered as uniform loads on the piping spreadsheet.

Note: The Uniform Load in G's check box must also be enabled in the spreadsheet
special execution parameters.

The total lateral force at the base of a structure is to be computed from:

V = ZIKCSW

Where:

V - total lateral force or shear at the base

Z—numerical coefficient from table 22

K—numerical coefficient from table 23

C—numerical coefficient from Sect. 9.4

S—soil factor from table 25

W—total dead load

The g-factor can be found by dividing Eq. 6 through by W.

g's = V/W = ZIKCS

The product CS does not need to exceed the value 0.14. Use this value as a conservative
maximum.

The following table provides the seismic zone coefficient (Z)

Seismic Zone
Coefficient, Z
4 1
3 3/4
2 3/8
1 3/16
0 1/8

From the following table, the importance factor can be found: (However use a value for I
= 1.0. The categories in this table are identical for those used in the wind load
calculation.)

The following table shows K varying from 0.67 to 2.0. Use K=2.0 for "Structures other
than buildings."

So the equation for the "g" load:

g = ZIKCS

reduces to:

g = Z (1.0) (2.0) (0.14)

and for the various value of Z:

Seismic Zone Product "g" Load

4 (1)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.28
3 (3/4)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.21
2 (3/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.105
1 (3/16)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.0525
0 (1/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.035
Seismic Zones from A58.1 - 1982 fig. 13, p.50

• ASCE #7 - 1990 is the 1990 revision to ANSI A58.1 1982. There are no revisions
to this code which affect CAESAR II.
• ASCE #7 - 1993 has completely changed the approach for "static" seismic
analysis. These changes are not addressed by this discussion

Elevation

The accurate elevation of each individual piping element may, or may not be important
depending on the total height, diameter and rigidity of the piping system and attachments.
By default, CAESAR II starts the first node on the first element at an elevation of 0.0. If
this is not close enough to the true elevation then the user should set the true coordinates
of the piping system through the command EDIT - GLOBAL. This presents a dialog
requesting coordinates for the first node of any disconnected section. The coordinates for
up to 100 node points can be specified and saved as part of the input data from the model

ASME Section VIII Division 2 - Elastic Analysis of Nozzle

Ideally, in order to address the local allowable stress problem, the user should have the
endurance curve for the material of construction and complete design pressure /
temperature loading information. If any of the elastic limits are approached, or if there is
anything out of the ordinary about the nozzle/vessel connection design, the code should
be carefully consulted before performing the local stress analysis. The material Sm table
and the endurance curve for carbon steels are given in this section for illustration. Only
values taken directly from the code should be used in design.

There are essentially three criteria that must be satisfied before the stresses in the vessel
wall due to nozzle loads can be considered within the allowables. These three criteria can
be summarized as:

Pm < kSmh

Pm + Pl + Pb< 1.5kSmh

Pm + Pl + Pb + Q < 3Smavg

Where Pm, Pl, Pb, and Q are the general primary membrane stress, the local primary
membrane stress, the local primary bending stress, and the total secondary stresses
(membrane plus bending), respectively; and K, Smh, and Smavg are the occasional stress
factor, the hot material allowable stress intensity, and the average material stress intensity
(Smh + Smc) / 2.
Due to the stress classification defined by Section VIII, Division 2 in the vicinity of
nozzles, as given in the Table 4-120.1, the bending stress terms caused by any external
load moments or internal pressure in the vessel wall near a nozzle or other opening,
should be classified as Q, or the secondary stresses, regardless of whether they were
caused by sustained or expansion loads. This causes Pb to disappear, and leads to a much
more detailed classification:

• Pm—General primary membrane stress (primarily due to internal pressure)

• Pl—Local primary membrane stress, which may include

--Membrane stress due to internal pressure

--Local membrane stress due to applied sustained forces and moments

• Q—Secondary stresses, which may include

--Bending stress due to internal pressure

--Bending stress due to applied sustained forces and moments

--Membrane stress due to applied expansion forces

--Bending stress due to applied expansion forces and moments

--Membrane stress due to applied expansion moments

Each of the stress terms defined in the above classifications contain three parts: two stress
components in normal directions and one shear stress component. To combine these
stresses, the following rules apply:

• Compute the normal and shear components for each of the three stress types, i.e.
Pm, Pl, and Q;
• Compute the stress intensity due to the Pm and compare it against kSmh;
• Add the individual normal and shear stress components due to Pmand Pl; compute
the resultant stress intensity and compare its value against 1.5kSmh;
• Add the individual normal and shear stress components due to Pm, Pl, and Q,
compute the resultant stress intensity, and compare its value to against 3Smavg.
• If there is an occasional load as well as a sustained load, these types may be
repeated using a k value of 1.2.

These criteria can be readily found from Figure 4-130.1 of Appendix 4 of ASME Section
VIII, Division 2 and the surrounding text. Note that the primary bending stress term, Pb,
is not applicable to the shell stress evaluation, and therefore disappears from the Section
VIII, Division 2 requirements. Under the same analogy, the peak stress limit may also be
written as:
Pl + Pb + Q + F < Sa

The preceding equation need not be satisfied, provided the elastic limit criteria of AD-
160 is met based on the statement explicitly given in Section 5-100, which is cited below:

"If the specified operation of the vessel meets all of the conditions of AD-160, no analysis
for cyclic operation is required and it may be assumed that the peak stress limit
discussed in 4-135 has been satisfied by compliance with the applicable requirements for
materials, design, fabrication, testing and inspection of this division."

Procedure to Perform Elastic Analyses of Nozzles

The procedure for checking stresses in vessel shells using WRC 107 can be summarized
as follows:

1. Check geometric limitation to see whether WRC 107 is applicable;

2. If yes, check to see whether or not the elastic approach as outlined in Section
VIII, Division 2, AD-160 is satisfactory;
3. Compute the sustained, expansion and occasional loads in the vessel shell due to
the applied nozzle loads. Consider the local restraint configuration in order to
determine whether or not the axial pressure thrust load (P * Ain) should be added
to the sustained (and occasional loads). If desired by the user, this thrust load will
be automatically calculated and added to the applied loads.
4. Calculate pressure stresses, Pm, on the vessel shell wall in both longitudinal and
circumferential (hoop) directions for both sustained and occasional cases. Notice
that two different pressure terms are required in carrying out the pressure stress
calculations. P is the design pressure of the system (sustained), while Pvar is the
DIFFERENCE between the peak pressure and the design pressure of the system,
which will be used to qualify the vessel membrane stress under the occasional
load case.

Note: The Pm stresses will be calculated automatically if a pressure value is enter

by the user.

5. Run WRC 107 to calculate the Pl, and Q stresses as defined earlier. Note that the
local stresses due to sustained, expansion and occasional loads can now be
compute simultaneously.
6. Various stress components can be obtained from combining the stress intensities
computed from applying the sustained, expansion and occasional loads, if
applicable. These stress intensities can then be used to carry out the stress
summations and the results are used to determine acceptability of the local
stresses in the vessel shell. Notice now CAESAR II can provide the WRC 107
stress summation module in line with the stress calculation routines

Under the above procedure, the equations used in CAESAR II to qualify the various
stress components can be summarized as follows:
Pm(SUS) < Smh

Pm(SUS + OCC) < 1.2Smh

Pm(SUS) + Pl(SUS) < 1.5Smh

Pm(SUS + OCC) + Pl(SUS + OCC) < 1.5(1.2)Smh

Pm(SUS + OCC) + Pl(SUS + OCC) + Q(SUS + EXP + OCC) < 1.5(Smc + Smh)

Simplified ASME Sect. VIII Div. 2 Elastic Nozzle Analysis

1. Perform a CAESAR II analysis of the piping loads on the vessel/nozzle junction.

Use WRC 297 flexibilities to compute loads more accurately, but less
conservatively (or do two analysis, one with flexibilities and one without). From
this analysis the user should have sustained, operating, and expansion loads on the
vessel/nozzle junction.
2. Find Smh and Smc from the Sect. VIII allowable stress tables. Smh is the vessel
material hot allowable, and Smc is the vessel material cold allowable.
3. Run WRC 107 with the sustained loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from
CAESAR II, and make sure that the computed stress intensities are less than 0.5
Smh. This conservatively considers bending stresses from internal pressure and
sustained moments to have a primary classification; if it fails, the stresses must be
reviewed in more detail.
4. Run WRC 107 with the operating loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from
CAESAR II, and make sure that the computed stress intensities are less than Smh
+ Smc.
5. Run WRC 107 with the expansion loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from
CAESAR II, and make sure that the computed stress intensities are less than Smh
+ Smc.

Should any of the checks described fail, then the more comprehensive analysis (described
earlier) of the junction should be performed

Fatigue Analysis Using CAESAR II

For most piping codes supported by CAESAR II, performance of fatigue analysis is an
extension to, rather than an explicit part of, the code requirements (however, it is an
explicit part of the IGE/TD/12 Pipework Stress Analysis for Gas Industry Plant code).

Fatigue Basics

Piping and vessels have been known to suffer from sudden failure following years of
successful service. Research done during the 1940s and 1950s (primarily advanced by A.
R. C. Markl's "Piping Flexibility Analysis," published in 1955) provided an explanation
for this phenomenon, as well as design criteria aimed at avoiding failures of this type.
The explanation was that materials were failing due to fatigue, a process leading to the
propagation of cracks, and subsequent fracture, following repeated cyclic loading.

Steels and other metals are made up of organized patterns of molecules, known as crystal
structures. However, these patterns are not maintained throughout the steel producing an
ideal homogeneous material, but are found in microscopic isolated island-like areas
called grains. Inside each grain the pattern of molecules is preserved. From one grain
boundary to the next the molecular pattern is the same, but the orientation differs. As a
result, grain boundaries are high energy borders. Plastic deformation begins within a
grain that is both subject to a high stress and oriented such that the stress causes a
slippage between adjacent layers in the same pattern. The incremental slippages (called
dislocations) cause local cold-working. On the first application of the stress, dislocations
will move through many of the grains that are in the local area of high stress. As the
stress is repeated, more dislocations will move through their respective grains.
Dislocation movement is impeded by the grain boundaries, so after multiple stress
applications, the dislocations tend to accumulate at grain boundaries, eventually
becoming so dense that the grains "lock up," causing a loss of ductility and thus
preventing further dislocation movement. Subsequent applications of the stress cause the
grain to tear, forming cracks. Repeated stress applications cause the cracks to grow.
Unless abated, the cracks propagate with additional stress applications until sufficient
cross sectional strength is lost to cause catastrophic failure of the material.

The fatigue capacity of a material can be estimated through the application of cyclic
tensile/compressive displacement loads with a uniaxial test machine. A plot of the cyclic
stress capacity of a material is called a fatigue (or endurance) curve. These curves are
generated through multiple cyclic tests at different stress levels. The number of cycles to
failure usually increases as the applied cyclic stress decreases, often until a threshold
stress (known as the endurance limit) is reached below which no fatigue failure occurs,
regardless of the number of applied cycles. An endurance curve for carbon and low alloy
steels, taken from the ASME Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel Code is shown in
the following figure.

Fatigue Analysis of Piping Systems

IGE/TD/12 does, on the other hand, present specific requirements for true fatigue
evaluation of systems subject to a cyclic loading threshold. Furthermore, ASME Section
III, Subsection NB and ASME Section VIII Division 2 provide guidelines by which
fatigue evaluation rules may be applied to piping (and other pressure retaining
equipment). These procedures have been adapted, where possible, to CAESAR II's
methodology.

Performing fatigue analyses:

1. Assigning fatigue curve data to the piping material: This is done on the Allowable
auxiliary screen. Fatigue data may be entered directly, or read in from a text file
 (a number of commonly used curves have been provided). Users may define their
own fatigue curves as defined later in this section.
2. Defining the fatigue load cases: This may be done in either the static or dynamic
load case builders. For this purpose, a new stress type, FAT, has been defined. For
every fatigue case, the number of anticipated cycles must also be defined.
3. Calculation of the fatigue stresses: This is done automatically by CAESAR II –
the fatigue stresses, unless explicitly defined by the applicable code are calculated
the same as CAESAR II calculates stress intensity, in order to conform to the
requirements of ASME Section VIII, Division 2 Appendix 5. (The IGE/TD/12 is
currently the only piping code supported by CAESAR II which does have
explicit instructions for calculating fatigue stresses.) The equations used in the
calculation of fatigue stresses are documented at the end of this section.
4. Determination of the allowable fatigue stresses: Allowables are interpolated
logarithmically from the fatigue curve based upon the number of cycles
designated for the load case. For static load cases, the calculated stress is assumed
to be a peak-to-peak cyclic value (i.e., thermal expansion, settlement, pressure,
etc.), so the allowable stress is extracted directly from the fatigue curve. For
harmonic and dynamic load cases, the calculated stress is assumed to be a zero-to-
peak cyclic value (i.e., vibration, earthquake, etc.), so the extracted allowable is
divided by 2 prior to use in the comparison.
5. Determination of the allowable number of cycles: The flip side of calculating the
allowable fatigue stress for the designated number of cycles is the calculation of
the allowable number of cycles for the calculated stress level. This is done by
logarithmically interpolating the "Cycles" axis of the fatigue curve based upon the
calculated stress value. Since static stresses are assumed to be peak-to-peak cyclic
values, the allowable number of cycles is interpolated directly from the fatigue
curve. Since harmonic and dynamic stresses are assumed to be zero-to-peak cyclic
values, the allowable number of cycles is interpolated using twice the calculated
stress value.
6. Reporting the results: CAESAR II provides two reports for viewing the results of
load cases of stress type FAT. The first of these is the standard stress report,
which displays the calculated fatigue stress and fatigue allowable at each node.
Stress reports may be generated individually for each load case, and show
whether any of the individual load cases in isolation would fail the system.

However, in those circumstances where there is more than one cyclic load case
potentially contributing to fatigue failure, the Cumulative Usage report is
appropriate. In order to generate this report, the user selects all of the FAT load
cases which contribute to the overall system degradation. The Cumulative Usage
report lists for each node point the usage ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable
cycles), and then sums these up for total Cumulative Usage. A total greater than
1.0 indicates a potential fatigue failure.

Static Analysis Fatigue Example

.Consider a sample job that potentially has several different cyclic load variations:
 1. Operating cycle from ambient (70°F) to 500°F (12,000 cycles anticipated)
2. Shut down external temperature variation from ambient (70°F) to -20°F (200
cycles anticipated)
3. Pressurization to 1800 psig (12,000 cycles anticipated)
4. Pressure fluctuations of plus/minus 30 psi from the 1800 psig (200,000 cycles
anticipated)

In order to do a proper fatigue analysis, these should be grouped in sets of load pairs
which represent the worst-case combination of stress ranges between extreme states.
These load variations can be laid out in graphical form. The figure below shows a sketch
of the various operating ranges this system experiences. Each horizontal line represents
an operating range. At the each end of each horizontal line, the temperatures and
pressures defining the range are noted. At the center of each horizontal line, the number
of cycles for each range is defined.

Using this sketch of the operating ranges, the four fatigue load cases can be determined.
The procedure is as follows.

Case 1: Cover the absolute extreme, from –20°F and 0 psi to 500°F and 1830 psi. This
occurs 200 times. As a result of this case, the cycles for the ranges defined must be
reduced by 200. The first range (-20,0 to 70,0) is reduced to zero, and has no contribution
to additional load cases. The second range (70,0 to 500,1800) is reduced to 11,800 cycles.
The third and fourth ranges are similarly reduced to 199,800 cycles.

These same steps can be used to arrive at cases 2 through 4, reducing the number of
"considered" cycles at each step. This procedure is summarized in the table below.

Segment -20, 0 to 70, 0 70, 0 to 500, 500, 1700 to 500, 500, 1800 to 500, 1830
1800 1800
Case
Initial 200 12,000 200, 000 200,000
After 1 0 11,800 200, 000 199,800
After 2 0 0 200, 000 188,000
After 3 0 0 12,000 0
After 4 0 0 0 0

This table is then used to set the load cases as cycles between the following load values:

• Between -20°F, 0 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (200 cycles)

• Between 70°F, 0 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (11,800 cycles)
• Between 500°F, 1770 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (188,000 cycles)
• Between 500°F, 1770 psig and 500°F, 1800 psig (12,000 cycles)
These temperatures and pressures are entered as operating conditions accordingly:

Static Analysis Fatigue Example

It is next necessary to enter the fatigue curve data for the material. This is done by
clicking the Fatigue Curves… button, revealing the Material Fatigue Curve dialog
box. This can be used to enter the fatigue curve for the material (note: for the IGE/ TD/12
code it is necessary to enter five sets of fatigue curves, for fatigue classes D, E, F, G, and
W). Up to eight Cycle vs. Stress data points may be entered to define the curve;
interpolations are made logarithmically. Cycle/Stress pairs should be entered in
ascending order (ascending by cycles). Stress values should be entered as allowable
Stress Range, rather than allowable Stress Amplitude.

Material Fatigue Curves Dialog

Fatigue curves may be alternatively acquired from a text file, by clicking on the Read
from file… button. This displays a list of all \CAESAR\SYSTEM\*.FAT files.

Read from File Dialog

Shipped with the program are the following fatigue curve files (the user may easily
construct additional fatigue curve files, as described in Appendix A below):

• 5-110-1A.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.1, UTS < 80 ksi
• 5-110-1B.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.1, UTS = 115-130
ksi
• 5-110-2A.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve A
• 5-110-2B.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve B
• 5-110-2C.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve C

In this case, for A106B low carbon steel, operating at 500°F, 5-110-1A.FAT is the
appropriate selection. This fills in the fatigue curve data:

A106B Low Carbon Steel Example Fatigue Curve Data

At this point, users can error check the job, and the load cases can be set up.
The static load case builder offers a new stress type, FAT (fatigue). Selecting this stress
type does the following:

1. invites the user to define the number of cycles for the load case (dragging the
FAT stress type into the load case or pressing the Load Cycles button opens the
Load Cycles field),
2. causes the stress range to be calculated as per the fatigue stress method of the
governing code (currently this is stress intensity for all codes except IGE/TD/12),
3. causes the calculated stress range to be compared to the full value extracted from
the fatigue curve, and
4. indicates that the load case may be included in the Cumulative Usage report.

The last four load cases represent the load set pairs defined earlier.

Example with Fatigue Load Cases Defined in the Load Case Editor

Once the job has been run, note that the presence of a FAT stress type adds the
Cumulative Usage report to the list of available reports.

Static Output Processor

The fatigue stress range may be checked against the fatigue curve allowable for each load
case by simply selecting it along with the Stresses report. Review of each load case
shows that all stress levels pass.

Fatigue Stress Report

However, this is not a true evaluation of the situation, because it is not a case of "either-
or." The piping system is subjected to all of these load cases throughout its expected
design life, not just one of them. Therefore, we must review the Cumulative Usage report,
which shows the total effect of all fatigue load cases (or any combination selected by the
user) on the design life of the system. This report lists for each load case the expected
number of cycles, the allowable number of cycles (based upon the calculated stress), and
the Usage Ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable cycles). The Usage Ratios are then
summed for all selected load cases; if this sum exceeds 1.0, the system has exceeded its
fatigue capabilities. In this case, it is apparent that the sum of all of the cyclic loadings at
node 115 can be expected to fail this system:
Cumulative Usage Report

Calculation of Fatigue Stresses

For IGE/TD/12 the computation of fatigue stresses is detailed in Section 5.4.4 of that
code. This section of the code states: "The principal stress in any plane can be calculated
for any set of conditions from the following formula:"

Where,

Sh = Hoop stress

Sa = Axial stress

Sq = Shear stress

"This should be used for establishing the range of stress, due regard being paid to the
direction and sign." For all other piping codes in CAESAR II, the fatigue stress is
computed as the stress intensity, as follows:

3D Maximum Shear Stress Intensity (Default)

SI = Maximum of:

S1OT - S3OT

S1OB - S3OB

Max(S1IT,RPS) - Min(S3IT,RPS)

Max(S1IB,RPS) - Min(S3IB,RPS)

Where:

S1OT=Maximum Principal Stress, Outside Top

= (SLOT+HPSO)/2.0+(((SLOT-HPSO)/2.0)2+TSO2)1/2

S3OT=Minimum Principal Stress, Outside Top

=(SLOT+HPSO)/2.0-(((SLOT-HPSO)/2.0)2+TSO2) 1/2

S1IT=Maximum Principal Stress, Inside Top

=(SLIT+HPSI)/2.0+(((SLIT-HPSI)/2.0)2+TSI2) 1/2
S3IT=Minimum Principal Stress, Inside Top

=(SLIT+HPSI)/2.0-(((SLIT-HPSI)/2.0)2+TSI2) 1/2

S1OB=Maximum Principal Stress, Outside Top

=(SLOB+HPSO)/2.0+ (((SLOB-HPSO)/2.0)2+TSO2) 1/2

S3OB=Minimum Principal Stress, Outside Bottom

=(SLOB+HPSO)/2.0- (((SLOB-HPSO)/2.0)2+TSO2) 1/2

S1IB=Maximum Principal Stress, Inside Bottom

=(SLIB+HPSI)/2.0+ (((SLIB-HPSI)/2.0)2+TSI2) 1/2

S3IB=Minimum Principal Stress, Inside Bottom

=(SLIB+HPSI)/2.0- (((SLIB-HPSI)/2.0)2+TSI2) 1/2

RPS=Radial Pressure Stress, Inside

HPSI=Hoop Pressure Stress (Inside, from Lame's Equation)

HPSO=Hoop Pressure Stress (Outside, from Lame's Equation)

SLOT=Longitudinal Stress, Outside Top

SLIT=Longitudinal Stress, Inside Top

SLOB=Longitudinal Stress, Outside Bottom

SLIB=Longitudinal Stress, Inside Bottom

TSI=Torsional Stress, Inside

TSO=Torsional Stress, Outside

B31.3

Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is
not a widely spaced miter.

Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and
unique.

Since the B31.3 piping code gives the equation for the expansion stress explicitly, and
since that equation does not include the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe,
CAESAR II does not include the F/A component of the stress in the expansion stress
equation. (The code also says that the user may wish to add in the F/A component where
it may be significant.) Users can change this by placing the parameter: ADD_F/
A_IN_STRESS=YES to the setup file. The F/A longitudinal stress component is by
default added to the code stress component for all other stress categories.

The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl's original basis for SIFs.

No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without "undercut." Codes that
do differentiate use 1.3 for socket welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF
of 1.3 is used for all B31.3 socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg length is specified).

Stress allowables for B31.3 are calculated from:

Expansion Allowable = f [ (1.25/Eff)(Sc+Sh) - Sl ]

Sustained Allowable = Sh/Eff

Occasional Allowable = Sh/Eff * (Occ)

Where:

f = Cyclic reduction factor

Eff = Weld Joint Efficiency (Only for pre-1980 B31.3)

Sc = Cold Allowable Stress

Sh = Hot Allowable Stress

Sl = Sustained Stress

Occ = Occasional Load Factor (Default = 1.33)

For B31.3 the flag ALL_STRESS_CASES_CORRODED=NO flag in the setup file

returns the corroded stress calculations to the way they were performed in the 2.2
version of CAESAR II. The corrosion is removed from the sustained and occasional
stress calculations.

See Chapter 2 of the Technical Reference Manual for the setup file parameter
B31.3_SUS_CASE_SIF_FACTOR=<nnn>. This value can have a considerable impact
on the sustained case stress calculations.

Pressure effects on miters are allowed in the B31.3 piping code.

For reducers B31.3 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is
1.0.

See Also

B31.1

Pressure stiffening is implemented by default. Users may deactivate pressure stiffening

for B31.1 runs by entering the parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the
setup file.

Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is
not a widely spaced miter.

B31.1 does not by default add F/A into the stress calculation. F/A and the pressure
stresses are added to the bending stress (whether the tensile or compressive component of
bending), to produce the largest longitudinal stress component. This is true for all codes
insofar as the addition of axial and pressure terms are concerned. The user can cause
CAESAR II to include the axial force terms into the code stress by inserting the
parameter ADD_F/ A_IN_STRESS=YES to the setup file. The F/A forces discussed here
are structural forces developed in the piping independent of pressure PD/4t forces.

In 1980 B31.1 added a reduced branch stress intensification factor equation to Appendix
D. This equation came directly from ASME Section III. B31.1 continued however to use
the effective section modulus calculation for the branch. The ASME Section III rules
clearly stated that the branch section modulus, NOT the effective section modulus should
be used with the new SIF. B31.1's using of the effective section modulus produced
unnecessarily high calculated stresses. This error was corrected in the 1989 version of
B31.1. Prior to Version 3.0 CAESAR II users had two options:

• Use the pre-1980 version of the B31.1 SIF rules.

• Use the very conservative, post-1980 B31.1 SIF rules.

In version 3.0 (and later) these options also exist, except that the section modulus
problem is corrected. For users that wish to run version 3.0 (and later) just like they ran
version 2.2, i.e. without the section modulus correction, they can do so by putting the
parameter: B31.1_REDUCED_Z_FIX=NO in the setup file.

The reduced intersection branch SIFs were not intended for reinforced or welding tees.
Conservative results are produced, but the original researchers did not intend for the SIFs
to be used for these fittings. The CAESAR II user can disable the reduced branch fitting
calculations for reinforced or welded tees by putting the parameter
NO_REDUCED_SIF_FOR_RFT_AND_WLT in the setup file. This will produce less
conservative results, but can, in some cases be justified.
B31.1 102.3.2 (c) tells the user to divide the allowable stresses coming from the stress
tables in Appendix A by the applicable weld joint factors listed in Para. 102.4.3.

Stress allowables for B31.1 are calculated from:

Expansion Allowable = f [ (1.25/Eff)(Sc+Sh) - Sl ]

Sustained Allowable = Sh/Eff

Occasional Allowable = Sh/Eff * (Occ)

Where:

f = Cyclic reduction factor

Eff = Longitudinal Weld Joint Efficiency

Sc = Cold Allowable Stress

Sh = Hot Allowable Stress

Sl = Sustained Stress

Occ = Occasional Load Factor (Default = 1.15)

Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept the same in
the B31.1 stress calculation.

The B31.1 criteria "B" length for closely spaced miters is not checked by CAESAR II.

For reducers B31.1 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF
is: 2.0 max or 0.5 + .01*alpha* SQRT(D2/t2)

Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the
diameter and thickness of the small end.

Alpha is the reducer cone angle in degrees.

Where:

Alpha = atan[ length / (D1-D2)/2 ]

Note: Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 can not exceed 100.

Local Coordinates
Many analytical models in engineering are based upon being able to define a real
physical object mathematically. This is accomplished by mapping the dimensions of the
physical object into a similar mathematical space. Mathematical space is usually assumed
to be either two-dimensional or three-dimensional. For piping analysis, the three
dimensional space is necessary, since almost all piping systems are three dimensional in
nature.

Two typical three-dimensional mathematical systems are shown below in Figure 1. Both
of these systems are "Cartesian Coordinate Systems". Each axis in these systems is
perpendicular to all other axes.

Figure 1 – Typical Cartesian Coordinate Systems

In addition, for these Cartesian coordinate systems, the "right hand rule" is used to define
positive rotation about each axis, and the relationship, or ordering, between the axes.
Before illustrating the "right hand rule", there are several traits of the systems in Figure 1
that should be noted.

• Each axis can be thought of as a "number line", where the "zero point" is the point
where all of the axes intersect. While only the positive side of each axis is shown
in Figure 1, each axis has a negative side as well.
• The direction of the "arrow heads" indicates the "positive" direction of each axis.
• In Figure 1, the "X" axis has one arrowhead, the "Y" axis has two arrowheads,
and the "Z" axis has three arrowheads. The circular arcs labeled "RX", "RY", and
"RZ" define the direction of "positive" rotation about each axis. (This point will
be discussed later.)
• Any point in space can be mapped to these coordinate systems by using its
position along the number lines. For example, a point 5 units down the "X" axis
would have a coordinate of (5.0, 0.0, 0.0). A point 5 units down the "X" axis and
6 units down the "Y" axis would have a coordinate of (5.0, 6.0, 0.0).
• Notice that if the system on the right side of Figure 1 is rotated a positive 90
degrees about the "X" axis, the result is the system on the left side of Figure 1.

The coordinate system on the left side of Figure 1 is the

default CAESAR II global coordinate system. In
this system, the "X" and "Z" axes define the
horizontal plane, and the "Y" axis is vertical. (The
other coordinate system in Figure 1 can be obtained
in CAESAR II by selecting the "Z-axis Vertical"
option, discussed later in this chapter.) All further
 discussion in this chapter will target this default
coordinate system, unless otherwise noted.
CAESAR II Fatal Error Processing
Every effort has been made to alert the user that data may be inconsistent or unusual for
the type of analysis being attempted. However, there exists the potential for user
modeling techniques or hardware/operating system problems to generate an error
condition within the CAESAR II computation routines. Recognizing this potential,
internal self checks are performed by CAESAR II to trap these abnormal conditions.
(Examples of abnormal conditions are: full hard disks, invalid or expired ESLs, file
corruption, insufficient free memory, etc.)

Whenever a fatal error condition arises, CAESAR II will abort the current process.
However, CAESAR II attempts to provide the user with an explanation of what went
wrong to cause the process to be aborted. This is accomplished in several stages as
outlined in the following discussion.

First, each error trap/condition is assigned a unique number. When an abort condition
occurs, this error number and a short description of the error are displayed in a window.
An example of such a message is given in the next figure

Units File Operations

The active units file as specified in the configuration file is used in conjunction with all
new input files and all existing output files in the given data directory. The units file
specified in the configuration file will not modify the units in an existing CAESAR II
input file Convert Input to New Units.

Restraints
No. Restraint Type Abbreviation
1 Anchor A
2 Translational Double Acting X,Y, or Z
3 Rotational Double Acting RX, RY, or RZ
4 Guide, Double Acting GUI
5 Double Acting Limit Stop LIM
6 Translational Double Acting XSNB, YSNB, ZSNB
Snubber
7 Translational Directional +X, -X, +Y, -Y, +Z, -Z
8 Rotational Directional +RX, -RX, +RY, etc.
9 Directional Limit Stop +LIM, -LIM
10 Large Rotation Rod XROD, YROD, ZROD
11 Translational Double Acting X2, Y2, Z2
Bilinear
12 Rotational Double Acting RX2, RY2, RZ2
Bilinear
13 Translational Directional Bilinear -X2, +Y2, -Y2, etc.
14 Rotational Double Acting -RX2, +RY2, - RY2, etc.
Bilinear
15 Bottom Out Spring XSPR, YSPR, ZSPR
16 Directional Snubber +XSNB, -XSNB, +YSNB,
etc

List of Materials
The CAESAR II material table contains 17 different isotropic materials. Properties and
allowed temperature ranges for each isotropic material are listed below.

Material Material Name Elastic Poisson's Pipe Density Temperature

No. Modulus Ratio (lb./cu.in) Range (deg. F)
1 Low Carbon Steel 29.5 E6 0.292 0.28993 -325 1400
2 High Carbon Steel 29.3 E6 0.289 0.28009 -325 1400
3 Carbon Moly Steel 29.2 E6 0.289 0.28935 -325 1400
4 Low Chrome 29.7 E6 0.289 0.28935 -325 1400
Moly Steel
5 Med Chrome 30.9 E6 0.289 0.28935 -325 1400
Moly Steel
6 Austenitic 28.3 E6 0.292 0.28930 -325 1400
Stainless
7 Straight 29.2 E6 0.305 0.28010 -325 1400
Chromium
8 Type 310 Stainless 28. 3 E6 0.305 0.28990 -325 1400
9 Wrought Iron 29.5 E6 0.300 0.28070 -325 1400
10 Grey Cast Iron 13.4 E6 0.211 0.25580 70 1000
11 Monel 67% 26.0 E6 0.315 0.31870 -325 1400
Ni/30% Cu
12 K-Monel 26.0 E6 0.315 0.30610 -325 1400
13 Copper Nickel 22.0 E6 0.330 0.33850 -325 1400
14 Aluminum 10.2 E6 0.330 0.10130 -325 600
15 Copper 99.8% Cu 16.0 E6 0.355 0.32270 70 400
16 Commercial Brass 17.0 E6 0.331 0.30610 -325 1200
17 Leaded Tin 14.0 E6 0.330 0.31890 -325 1200
Bronze 1

In addition CAESAR II supports material types 18 or 19 for cut short and cut long cold
spring elements.

Material number 20 activates the CAESAR II orthotropic material model (i.e., Fiber-
glass reinforced plastic pipe); the default coefficient of expansion is 12.0 E-6 in./in./°F.

Material 21 indicates user-defined properties.

Material numbers over 100 are from the Material Database and include the allowable
stress and other piping code data